Lecture 04

Modern Cryptography

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 Introduction
• Modern cryptography is based on various mathematical
concepts (e.g probability )

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 Modern cryptography
• Two types of cryptosystems based on the
relationship between the encryption and
decryption keys
• Symmetric key (Secret key) encryption
– The same keys are used for encrypting and decrypting
• Asymmetric key (public key) encryption
– Different keys are used for encrypting and decrypting
– But the keys are mathematically related

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 Stream Ciphers and Block Ciphers
• Based on the way in which the plaintext is processed,
cryptographic systems can be
– Stream ciphers: encrypt a digital data stream one bit/byte at a
time. E.g. OTP
– Relatively faster and mostly used in real-time applications
– In practice the bit-stream generator is not truly random and has
limited applicability
– Block ciphers: a block of plaintext is treated as a whole and used
to produce a ciphertext block of equal length
– Encrypts all blocks independently and concatenates the ciphers
of the blocks.
– It doesn’t depend on random numbers and is widely used.

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 Cont’d

a) Stream ciphers B) Block ciphers

We will focus on block ciphers in this course!

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Symmetric key Encryption

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 Introduction
• The classical ciphers we saw are also symmetric ciphers.
• There are Two restrictive challenges of employing symmetric key
cryptography.
– Key establishment : key must be shared securely before
communication
– Trust Issue : There is a requirement that the sender and the
receiver ‘trust’ each other b/c they share a key

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 Cont’d
• A source produces a message in plaintext, X = [X1,
X2, ..., XM]
• A key of the form K = [K1, K2, .., KJ] is
generated by the source and securely provided to the
destination or a third party can generate it
• The encryption algorithm produces the ciphertext Y =
[Y1, Y2, .. , YM] such that Y = E(K, X).
• The destination decrypts the message as X = D(K, Y)
• Examples:
– Data Encryption Standard (DES), Triple DES and Advanced
Encryption Standard (AES)

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 Ideal block cipher
• A block cipher operates on a plaintext block of n bits
to produce a ciphertext block of n bits.
• There are 2n possible different plaintext blocks and, for
the encryption to be reversible each must produce a
unique ciphertext block
• For n=2, the following shows examples of reversible and
irreversible transformations

E.g. Ideal 2-bit block cipher

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 Cont’d
• With 2 bits block cipher
– There are 4 possible plaintext combinations
– There are 24 possible transformations

• The sender must send the exact mapping to the receiver. E.g. if the sender
chooses to encrypt P using mapping to K8, then the sender must tell the
receiver that k8 is 01,00,11,10. In this case each possible transformation is
treated as a key. So there are 22! = 24 keys.
• For n-bit block size, there are 2n possible plaintext blocks and 2n!
possible transformations (or possible keys) 10
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 Limitation of ideal block cipher
• Limitations: the factor is the block size
• If a small block size is used, then the system is equivalent
to a classical substitution cipher.
– Key size is too small
• If large block size is used, the key becomes very large
which incurs implementation and performance problems
– if n=64 bits, then there are 264! Possible keys. It is good we
have many different keys, but the length is too large to be
represented in binary.
– for n -bit ideal block cipher, the length of the key is n x 2n bits,
hence for n=64, 270 or around 1021 bits are required
– Which makes key representation and distribution is difficult
• Hence ideal block cipher is not implemented or is
impractical 11
 Feistel cipher/structure
• The ideal block cipher is not practical, and Feistel cipher is an
approximation for the ideal block by using the concept of product
cipher
• It is the execution of two or more simple ciphers in sequence in
such a way that the final result is cryptographically stronger than
any of the component ciphers
• Developing a block cipher with a key length of k bits and a block
length of n bits, allowing a total of 2k possible transformations,
rather than the 2n! transformations
• Feistel proposed the use of a cipher that alternates substitutions
and permutations
– In substitution: each element is uniquely replaced by a
ciphertext element whereas in permutation, the order in
which the elements appear in the sequence is changed
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 Cont’d
• The inputs to the encryption algorithm are a
plaintext block of 2w length bits and a key K.
• The plaintext block is divided into two halves,
and L0 and R0.
• The two halves of the data pass through rounds
of processing and then combine to produce the
ciphertext block.
• All rounds have the same structure
• Substitution and permutation operations are
used to produce the output
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 Encryption/
decryption using
Feistel cipher
e.g. 16 rounds

