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University of the Philippines Visayas

College of Arts and Sciences


Division of Professional Education
READING 200

Foundations of Reading Instruction

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND READING

Prepared by

CATHERINE D. MOQUITE
M.Ed - ESL II

October 2016
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN READING

Strang asserts that the abilities to see, speak, and listen are not the only factors that
influence reading development and reading ability. Instead similar significance is given
to factors such as values and motivation that largely determine reading success and
failure. In his view on the reading process, he emphasizes his view of reading which
involves the whole personality that encompasses a learner’s/reader’s personal and
social values. Strang adds that all the factors mentioned must be seen as
interdependent. Hence, if a teacher recognizes the need to be cognizant of the
physiological, cognitive and linguistic aspects of reading development, he or she should
also consider the importance of socio-emotional aspects.
As support to Strang’s claims, Burton (1956), Olson (1959), and Russell (1961)
present their child-development theory of reading as a structure to explain, “...how
various aspects of the child’s development - his physical growth, his language
development, his general mental development, and his social development - are related
to and contribute to his development in reading.” This development brings about growth
in other areas: skills for advanced learning; happiness and enjoyment; understanding of
himself, of others, and of the world; and social and emotional adjustment.
Based on these premises, one cannot deny the necessity to explore the various
psychological and social theories, conditions, and principles underlying reading
development of a child. Meanwhile, the National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development (NICHD, 2000) points out the two main factors in psychological
development of a person that affect his or her reading ability and achievement. These
factors are (1) Environmental Factors and (2) Emotional Factors.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Environment plays a key role in developing a person’s reading ability as it shapes


his or her reading habits. Part of this environment are the home, the school, and one’s
social and cultural contexts. Environmental advantages booster one’s reading potential
but a disadvantaged environment can lead to at-risk learners who will most likely exhibit
reading inability and disability.
A reading-rich environment with constant exposure to print and interaction with
the possible agents in the act of reading follows an increased literacy and increased
likelihood of developing good readers.

A. Home Environment
A number of factors at home may positively or adversely affect the child’s reading
development. These factors range from socio-economic status, parents’ engagement
with the child in literacy events (McNaughton, 2006), parents’ educational involvement
and expectations in the child, parent’s view, beliefs, and attitude toward reading,
parents’ educational level, and availability of reading materials at home.
Although it is widely known that children from low socio-economic status families
achieve less in school-based reading and writing (Askov, 2004; Juel, 2006) and children
from these families may be less successful in literacy learning (Snow, Burns, Griffith,
1998), other evidence indicate that literacy activities engaged by parents together with
the creation of a home environment that encourages learning may override social class
factors and become a more accurate predictor of the child’s academic achievement
(Sylva, 2000). Parents on the other hand are seen as the major socializing force at
home. Lonigan, Dyer, and Anthony (1996) found that children’s increased knowledge of
phonological sensitivity was related to parental involvement in literacy activities in the
home, such as the frequency of parents reading for pleasure. The frequency of
children’s experiences with genres of literacy in their environment, such as shared book
reading or parents reading newspapers in the child’s presence, as well as oral language
use (mealtime conversations, true story telling), related to children’s language and
literacy development in the early grades (Leseman & van Tuijl, 2006). Parents’ beliefs
about literacy development also play an important role in the socialization of children
into literacy (McNaughton, 2006). Parents hold many ideas about how children learn to
read (Evans, Shaw, Moretti, & Bell, 2001) that may be influenced by how they learned to
read themselves. Also, parents’ educational expectations are significantly and positively
associated with reading gains. On average, students whose parents had higher
educational expectations and who showed more involvement at school had higher
reading gains during kindergarten, regardless of their levels of achievement at the start
of the school year (Galindo & Sheldon, 2012). Studies show that parents with higher
educational levels are esteemed to set higher expectations to their children’s
performance at school and tend to groom their children’s literacy. This maybe because
parents with higher educational levels have the resources and knowledge of
developmental needs to provide stimulating home environments (DiLalla & Lovelace,
1996). Parents’ attitude toward reading also holds an important influence to the child’s
own reading attitudes. Parents or caregivers who read to children, take them to library,
model positive reading behaviors, and encourage children to read increase their child’s
likelihood of becoming good readers. If parents provide these services for their children
and have positive attitudes toward reading, their children should look on reading as a
pleasurable activity, so they read more. The amount of time spent reading with parents
is one of the clearest predictions of early reading achievement (Paris, Wasik, and
Turner, 1991). Furthermore, access to and availability of reading materials at home also
affect the child’s early acquisition of reading skills (Durkin, 1996).

