Fundamental Concepts in

Mathematics
A Comprehensive Guide with LaTeX

Author: Shivanshu Pathak

Date: November 20, 2024
Mathematical Concepts 2
Abstract

This book covers fundamental mathematical concepts, focusing on LaTeX typesetting.

Topics include page styling, content formatting, mathematical expressions, tables, algo-
rithms, and referencing. Aimed at students and educators, it blends theory with practical
applications.

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Mathematical Concepts 4
Preface

This book is designed for those who wish to explore mathematics while learning LaTeX.
Each chapter integrates mathematical content with examples and practical implementa-
tions in LaTeX.

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Mathematical Concepts 6
Contents

1 Introduction to Mathematical Writing 9

1.1 Why Use LaTeX? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Formatting Mathematical Content 11

2.1 Text Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Mathematical Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Tables and Figures 13

3.1 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4 Algorithms and Equations 15

4.1 Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2 Aligned Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5 Linear Algebra 17
5.1 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1.1 Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.3 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.4 Multivariable Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

6 Advanced Topics in Linear Algebra 19

6.1 Singular Value Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

7 Probability Theory 21
7.1 Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.1.1 Expected Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.1.2 Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.2 Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

8 Mathematical Equations 23
8.1 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

9 Typeset Sentences 25
9.1 Geometrical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

10 Large Delimiters 27
10.1 Differential and Limit Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

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Mathematical Concepts 8

11 Multi-Line Equations 29

12 Referencing and Indexing 31

12.1 Cross-Referencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
12.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Chapter 1

Introduction to Mathematical
Writing

1.1 Why Use LaTeX?

LaTeX provides a professional platform for writing mathematical documents. It supports:

• High-quality typesetting

• Flexibility for equations, tables, and figures

• Structured organization

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Mathematical Concepts 10
Chapter 2

Formatting Mathematical Content

2.1 Text Formatting

Text can be styled as bold, italic, or underlined. Alignment examples:

Right-aligned text.

2.2 Mathematical Expressions

Here are some examples:

• Quadratic Formula: √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
• Binomial Coefficients: n n!


r
= r!(n−r)!

• Greek Letters: α, β, γ

2.3 Lists
Ordered list:

1. Goa

2. Mumbai

Unordered list:

• banana

• apple

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Mathematical Concepts 12
Chapter 3

Tables and Figures

3.1 Tables

Symbol Meaning
π Ratio of circumference to diameter
e Base of natural logarithm

Table 3.1: Important Mathematical Constants

3.2 Figures

Figure 3.1: Mathematical Visualization Example

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Mathematical Concepts 14
Chapter 4

Algorithms and Equations

4.1 Algorithms

Algorithm 1 Example Algorithm

Input a, b
if a > b then
Output a
else
Output b
end if

4.2 Aligned Equations

a2 + b 2 = c 2 (4.1)
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 (4.2)

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Mathematical Concepts 16
Chapter 5

Linear Algebra

5.1 Matrices
Matrices are a central concept in linear algebra. For a matrix A, we write:
 
a11 a12
A=
a21 a22

5.1.1 Matrix Operations

Matrix operations such as addition, multiplication, and finding the inverse are key topics.
• Matrix Addition: A + B

• Matrix Multiplication: AB

• Matrix Inverse: A−1 if det(A) ̸= 0

5.2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are essential concepts for understanding linear transforma-
tions. For a square matrix A, the eigenvalue problem is:

Av = λv

where λ is the eigenvalue and v is the corresponding eigenvector.

5.3 Determinants
For a 2 × 2 matrix:  
a b
A=
c d
The determinant is:
det(A) = ad − bc
For a 3 × 3 matrix, the determinant is given by:

det(A) = a(ei − f h) − b(di − f g) + c(dh − eg)

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Mathematical Concepts 18

5.4 Multivariable Calculus

In multivariable calculus, we deal with functions of several variables. For example, the
gradient of a function f (x, y) is:
 
∂f ∂f
∇f (x, y) = ,
∂x ∂y
Chapter 6

Advanced Topics in Linear Algebra

6.1 Singular Value Decomposition

The Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) is a factorization of a matrix into three matri-
ces:
A = U ΣV T
where U and V are orthogonal matrices and Σ is a diagonal matrix. @bookstrauss2008,
author = J. Strauss, title = Linear Algebra: Theory and Applications, year = 2008,
publisher = Academic Press

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Mathematical Concepts 20
Chapter 7

Probability Theory

7.1 Random Variables

A random variable X maps outcomes of a random experiment to real numbers. We
denote the probability distribution of X as P (X).