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 Cont’d
• The left hand side of the previous diagram shows the encryption
process whereas the right side is for decryption
• The decryption process is similar to the encryption except it a
reverse procedure (keys are used in reverse order)
• Feistel network depends on the selection of the following terms:
• Block size: generally greater block size means more security but
with reduced encryption/decryption speed.
– E.g. DES uses block size of 64-bits, AES uses 128 bits
• Key size: larger means more security but with reduced speed
– < 64bits – insecure against brute force, 128 bits become common size
• Number of rounds: multiple rounds offer increased security
• Sub-key generation algorithm: greater complexity required
• Round function F: greater complexity required
• Greater complexity should lead to cryptanalysis difficulty !
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Data Encryption Standard (DES)

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 Introduction
• Adopted in 1977 by the US government
• The most widely used symmetric encryption scheme
• It is based on Feistel cipher with block size of 64-bits and
key size of 56-bits
• The algorithm transfers 64-bits plaintext input into 64-
bits of ciphertext output
64bits of plaintext

P
C
DES 64bits ciphertext

56 bits key
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 General Fiestel network
• Encryption

• Decryption

• DES is actually a 16-round Fesitel network

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 Phases of DES
• The processing of plaintext follows three general phases
• Initial Permutation (IP): rearranges the 64-bit input
• Round functions (f1…f16): these functions involve substitutions and
permutations and all have the same structure
– The output of the 16th round function is a 64-bit
• Final Permutation (IP-1) : inverse of the initial permutation fun
• With the exception of the initial and final permutations, DES has
the exact structure of a Feistel cipher

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 General Depiction of DES Encryption Algorithm

Key generation

Encryption

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 IP and IP-1
• The initial permutation and its inverse are defined by tables
• The input to the tables consist of 64 bits numbered from 1 to 64
• The IP is done only once before the 1st round function and IP-1 is
applied after the 16th round

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Details of a single round

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 Cont’d
• The left and right halves of each 64-bit intermediate value are
treated as separate 32-bit quantities, labeled L (left) and R (right)
• At a given round i is

• The round Ki key is 48 bit and each Li and Ri are 32-bits

• This R input is first expanded to 48 bits by using a table that
defines a permutation plus expansion that involves duplication of
16 of the R bits
• The resulting 48 bits are XORed with Ki. This 48-bit result passes
through a substitution function that produces a 32-bit output
• The substitution consists of a set of eight S-boxes, each of which
accepts 6 bits as input and produces 4 bits as output
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 Cont’d
Calculation of F(R, K)

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 Expansion/permutation (E)
Cont’d

• The E table takes 32-bit as

input and produces 48-bit
output
• 16 of the bits are duplicated

S-boxes: 8 S-boxes
• The 48-bit input is first divided into 8 with 6 bits each
• The first and last bits of the input to box Si select one of four
rows in the table for Si.
• The middle four bits select one of the sixteen columns
• The 4-bit binary value of the selected cell is produced as output
• The outputs of the S-boxes are then combined to 32-bit output
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 S-boxes

E.g:
if 011001 is input for S1, the output will be 1001

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 Permutation (P)
• The output of the S-boxes (32 bits) passes through another
permutation P to find the output of F(Ri, Ki)
Permutation (P)

• Then the output of this permutation function is XORed with the

previous (Li-1) to produce Ri,
• i.e,

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 Key generation
• 64-bit key is used as input to the algorithm but every
eighth bit is ignored leaving 56-bit key
• The key is first subjected to a permutation governed by a
table labeled Permuted Choice One
• The resulting 56-bit key is then treated as two 28-bit
quantities, labeled C0 and D0
• At each round, C i-1 and D i-1 are separately subjected to a
circular left shift of 1 or 2 bits using schedule of left shift
table.
• These shifted values serve as input to the next round and
pass through a permutation Permuted Choice Two to
produce a 48-bit round key which will be input to F(Ri, Ki)
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 Cont’d
Permuted Choice One Permuted Choice Two