Emergent Literacy
A study among Filipino preschoolers showed children from homes with a print-rich
environment (presence of reading materials, presence of adults who read and write,
adults who interact and read to children, where children are encouraged to read and
write) develop many literacy behaviors: book orientation, book handling, early reading
and writing. This emergent literacy behavior help children to successfully tackle the
demands of beginning reading when they enter school (Pado, et.al, 1990).
Emergent Literacy is the early awareness of the purpose of written language in the
environment of their homes and communities (Pappas, et.al).

Based on Hansen’s (1969) four aspects of the home reading environment -


availability of reading materials at home, amount of reading done with children, amount
of reading guidance and encouragement, and the extent to which parents serve as
models by engaging in reading, the following recommendations are proposed as a
means of parents encouraging children to develop reading habits:
 Parents themselves should cultivate the habit of reading so as to be models for
children to emulate.
 Parents should lead the participation of quality and quantity time spent on
literacy activities by reading to them bedtime stories, providing rich sources of
reading materials (storybooks, comics, magazines) and avenues conducive to
such activities like putting up home libraries.
 Parents should encourage children to read books other than text books for
pleasure reading.

B. School Environment
Engaging in early literacy activities should be a positive experience for parents and
children. When such is not the case, stronger significant support is required from the
school and the teachers (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998).
In conceptualizing social and motivational influences in school, of particular
importance would seem to be children’s attitudes toward reading, the teacher-student
relationship, the role of the teacher for reading-rich environment, the reading materials
use in the classroom, classroom design and peer influences.

Children’s attitudes toward reading


Ransbury (1973) provides anecdotal evidence from interviews with children which
show that their parents’ attitudes toward reading were an important influence on their
own reading attitudes. However, not all parents hold positive regard to reading. Those
who have poor awareness on the importance of reading most likely fail to create a
reader-friendly, reading-rich home environment that may result to poor reading ability
and achievement among their children. As a consequence of these inabilities present
among the children, they come to school carrying with them a negative attitude toward
reading. Teachers need to identify these students and provide immediate and proper
action. Teachers and the school should act as catalysts to infuse among the students
the love for reading.
Teacher-student relationship
The way teachers interact with their students exerts a significant influence on
student’s achievement in reading and motivation to achieve. Teachers should help
establish a community of learners through exchanging point of views during meeting or
dialogue circles, providing motivation. When students feel they are part of the
community of learners, they are likely to take responsible risks, support one another and
control their behavior. Teachers on the other hand, as senior members of the community
have obligation to share and model ways to negotiate learning situations, since they are
more knowledgeable, experienced and skilled in important learning process (Tierney &
Pearson, 1994). This community of learners flourishes in a learner-centered classroom
where environment supports children’s interest and needs. To make children want to
read, teachers can create a learning environment such as:
1. Provide a book-rich class environment
2. Be a reading model; make your love of reading visible
3. Let children interact with others about their reading
4. Give them opportunities to be acquainted with a wide variety of books.
5. Provide reading-related incentives (books or bookmarks)
6. Allow children the freedom to choose the books they read.
7. Challenge them with moderately difficult task.
8. Let children share control over their learning.
9. Encourage them how literacy tasks can be meaningful and purposeful.

Moreover, Barnes (2016) points out in the student-teacher relationship, if a student


feels connected to his or her teacher and perceives their relationship to be emotionally
supportive, they are likely to feel more engaged and develop a more positive perception
on learning than a student who perceives otherwise (Suhlman & Pianta, 2009).
Emotionally supportive teachers can make students feel that there is an adult who cares
about them, listens to them, and provides encouragement. A trusting, warm relationship
with an adult is an important part of the development of the student’s self-perception
and classroom community. If a teacher holds high expectations for a student, that
student will likely perceive that the teacher believes in them increasing their school
engagement and desire to succeed (Alexander et.al, 2007).

