HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is an integral feature of all living beings. The process by which a living being
produces its own like is called reproduction.

IMPORTANCE OF REPRODUCTION:

Reproduction is important for each species, because this is the only way for a living being
to continue its lineage. Apart from being important for a particular individual, reproduction
is also important for the whole ecosystem. Reproduction helps in maintaining a proper
balance among various biotic constituents of the ecosystem. Moreover, reproduction also
facilitates evolution because variations come through reproduction; over several
generations.

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION:

There are two main types, asexual and sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction: When a single parent is involved and no gamete formation takes
place; the method is called asexual reproduction. No meiosis happens during asexual
reproduction.

Sexual Reproduction: When two parents are involved and gamete formation takes; the
method is called sexual reproduction. Meiosis happens during gamete formation; which is
an important step of sexual reproduction.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY SINGLE ORGANISMS

Modes of reproduction involving a single parent, without involving gametes. These are
known as asexual modes of reproduction.

FISSION

BINARY FISSION

• Most of the unicellular animals prefer this method for reproduction. These
organisms reproduce by binary fission; especially when conditions are favourable.
• The mother cell divides into two daughter cells; and each daughter cell begins its
life like a new individual. The parent generation ceases to exist, after binary fission.
Amoeba is a very good example of the organism which reproduces by binary fission.
MULTIPLE FISSION

• When conditions become unfavourable, i.e. food, moisture, proper temperature,

etc. are not available; this is the preferred mode of reproduction by unicellular
organisms.
• The organism develops a thick coating around itself. This is called cyst. The cyst
helps the organism to tide over the bad phase.
• The nucleus divides into several nuclei and each daughter nucleus is surrounded by
a membrane. All metabolic activities stop in the organism, after cyst formation.
• When favourable conditions return, the cyst dissolves or breaks down; releasing the
daughter nuclei. The daughter nuclei; in turn; grow into new individuals.
Plasmodium and entamoeba undergo cyst stage, when they are not in the body of
their prime host, i.e. humans.
FRAGMENTATION

Reproduction by fragmentation is seen in filamentous algae, e.g. spirogyra. In Spirogyra

algae, the plant body breaks up into smaller fragments. Each fragment grows into a new
individual.

REGENERATION

If the individual is somehow cut or broken up into many pieces, many of these pieces grow
into separate individuals. For example, simple animals like Hydra and Planaria can be cut
into any number of pieces and each piece grows into a complete organism. This is known
as regeneration.

Budding
In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site.
These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent
body and become new independent individuals.

Vegetative Propagation: Method by which plants reproduce by their vegetative parts such
as roots, stems, and leaves.

Types of Vegetative Propagation: It is two types

● Natural vegetative propagation- Mint reproduces naturally by roots. Sugarcane, jasmine

by stems and bryophyllum by leaves. In bryophyllum buds are produced in the notches
along the leaf margins and when they fall on the soil, they develop into new plants.

● Artificial vegetative propagation (Tissue culture)- The technique of developing new plants
from a cell or tissue in a nutrient medium under aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is
placed in a nutrient medium where it forms a mass of cells called callus. This callus is then
transferred to another nutrient medium where it differentiates and forms a new plant. Stem
cutting, layering and grafting are the preferred means of artificial vegetative propagation.
Spore Formation: Spores are asexually reproducing bodies having a thick protective wall.
They are produced during unfavourable times and help to tide over the unfavourable
environmental conditions. When the spores fall on a suitable medium, each on forms a
New individual.

Importance of Vegetative Propagation

● Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also reproduce by
vegetative propagation.

● All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.

● Seedless varieties can be obtained.

● The property of vegetative propagation is used by horticulturists in developing methods

like layering, grafting to grow many plants like Sugarcane, roses, or grapes.

● Plants can bear flowers and fruit earlier than usual.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction is the process in which two components (male and female) are
involved to produce offsprings of their own kind.

Sexual reproduction in flower

A flower is a modified shoot with a limited growth. Flowers vary in size, shape, structure
and colour. The flower may be unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains either
stamens or carpels or bisexual (Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains both stamens and
carpels.
PARTS OF A TYPICAL FLOWER

The main parts of a flower are,

Calyx(group of sepals)

Corolla(group of petals)

Androecium(male reproductive part)

Gynoecium(female reproductive part)

Androecium is a group of stamens. Each Stamen Consists of a stalk called the filament and
a small bag like structure called the anther at the tip. The pollen grains are contained in the
anther within the pollen sacs.

Gynoecium is the female part of the flower and consists of the carpels or ovary. Gynoecium
has three parts 1) Stigma 2) Style and 3) Ovary. The ovary contains the ovules and each
ovule carries within it an embryo sac, within which lies the egg cell or the female gamete.

The sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves

Pollination

Fertilization

POLLINATION
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma is called pollination. Pollen grains
are transferred mainly by wind, water and insects. They are called as pollinating agents.

Pollination is the first and important event in the development of the fruit and seed.
Pollination Is followed by fertilization.

TYPES OF POLLINATION

Pollination is of two types. They are

Self pollination

Cross pollination

SELF POLLINATION

Self pollination is also known as autogamy. The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of
a Flower to the stigma of the same flower or another flower of the same plant is known as
self Pollination.