Schedule of left Shift

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 DES Decryption
• Decryption uses the
same algorithm as
encryption, except
that the application of
the round keys is
reversed (start from
k16)
• The input is 64-bit
cipher and the output
is 64-bit plaintext

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 Example
• Given that
Plaintext: 0x02468aceeca86420
Key: 0x0f1571c947d9e859
• Determine R1, L1 and K1.
Solution:
L0= 5a005a00 and R0= 3cf03c0f,
K1=7833a320da70
L1=R0=3cf03c0f and
R1= L0 XOR F(R0, K1)=bad22845

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 The strength of DES
• The key size is 56-bits => 256possible keys( ~7.2x1016
keys)
• With this key size brute force attack seemed impractical
assuming a single machine which performs a single
decryption per microseconds
• Nowadays the key space of DES is small enough
• DES finally and definitively proved insecure in July 1998
when it was broken with in less than three days using
brute force attack
• DES is not secure algorithm anymore but it has been the
most used in the financial industry
• Other symmetric algorithms: Triple DES, AES
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 Triple DES
• Uses three keys with 56-bit each and block size of 64 bits
=> total key size of 3DES is 168 bits
• More secure than single DES but slower
• The encryption-decryption process is as follows:
– Encrypt the plaintext blocks using single DES with key K1.
– Now decrypt the output of step 1 using single DES with key K2.
– Finally, encrypt the output of step 2 using single DES with key
K3 to produce the ciphertext.
– Decryption of a ciphertext is a reverse process. User first
decrypt using K3, then encrypt with K2, and finally decrypt with
K1.

• But it is slower encryption

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TDES encryption and decryption

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Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

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 Introduction
• Limitation of DES: broken with brute force due to its
smaller key size (56 bits) no more secured!
• Triple DES: secured but slow
• The National Institute of Standards and Technology in
2001 published AES
• AES is a symmetric block cipher that encrypts a block
size of 128-bit data using 128-bit, 192-bit or 256-bit key.
• Faster than TDES
• AES performs all its computations on bytes rather than
bits.
• Unlike DES, AES uses a different block cipher called
Rijndael.
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 AES operation
• treats the 128 bits of a plaintext block as 16 bytes.
• These 16 bytes are arranged in four columns and four
rows as a matrix
• Unlike DES, the number of rounds in AES is variable and
depends on the length of the key.
• AES uses 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-
bit keys and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys.
• Each of these rounds uses a different 128-bit round key,
which is calculated from the original AES key
• AES takes 128 block of plaintext and produces 128 bits
of ciphertext

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 Structure of AES

• The key expansion function generates R+1 round keys for R

rounds, each of which is a distinct 4x4 matrix
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 Stages for one round of AES
• Each round contains four stages
• Each round key serves as one of the inputs to the
AddRoundKey transformation in each round

The stages of the first round

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 Cont’d
• Substitute bytes (SubBytes):
– Uses an S-box to perform a byte-by-byte substitution of the block
– AES defines S-box of a matrix of 16x16 byte values.
– Each individual byte of matrix is mapped into a new byte in the
following way:
• The leftmost 4 bits of the byte select a row value and the rightmost 4 bits
are used as a column value to serve as indexes to select a 8-bit output
value.
• ShiftRows: A simple permutation.
– Each of the four rows of the matrix is shifted (circular) to the left.
– First row is not shifted.
– Second row is shifted one (byte) position to the left.
– Third row is shifted two positions to the left.
– Fourth row is shifted three positions to the left.

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 Cont’d
• MixColumns:
– Each column of four bytes is now transformed into new bytes
using a special mathematical function.
– This step is not performed in the last round.
• AddRoundKey:
– A simple bitwise XOR of the current block with a portion of the
expanded key.
– The 16 bytes of the matrix are now considered as 128 bits and
are XORed to the 128 bits of the round key.
– If this is the last round then the output is the ciphertext.
Otherwise, the resulting 128 bits are interpreted as 16 bytes
and we begin another similar round.