The role of the teacher for reading-rich environment


About 15% of the variation among children in reading achievement at the end of the
school year is attributable to factors that relate to the skill and effectiveness of the
teacher (Anderson et.al, 1985). If parents are the key agents at home, teachers are the
main source of support and one of the most crucial protective factor in the development
of a child. The role of the teacher is to encourage all attempts at reading allowing
students of varying ability to experience the different functions and uses of reading
activities.
Dr. Warwick Elley (2004) outlined practices common to effective reading teachers.
 The teacher’s main aim is to develop lasting interest in reading.
 The teachers are enthusiastic readers themselves.
 High achievement comes as a result of greater reading mileage.
 Their classroom offer attractive reading environment with abundant reading
resources.
 Teachers read aloud everyday.
 Give students free choice of what they read.
 Allow at least 40 minutes each day for voluntary reading.
 Teachers should have ample teacher training on reading strategies.

The list below are Chris Crowe’s (1999) advice to reading teachers which has stood
the test of time.
 Help students realize that reading books can be refreshing and rewarding
alternative to TV, movies, shopping, or hanging out.
 Help students discover or remember the pleasure of reading.
 Allow them to exercise Daniel Pennac’s “Reader’s Bill of Right” whenever
possible
 Require and encourage outside elective reading and steer them toward
good books and literature.
 Help them connect on what they read, and nudge them to works related to
what they have just read, if they are in the reading rut, nudge them into
something different.
 Encourage students to read at other available moments during the day:
while eating lunch, when they have finished class work early, or at various
waiting times during the day.
 Read yourself and talk to your students about what you read.
 Read some of what they read.
 Read aloud in class and give students time to read in class.
 Be a library ahead with your students.

Reading materials in the classroom


Students’ involvement in reading is undoubtedly influence by the kind of reading
materials schools provide. The intentional selection and use of materials is central to the
development of the reading-rich environment. Teachers ensure that students have
access to a variety of resources by providing many choices. Thus, teachers should
expose students to various genres of ideas (International Reading Association &
National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998). McCord (1995), further
stresses the responsibility of teachers for selecting quality books. “As caregivers or
teachers, we have the responsibility to select each book with much thoughts to its
content and relevance to particular children. We must be sensitive of how children
personalize a story selected. An awareness of family situations, culture, religions, and
social biases of the smaller community in our classrooms must be developed with
respect as we choose which stories to tell (McCord 1995).”

Classroom design for reading-rich environments


Literacy activities abound in all elements of classroom instruction whatever the
subject is being taught and learned. Take for example students who explore books of
various genres not just in the library or reading times, but also in science, math, and
social studies. Thus, teachers in all content areas are required to create a classroom
that is conducive to learning and to building literacy. From the atmosphere, decor of the
room and arrangements of furniture (tables, chairs, cabinets) to interactions with peers
and teachers and every element (tangible or intangible) of the classroom are designed
to allow opportunities for literacy engagement. The literacy rich classroom environment
emphasizes the importance of speaking, listening, writing, and of course,
reading.Building such an environment requires selection of materials that will facilitate
language and literacy opportunities; reflection and thought regarding classroom design;
and intentional instruction and facilitation of teachers (Snow, Burns & Griffin, 1999).
Before making a decision in constructing one’s classroom, teachers should consider
how the room arrangement can encourage repeated opportunities to interact with
literacy materials and activities to practice skills that students are learning (Gunn,
Simmons, & Kameenui, 1995). Through repeated practice with materials and activities,
skills become more automatic. The enhancement and build up of these skills can be
reinforced by combining opportunities for independent exploration and peer interaction
with teacher instruction. This follows the exposure of students to a variety of print
experiences and the processes of reading for real purposes (IRA & NAEYC, 1998, 4).
Therefore, in designing classrooms teachers should build a literate classroom
environment that involves the physical and social aspects which actively harness
literacy promotion like the love for reading necessary for reading achievement.
Creating a literate classroom environment where students feel well, productive,
energized, and safe requires design knowledge (Roskos &Neuman, 2011). The
following are helpful suggestion in designing a literate classroom environment:
 Create a well-organized classroom library of books of various levels and genres.
Include a minimum of about ten books per student. Research shows that there
should be at least 1,200 book in a classroom library (Dabbs, Edutopia blog,
2014). To share the love of reading with our students, a classroom should have
a variety of books readily accessible for them.
 Provide students with other print resources, such as magazines, newspapers,
recipes, signs, menus, etc.
 Set up areas with pillows and cozy chairs where students can enjoy reading.
 Use the walls. Display labels, word walls, anchor charts, posters, and students
work that will be used and referred to by the students.
 Set up areas for literacy centers or stations. Organize materials in colorful bins
that make use and clean up easy.
 Provide students with a wide range of engaging materials to promote reading
and writing. Some materials may include colorful markers or pens, letter ties,
magnets, puppets, Play-Doh, learning mats or games.
 Arrange a large rug to serve as a place for the class to gather, read, and learn
together away from the desks.
 Incorporate technology. If available, consider using iPads, e-readers,
computers, or active whiteboards as tools for motivating students about literacy.
Reutzel & Clark (2011), Roskos & Neuman (2011), and The Access Center (2007)