ADVANTAGES OF SELF POLLINATION

• Self pollination is certain in bisexual flowers.

• Flowers need not depend on agents of pollination.
• There is no wastage of pollen grains.

DISADVANTAGES OF SELF POLLINATION

The seeds are less in number.

Endosperm is minute. Therefore, the seeds produce weak plants.

New varieties of plants cannot be produced resulting in the degradation of the plant.

CROSS POLLINATION (ALLOGAMY)

The transfer of pollen grains of a flower to the stigma of another flower of a different plant of
The same species is called cross pollination or allogamy.

ADVANTAGES OF CROSS POLLINATION

The seeds produced as a result of cross pollination develop, germinate properly and grow
Into better plants, i.e., cross pollination leads to the production of new varieties. More
viable seeds are produced.

AGENTS OF CROSS POLLINATION

In order to bring about cross pollination, it is necessary that the pollen should be carried
from one flower to another of a different plant. This takes place through agency of animals,
insects, wind and water.

Pollination by birds (Ornithophily)

Pollination by insects and animal (Zoophily)

Pollination by wind (Anemophily)

Pollination by water (hydrophily)

GERMINATION OF POLLEN GRAIN

If pollen grain falls on a suitable stigma, it starts germinating. A mature pollen consists of
two cells. The larger one is vegetative cell and the smaller one is generative cell. The
vegetative cell starts growing and emerges through the germination pore. It develops
through the style as a long tube known as pollen tube. The generative cell gets into the tube
and divides Into two male gametes (sperms).

FERTILIZATION

Fusion of male gamete(pollen grain) and female gamete(ova or egg) to give rise to a zygote
is called fertilization. After fertilisation, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo
within the ovule. The ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a seed.
The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit. Meanwhile, the petals, sepals, stamens,
style and stigma may shrink and fall.
The seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under
appropriate conditions. This process is known as germination.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM- The male reproductive system in human beings is
composed of following parts:

Testis: There is a pair of testes; which lie in a skin pouch; called scrotum. Scrotum is
suspended outside the body; below the abdominal cavity. This helps in maintaining the
temperature of testes below the body temperature. This is necessary for optimum sperm
production. Testis primarily serves the function of sperm production. Sperms are the male
gametes. Apart from that, testis also produces testosterone. Testosterone is also called the
male hormone, as it is responsible for developing certain secondary sexual characters in
boys.

Vas Deferens: Vas deferens is the tube which carries sperms to the seminal vesicle.

Seminal Vesicle: This is the place where sperms are stored. Secretions from the seminal
vesicle and prostate gland add up to make the semen.
Penis: It is a muscular organ which serves the genitor-urinary functions. The urethra works
as the common passage for urine as well as for sperms.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system in human beings is composed of following parts:

Uterus: This is pear-shaped hollow muscular organ. Uterus is the place where the embryo
gets Implanted and develops into a newborn baby. The wall of the uterus provides safety
and nutrition to the growing foetus.

Fallopian Tubes: One fallopian tube comes out from each side at the top of the uterus. The
Fallopian tubes end in finger-like structures; called flimbriae. Fertilization happens in the
Fallopian tube.

Ovary: There are two ovaries; one near each fallopian tube. Ovary produces the eggs or the
Female gametes. All the eggs are produces by the ovary when the female child is still in the
Womb. One egg matures in each ovulation cycle and is released from the ovary. The egg is
Caught by the flimbriae and transferred to the fallopian tube.
Vagina: The cervix (mouth of the uterus) opens into the vagina. Vagina is a muscular tube-
like organs; which serves as the passage for the sperms and also as the canal during the
child birth.

Mensuration is the process of the shedding of the uterine lining on a regular monthly basis.

It begins at puberty and is the reproductive cycle of the female body. Every month, the
uterus prepares itself to receive a fertilised egg. Therefore, the inner lining of the uterus
becomes thick and is supplied with blood to nourish the embryo. If the egg is not fertilised,
then the lining of the uterus breaks down and gets Released in the form of blood through
the vagina. This lasts for about two to eight days. This cycle occurs every month and is
known as the menstrual cycle.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH: Sexually transmitted diseases and birth control.

A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual intercourse if one of the partners is

Infected. These are known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s). They can be caused by
bacteria for example; syphilis, gonorrhoea; or caused by a virus for example; HIV AIDS,
warts etc. The transmission of these diseases can be avoided by using birth control
measures such as wearing a condom during the sexual act.

Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the fallopian

tube:

(i) Use of condoms: Condoms are thin rubber tubes worn over the penis before sexual
intercourse. The semen gets collected in this and is not discharged into the vagina.
(ii) Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over a flexible metal ring which is fitted over the
cervix in a woman’s body by a doctor.

(iii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is inserted in the uterus and its
insertion causes certain secretion which prevents the implantation of the embryo in the
uterine wall.

Chemical methods

● Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-killing chemicals available in the form of
creams, jellies etc. which are injected into the vagina just before copulation.

● Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation but do not
stop menstruation.

Surgical methods

● Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males.

● Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating Reproductive organs the fallopian tubes in
females.

● Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions is carried out to eliminate the

developing embryo.