7.1.1 Expected Value

The expected value of a random variable X is given by:
X
E[X] = xi P (xi )
i

7.1.2 Variance
The variance of X is:
Var(X) = E[X 2 ] − (E[X])2

7.2 Distributions
Common probability distributions include the binomial, normal, and Poisson distribu-
tions.

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Mathematical Concepts 22
Chapter 8

Mathematical Equations

8.1 Equations

3 + 43 + 53 = 63
√
100 = 10
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
n
X n(n + 1)
k=
k=1
2
π 1 1 1 1 1
=1− + − + − + ···
4 3 5 7 9 11
cos θ = sin(90◦ − θ)
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
sin θ
lim =1
θ→0 θ
π(x)
lim =1
x→∞ x/ log x
Z ∞
2 √
e−x dx = π
−∞

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Mathematical Concepts 24
Chapter 9

Typeset Sentences

9.1 Geometrical Properties

Positive numbers a, b, and c are the side lengths of a triangle if and only if

a + b > c, b + c > a, c + a > b.

The area of a triangle with side lengths a, b, and c is given by Heron’s formula:
p
A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c),

where s is the semiperimeter a+b+c

2
.
The volume of a regular tetrahedron of edge length 1 is:
√
2
.
12
The quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has roots:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
r1 , r2 = .
2a
The derivative of a function f , denoted f ′ , is defined by:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim .
h→0 h
A real-valued function f is convex on an interval I if:

f (λx + (1 − λ)y) ≤ λf (x) + (1 − λ)f (y),

for all x, y ∈ I and 0 ≤ λ ≤ 1.

The general solution to the differential equation:

y ′′ − 3y ′ + 2y = 0

is:
y = C1 ex + C2 e2x .
The Fermat number Fn is defined as:
n
Fn = 22 for n ≥ 0.

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Mathematical Concepts 26
Chapter 10

Large Delimiters

10.1 Differential and Limit Expressions

 
d x 1
=
dx x + 1 (x + 1)2
 n
1
lim 1 + =e
n→∞ n
a b
= ad − bc
c d
 
cos θ − sin θ
Rθ =
sin θ cos θ
a1 a2 a3 a a a a3 a a
=i 2 3 −j 1 +k 1 2
b1 b2 b3 b2 b3 b1 b3 b 1 b2
    
a11 a12 b11 b12 a11 b11 + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22
=
a21 a22 b21 b22 a21 b11 + a22 b21 a21 b12 + a22 b22

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Mathematical Concepts 28
Chapter 11

Multi-Line Equations

1+2=3
4+5+6=7+8
9 + 10 + 11 + 12 = 13 + 14 + 15
16 + 17 + 18 + 19 + 20 = 21 + 22 + 23 + 24
25 + 26 + 27 + 28 + 29 + 30 = 31 + 32 + 33 + 34 + 35
(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b)
= (a + b)a + (a + b)b
= a(a + b) + b(a + b)
= a2 + ab + ba + b2
= a2 + ab + ab + b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2
tan(α + β) + tan(γ)
tan(α + β + γ) =
1 − tan(α + β) tan(γ)
tan α + tan β
= + tan γ
1 − tan α tan β
tan(α + β) tan α + tan β + (1 − tan α tan β) tan γ
1− tan γ =
1 − tan α tan β 1 − tan α tan β − (tan α + tan β) tan γ
X  X −1
1 1 1
1− 2 = 1 + 2 + 4 + ···
p
p p
p p
 −1
1 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ···
2 3 4
6
= 2
π

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Mathematical Concepts 30
Chapter 12

Referencing and Indexing

12.1 Cross-Referencing
Refer to Table 3.1 and Figure ?? for mathematical constants and visualizations.

12.2 Bibliography
Here is an example reference:

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