Aside from the physical arrangement and resources found in the classroom, class
routines are also helpful in designing a literate classroom environment. Fenlon,
McNabb, & Pidlypchak (2010) state that to make the most of literacy instruction, teacher
and students should follow an established daily routine. Literary practices of the daily
routine should include print, concepts, familiar or self-selected reading, word/letter work
and vocabulary development, guided or structured shared reading, writing for authentic
purposes and interactive read alouds. The said routine also involves a mix of grouping
formats where students have the chances to work cooperatively with the teacher or
other students. During collaborative activities, teachers may make use of the following
strategies:
 Manipulative based activities within groups
 Open discussion with groups (literacy groups)
 Reading games and sequence cards
 Tape recordings and book talks

Peer influences on achievement


Classroom relationships are instrumental components of the learning process.
Learners interact with their peers and teachers on a regular basis, making those
relationships important to understand (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998; Stuhlman &
Pianta, 2009). Like student-teacher relationships, peer relationships also serve as
protective factors that shape a child’s school experience (Benard, 1993; Woolley &
Grogan-Kaylor, 2006).
Partaking in a classroom community or classroom group encourages participation,
idea sharing, and gives children a sense of belonging (Benard, 1993). Participation in a
classroom community helps children understand the way a group functions, internalize
social norms, and develop more comprehensive social skills (Benard, 1993). Peer
relationships form within these communities and these relationships, and the presence
of peer play can help children develop communication and problem solving skills that
will have long term benefits for children (Bulotsky-Shearer et al., 2012; Hamre & Pianta,
2005). Children who are engaged in mutual friendships are more likely to think
positively about school and the learning process. If students do not participate in warm,
mutual interactions and relationships at home, it is crucial that they receive this support
while in the classroom (Stuhlman & Pianta, 2009).
Children’s positive peer relationships aid in the development of communication
based social skills, which can enhance academic achievement (Raver, 2002; Sebanc,
2003). The necessity of creating coherent, effective, and clear phrases in order to
communicate with their peers forces children to develop language skills. These
communication skills also benefit students academically as language development in
the early years of schooling can predict students’ later reading abilities (Alexander et al.,
1997; Hamre & Pianta, 2005).

C. Social Environment
Bandura’s social cognitive theory defines environment as the factors that affect a
person’s behavior. There are physical and social environments. Social environment
includes interactions with family members, teachers, and peers. Social learning theories
further help us to understand how people learn (by learning with each other) in a social
context and inform us on how teachers construct active learning communities. Lev
Vygotsky (1962), first stated that we learn through our interactions and communications
with others. He suggested that learning takes place through the interactions children
have with their parents, peers, teachers, and other experts. In his key social processes,
he claimed that learning is enhanced when interacting with a more knowledgeable
other. As part of social-constructivist theory, parents or teachers scaffold or assist
children’s performance by modeling the types of responses to particular situations.
Moreover, in school, teachers can create a learning environment that maximizes the
learner’s ability to interact with each other through discussion, collaboration, and
feedback.
Social-cultural theory strengthens this claim when it also states that without social
interaction with other more knowledgeable agents, cognitive development will not occur.
Indeed, mediation and scaffolding are prerequisite for cognitive development to take
place (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Lantolf & Thorne, 2006). The Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) is a central concept in sociocultural theory that explicates the
important role of teachers as mediators and is at the heart of the concept of scaffolding
(Clark & Graves, 2004; Huong, 2003; Kozulin, 2004; Lantolf & Poehner, 2008; Lantolf &
Thorne, 2006). From the viewpoint of sociocultural theory of learning (Lantolf, 2006;
Remi & Lawrence, 2012), reading is a social skill which requires an active participation
and interaction of the learners involved in it.
Meanwhile, interactions between children and adults are seen as “the primary
medium by which literacy is acquired” (Pianta, 2004,p.175). Interactions with others
around print (Purcell-Gates, 1996), as well as general talk about event not present
(Snow, 1991) have played key roles in children’s literacy development. Interactions
around print can take many forms. The most studied parent/teacher-child interaction
around print involves story-book reading and read aloud.
On the other hand, successful interactions with friends will allow children to gain
confidence (Bryan, et.al, 1998). Contrary to this, social unpopularity, according to most
studies, tends to accompany school failure. Bryan, et.al (1998) added poor achievers
are often ignored or rejected by classmates in extracurricular activities. Students with
reading problems also tend to have problems interacting with others because they
exhibit poor social perception skills such as the inability to be sensitive to social
nuances (what to say, how to behave, how to give and take) and to be aware of how
others interpret behavior. Students with reading problems are unable to accommodate
another person’s point of view because they fail to consider the needs of others thus the
chances for successful interaction are reduced. In other cases, low achieving students
overestimate their own popularity thus, they are unable to recognize their own social
shortcomings and have difficulty relating to peers.