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 Decryption
• It is encryption in reverse order, i.e
– Add round key
– Mix columns
– Shift rows
– Byte substitution
• AES has built-in flexibility of key length
• No practical cryptanalytic attacks against AES has been
discovered.
• But like DES, AES security is assured only if it is
correctly implemented and good key management is
employed

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 Summary
• Both DES and AES are symmetric, block ciphers
• DES is based on Feistel block cipher where as
AES is uses Rijndael
• DES takes a block size of 64-bit of plaintext and
produces 64-bits of ciphertext. Similarly AES has
a block size of 128 bits of plaintext and produces
the same size of ciphertext block
• DES uses 56-bit key whereas AES uses 128, 192
or 256 bits of key
• DES is no more secured!
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Asymmetric Encryption

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 Introduction
• Asymmetric encryption - also called public-key encryption
• Public-key algorithms are based on mathematical
functions rather than on substitution and permutation
• Uses two different keys for encryption and decryption
• More computational overhead compared to symmetric
encryption techniques
• The primary limitation of symmetric encryption is key
distribution
• In symmetric , the key must be kept secret, where as in
asymmetric only one of the keys is kept secret
• E.g: RSA

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 Public-key encryption example

• Alice’s private key is only known by her. So decryption is only possible by the
receiver who knows the private key
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 Cont’d
• With this approach, all parties have access to
public keys
• And private keys are generated locally by each
participant and therefore need never be
distributed.
• As long as a user’s private key remains protected
and secret, incoming communication is secure.
• At any time, a system can change its private key
and publish the companion public key to replace
its old public key.
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 Modulo arithmetic
• The number X (mod Y) is the remainder when X is
divided by Y.
• Z ≡ X (mod Y) means that Z and X have the same
remainder when divided by Y
• Definition
 a ≡ b (mod c) ⇐⇒ a = b + kc for some integer k.
• Example
 21 ≡ 1 (mod 4) because 21 = 1 + (5)4
 52 ≡ 3 (mod 11) because 25 = 3 + (2)11
• Properties

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 Example
• E.g 1: compute X = 36 * 53 * 91 * 17 * 22 (mod 29)
Solution:
• Use the modular multiplication property
X = 36 * 53 * 91 * 17 * 22 (mod 29)
= [(36 mod29) *(53 mod29) *(91 mod29) *(17 mod29)
*(22 mod29) ] (mod 29)
= 7*24*4*17*22 (mod 29)
= 168*68*22 (mod 29)
= 23*10*22 (mod 29)
= 230*22 (mod 29)
= 27*22 (mod 29)
= 14 mod 29
= 14 ECEG 4192 49
 Cont’d
• E.g 2: Compute 1143 (mod 13)
Solution:
• First write 43 as a sum of powers of 2: in binary 43= 101011.
• Then add the decimal values of each 1: 43 = 32 + 8 + 2 + 1
• Now 1143 = 1132 * 118 * 112 * 11
• Hence 1143 (mod 13)= (1132 * 118 * 112 * 11 ) (mod 13)
• To solve this start by squaring the number
11 (mod 13) = 11
112 (mod 13) = 121 (mod 13) = 4 (mod 13) = 4
114 (mod 13) = (112)2 (mod 13) = 42 (mod 13) = 16 (mod 13) = 3 (mod 13) = 3
118 (mod 13) = (114)2 (mod 13) = 32 (mod 13) = 9 (mod 13) = 9
1116 (mod 13) = (118)2 (mod 13) = 92 (mod 13) = 81 (mod 13) = 3 (mod 13) =3
1132 (mod 13) = (1116)2 (mod 13) = 32 (mod 13) = 9 (mod 13) = 9
1143 (mod 13)= (9*9*4*11) (mod 13)= (81*44) (mod 13)
= (3*5) (mod 13)= 15 (mod 13) = 2
50
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 The Euclidean algorithm
• a simple procedure for determining the greatest
common divisor of two positive integers
• Suppose we have integers a, b such that d=gcd(a,b)
• applying the division algorithm,
• a = q1b + r1 , 0 <= r1 < b
• If r1=0, b is a divisor of a, and d=gcd(a,b) = b
• if r1≠0, then d is divisor of r1
• b = q2r1 + r2 , 0 <= r2 < r1 ,
• if r2=0 then d=r1 if r2≠0, then d=gcd(r1,r2)