D. Cultural Environment
It has long been recognized that cultural variables influence how children present
themselves , understand the world, and interpret experiences. Indeed, culture plays an
important role in shaping children’s earliest learning opportunities that strongly affect
their ability and their desire to learn. The cultural environment of the child involves the
assemblage of practices and beliefs found in the home and social environment. Luis
Moll (1992) describes these cultural resources as “funds of knowledge” which include
parents’ beliefs about when and how children learn school-related skills, parents’s daily
interaction with their children, and the social rules that guide these interactions.
Parental beliefs
The nature of literacy interactions in the home is a direct reflection of parents’ views
about how children learn to read, write, and acquire other competencies. Parents hold
implicit theories of learning that affect whether and how they attempt to influence the
literacy and learning of their children before they enter formal schooling (Stipek, Milburn,
Galluzzo, and Daniels, 1992). The intentional or unintentional practices at home are
dominantly determined by the parents’ view toward literacy development. For instance,
some parents often consider books as treasured possessions and deliberately kept out
of the reach of children. These parents, it was noted in the study conducted among
Latino mothers in Chicago for instance, do not appear to perceive that their children’s
attempts to scribble or talk as they leaf through books have significance for literacy
development and do not elaborate on these occurrences as a teaching opportunity.

Home experiences that support learning


Children benefit from environment that have high amounts of rich discourse and
print-related experiences. Exposure to age-appropriate reading experiences that
children can both observe and engage in is related to literacy development (Beals, et
al., 1994). Rather than simply reading the printed words in a child’s book, there are
better ways parents can do to foster literacy like engage child in conversations about
the text, encourage child’s pretend to read and write, ask children open-ended
questions that challenge their reasoning skills. Language and social interaction at home
that surround literacy activities are associated to acquiring early literacy skills.

Social Conventions
A growing literature is documenting ways in which children from different cultural
background are exposed to different conversational rules, conventions of displaying
respect, and other patterns of social interaction that have significant effects on the way
children start to acquire literacy. Many researches assert cultural practices and cultural
values are attributed to geographical origin, socioeconomic status, or language. Take for
example learners from families with incomes below the poverty level who are more
concerned with basic survival needs, parents have less energy to devote to their
children’s development. However, this does not hold true to all low income families
because some poor families cherish education and uphold the values of education
because education is seen as an opportunity for social mobility and economic security.
Given the diversity of children’s cultural backgrounds, schools and teachers in
particular should strive to strike a balance between demonstrating respect for cultural
differences. To do this involves understanding how children’s cultural backgrounds
affect the skills, knowledge and expectations that they bring in the school (National
Research Council, 1994).

EMOTIONAL FACTORS
Low-achieving students, particularly those with a long history of failure, often have
accompanying emotional problems that impede learning ( Richek, et.al, 2002). Unless
these emotional problems are resolved, they increase as youngsters move up to
elementary years until they enter adolescence.
EMOTIONAL RESPONSES TO READING PROBLEMS
Every learner is unique hence, no one personality type can describe all low
achieving students, for learners react to learning problems in different ways. These
responses include the tendency of failing readers to exhibit learning block, hostile-
aggressive behavior, learned helplessness, low self-esteem and depression, and
anxiety.

A. Learning Block
If learning has been a painful experience, the students may simply block it (Richek,
et.al, 2002). Doing this keep themselves away from experiencing pain and distress.
Learning block can often be overcome when reading is taught in interesting and
nonthreatening ways and students begin to find pleasure in reading.