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 The Extended Euclidean Algorithm
• For integers a and b, the extended Euclidean algorithm
not only calculates the gcd but also two additional
integers x and y such that
ax + by = d = gcd(a, b)
• at each step i we can find integers xi and yi that satisfy
ri = axi + byi

• The following terms are defined using

this algorithm in addition to terms on
the right
• r-1 =a, r0 =b, x-1=1, x0=0, y-1=0, y0=1
• xi = xi-2 –qixi-1 and yi = yi-2 –qiyi-1

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 Cont’d
• E.g: Solve for x , y and d such that d = 1759x + 550y =
gcd(1759, 550).
– Answer: d = 1, x =-111, y =355

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 RSA
• The most widely accepted public key encryption
• RSA- Rivest-Shamir-Adleman
• Plaintext and ciphertext are integers between 0 and n-1,
for some n.
• A typical size for n is 1024 bits, mostly minimum of 512
bits
• Plaintext is encrypted in blocks, with each block having a
binary value less than some number n
• Each party who uses this encryption needs to generate a
pair of keys->public and private keys.
• The public key is made public while the private key is kept
secret
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 Generation of RSA Key Pair
• Generate the RSA modulus (n)
– Select two large primes, p and q.
– Calculate n=p*q
• Find Derived Number (e)
– Number e must be greater than 1 and less than (p − 1)(q − 1).
– The two numbers e and (p – 1)(q – 1) must be co-primes. i.e,
gcd(e, (p – 1)(q – 1) )=1
• Publish the public key
– The pair of numbers (n, e) form the public key
– Strength of RSA: difficulty in factoring n in to p and q
• Generate the private key
– Private Key d is calculated from p, q, and e. For given n and e,
there is unique number d.
ed = 1 mod (p − 1)(q − 1)
– The pair (n,d) is the private key and is kept secret
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 RSA encryption and Decryption
• RSA encryption : Plaintext is first represented as a series
of numbers less than n
– To encrypt the plaintext P, which is a number modulo n, the
step is as:
C = Pe mod n
– where C is the RSA ciphertext, P is the plaintext, e is the public
key and n is the product of p and q
– This means that C is also a number less than n
• RSA Decryption : is also straight forward ; Suppose the receiver of
public-key pair (n, e) has received a ciphertext C, then
P = Cd mod n
• Both sender and receiver must know the value of n.
• The sender knows the value of e, and only the receiver
knows the value of d.
• It is infeasible to determine d given e and n 56
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 Example
• Given two primes p = 7 and q = 13, encrypt the plaintext
P=10.
Solution:
• Compute modulus n:
• n=p*q=91
• Find the public key:
– Find e such that 1 < e < (p-1)(q-1), and gcd (e, (p-1)(q-1), )=1
• Let e= 5, b/c gcd (5,72)=1
– Public key is (91,5)
• Compute private key
• ed= 1 (mod (p-1)(q-1))
• 5d= 1 (mod 72)
• You can use Extended Euclidean Algorithm to compute d
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 Using Extended Euclidean Algorithm
• Ø = (p-1)(q-1) =72
• Solve for x and y such that gcd(Ø, e)=1, that is,
Øx + ey =1 , where y is the private key d
72x + 5y = 1
• Solving this, x=-2, y=29
• 5d= 1 (mod 72) => d=29
• The private key is (91,29)