B. Hostile-Aggressive Behavior
Pupils with reading problems may become hostile and overly aggressive to
compensate for feelings of inadequacy. Students who appear to be tough, ready to fight,
and show signs of delinquency may be seeking a sense of accomplishment that they fail
to find in school or even at home. Anti-social behavior can be a manifestation of
student’s anger and frustration with academics and with the failure of others to
understand them. Often, such students display less hostility when they are taught in
small groups or individually and when their problems receive earnest attention from
teachers (Richek, et.al, 2002).

C. Learned Helplessness
For some disabled learners, avoiding failure is an important goal. To make sure they
do not fail, they refuse to try. Trying means a stress for them so they avoid stress
through withdrawal and apathetic behavior. The kind of students may become passive
and refuse to complete assignments, participate in class discussions, or read. Teachers
need to encourage them to take risks, reward them for doing so and to make them learn
that certain amount of failure is unavoidable and acceptable part of living. When
instructing students, teachers should tell them what they will be learning and why they
are learning it. In some cases poor achievers cannot accept personal responsibility for
learning even when they are successful. Attribution theory suggests that such students
attribute their success and failure to the teacher who is in charge of the learning
situation (Yasutake & Bryan, 1995). These students need more personal involvement in
the learning situation and need to take responsibility for it.

D. Low Self-esteem and Depression


Students who have been subjected to continual failure develop a low opinion of
themselves. They display a negative self-image, poor ego development, and a lack of
confidence. The problem often deepens as student become older and realize that they
are not meeting society’s expectations (Brooks, 1997; Silver, 1998). A self-defeating
“what’s the use” attitude may result in overall depression. Such students need to know
that they are accepted as they are and that the teacher understands their problem and
has confidence that they can learn. Thus, teachers must emphasize every child’s
success.

E. Anxiety
Reading anxiety can be thought of as a type of specific phobia or having an anxiety
producing reaction toward reading. Everson and colleagues (1994) found that anxiety is
related to some reading comprehension detriments. Anxious readers are never sure of
their abilities and are afraid of making mistakes and being reprimanded. Stress clouds
their lives and drains their energy and ability to concentrate on learning. Anxious
students need reassurance that they can learn. Obviously, these students require a lot
of reinforcement and guidance. Their phobia eats away at their self-confidence. They
need a lot of sincere positive feedback and praise in order to move forward.

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL PROBLEMS AND READING


Emotions are an important aspect of human development (Hermosa, 2002).
However, maladjustive emotional development have created poor readers. Harris
(1980) enumerates different emotional problems that may cause reading disabilities.
 Conscious refusal to learn. The child is hostile to parents or teachers, or both,
and rejects reading because it is identified with the adult(s) agaianst whom
his/her feelings are directed. Or the student may seek gang approval by not
learning to read.

 Over hostility. Some children have built up intense feelings of resentment, and
their angry feelings break out easily so they are generally regarded as “bad” and
are usually punished by the school.

 Negative conditioning to reading. The child regards reading with fear, anger,
or dislike. Reading is associated with someone or something already feared or
disliked, such as a grade one teacher walking around the room rapping the
knuckles of a ruler.

 Displacement hostility. The child may be jealous of a favored brother or sister


who is good at reading and transfers his or her hostility to the act of reading,
which is the sibling’s strong point. The child may also resent a parent and
express the hostility indirectly by failure in reading, which is so important to the
parent.

 Resistance to pressure. The child with an overambitious parent who wants


him/her to be a genius may resist this pressure by showing lack of interest in
reading.

 Clinging to dependency. The overprotected child may consciously or


unconsciously prefer to remain infantile and get attention through helplessness.
Learning to read may mean growing up and becoming self-reliant, which the
child is not yet ready to attempt.

 Quick discouragement. Some children start off wanting to learn to read but
meet difficulty and quickly give up and stop trying. Such children usually come
to school with marked feelings of inferiority and insecurity. Many of them feel
that their parents do not care for them.

 Success is dangerous. For some children with deep-seated emotional


problems, success in reading may mean entering into an adult activity and
competing with the parent as a rival. Such competition implies punishment; the
child therefore, prefers to be passive. This is the case where psychotherapy
may be needed.

 Extreme distractibility or restlessness. A child who is very tense or nervous


is unable to sit still. Distractibility complicates the picture. It pulls the child’s
attention away from the reading task by almost any stimulus. The child thus falls
behind in learning, and is quickly discouraged.