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 Cont’d
• Encryption
– C = Pe mod n => 105 mod 91 = 82. Hence, using RSA, the ciphertext of
plaintext of 10 is 82.
• Decryption : let us find the original message
• P= Cd mod n = 8229 mod 91
First 29= 11101=> 29=16+8+4+1
Hence 8229 mod 91= (82*824*828*8216) (mod 91)
• Use modular product
(82)1 ≡ 82 (mod 91) = 82
(82)2 ≡ 822 = 81 (mod 91) = 81
(82)4 ≡ (822)2=(81)2 ≡ 9 (mod 91) = 9
(82)8 ≡ (824)2=(9)2 ≡ 81 (mod 91) = 81
(82)16 ≡ (828)2=(81)2 ≡ 9 (mod 91)= 9
• Then compute output of the decryption
8229 mod 91= (82*824*828*8216) (mod 91)
= 82*9*81*9 (mod 91)
= 738*729 (mod 91)
= 10*1 (mod 91)
= 10 => the original plaintext 59
 Other cryptographic techniques
• Symmetric and asymmetric encryption
techniques ensure confidentiality of information
• Cryptography is more than that
– Can ensure Data integrity, authentication and others
– E.g: hashing function, message authentication, digital
signature

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 Cryptographic Hashing functions
• A hash fun H accepts a variable-length block of data M as
input and produces a fixed-size hash value h = H(M )
• A change to any bit or bits in M results in a change to the
hash code

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 Cont’d
• The principal objective of a hash function is data integrity
• The kind of hash function needed for security applications is
referred to as a cryptographic hash function
• Is an algorithm for which it is computationally infeasible to find
either
– A data object that maps to a pre-specified hash result (the one-
way property) or
– Two data objects that map to the same hash result (the
collision-free property)
• When a hash function is used to provide integrity, the hash function
value is often referred to as a message digest

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 Operation of hashing
• Sender/Alice computes a
hash value as a function of
the bits in the message
• Alice transmits both the
hash value and the
message.
• Alice performs the same
hash calculation on the
received message bits and
compares this value with
the received hash value.
• If there is a mismatch, the receiver knows that the message (or
possibly the hash value) has been altered

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 Examples
• Message Digest 5 (MD5)
– Processes a variable length message in to a fixed-
length out put of 128 bits
– The input message is broken up into 512-bit blocks
– it is not secured any more! (a collision attack exists)
• Secure Hash Algorithms (SHA)
– SHA1: hash output of 160 bits
– SHA2 (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA512)
• Hash output of 224 bits, 256 bits and 512 bits respectively
– Secured

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 Message Authentication Code
• Message authentication is a procedure to verify that received
messages come from the alleged source and have not been
altered.
• Message Authentication Code (MAC) is used to verify the
source of the message (Source authentication) and the
received message has not modified (Data integrity )
– involves the use of a secret key to generate a small fixed-size block
of data, known as a cryptographic checksum or MAC, that is
appended to the message.
– MAC= C(K,M)
where
M = input message
C = MAC function
K = shared secret key
MAC = message authentication code

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 Cont’d
• The message plus MAC are transmitted to the intended recipient.
The recipient performs the same calculation on the received
message, using the same secret key, to generate a new MAC.
• The received MAC is compared to the calculated MAC, if the
received MAC matches the calculated MAC
– The receiver is assured that the message has not been altered.
– The receiver is assured that the message is from the alleged sender.
Because no one else knows the secret key, no one else could prepare a
message with a proper MAC

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 Digital Signature
• Message authentication protects two parties from any third party.
• However, it does not protect the two parties against each other.
– Several forms of dispute between the two are possible. Soln: Digital
Signature
• Is based on public-key cryptography
• Bob can sign a message using a digital signature generation
algorithm.
– The inputs to the algorithm are the message and Bob’s private key.
– Any other user, say Alice, can verify the signature using a verification
algorithm, whose inputs are the message, the signature, and Bob’s public
key.
• The hash value of a message is encrypted with a sender’s private
key. Anyone who knows the sender’s public key can verify the
integrity of the message that is associated with the digital
signature.
• In this case, an attacker who wishes to alter the message would
need to know the user’s private key
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 Cont’d Alice
Bob Verifying the
generating signature
his signature

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