 Absorption in a private world. Some children are absorbed in thoughts of their


own to such an extent they can give only intermittent attention to their
environments. Such children are not capable of the sustained attention needed
for reading and learning.

It is important to note however that not all emotional reactions to reading problems do
not fit neatly into any of the categories.
PERSONALITY MALADJUSTMENT AND READING: A CIRCULAR
RELATIONSHIP

Personality Reading
Maladjustment Failure

Reading Personality
Failure Maladjustment

Leeds (2010) notes that the concept of emotional difficulties and reading problems
are associated. Reading difficulty may be a symptom of an underlying emotional
conflict. Conversely, the emotional problem may be caused by the inability to read.
Similar relationship is prevailing between personality maladjustment and reading failure.
No clear evidence can tell whether personality maladjustment is the result of reading
problems or it is the other way around. The only certain thing is that early failure in
reading leads to maladjustment and personal maladjustment in turn prevents further
growth in reading, though both may have their own distinct causes. If the child’s reading
failure is emotional in nature, he or she will have difficulties in other content areas as
well. If the emotional problem was caused by failure in reading, this difficulty can be
reduced when the child learns to read.
SYMPTOMS OF PERSONALITY MALADJUSTMENT

Personality characteristics: Attitude toward peers:


1. Speaks disparagingly of him/herself 1. Have few, if any, friends in his/her
2. Unable to risk making a mistake peer group
3. Fearful of new situations 2. Disrupts other children
4. Unwilling to try new or difficult tasks 3. Other children avoid him/her
5. Excessively shy or withdrawn 4. Is destructive of other people’s property
6. Lacks self-confidence 5. Belittles the accomplishments of others
7. Shows excessive concern 6. Withdraws from group activities
with acceptance by others 7. Shows behavior that provokes unkind
8. Unusually unhappy or depressed attitudes and expressions from others
9. Has difficulty making decisions 8. Complains that other people do not like
him/her
10. Has difficulty focusing attention Attitude toward teachers and parents:
on the task at hand 1. Is antagonistic and defiant toward adults
11. Appears overly tense 2. Encourages peers to disrupt the class
12. Is too impulsive 3. Disobeys classroom rules
13. Reacts emotionally to failure 4. Manipulates adults
14. Unable to evaluate his/her behavior 5. Dependent on teachers and parents
realistically
15. Reacts inappropriately to criticism/ Attitude toward reading:
guidance from others 1. Hates reading
16. Has violent outbursts of temper 2. Avoids reading activities
17. Lacks curiosity 3. Unwilling to make an effort to improve
18. Daydreams excessively his/her reading
19. Is indifferent or passive
20. Is overactive and restless
21. Lacks confidence in most learning
situations
22. Becomes upset when things do not
go his/her way
23. Cries easily

Socio-Emotional Maladjustment and Reading: What To Look For


Hermosa (2002). The Psychology of Reading. University of the Philippines

PERSONALITY THEORIES AND READING


To help children with emotional problems, one needs to understand the facts,
principles, and symptoms of social and emotional development. Two theories can help
you along this line: Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development and the Self-
Concept Theory (Hermosa, 2002).
ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
As articulated by Erik Erikson, psychosocial development is psychoanalytic theory
which identifies eight stages through which a healthily developing human being should
pass from infancy to late adulthood. Each stage is built upon the successful completion
of the earlier stages. At each stage there are crises or critical issues to be resolved.
Most people resolve each crisis satisfactorily and put it behind them to take on new
challenges. Some people who do not completely resolve the crises must continue to
deal with them later in life.

1. TRUST vs. MISTRUST. This is the first psychosocial crisis. During this stage, the
infant is uncertain about the world in which he/she lives in. To solve these feelings of
uncertainty, the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency
of care. If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, he/she will
develop a sense of trust which will carry him/her to other relationships, and he/she will
be able to feel secure even when threatened.
Erikson (1959) posits that success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By
developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a
real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support. Failing to acquire
the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear.
For instance, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and
unreliable, then, the infant will develop a sense of mistrust and will not have confidence
in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events. The infant will carry the
basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety,
heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.

2. AUTONOMY vs. SHAME AND DOUBT. (18 months-3 years). Children on this stage
no longer want to depend totally on others. Children begin to assert their independence
by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices
about what they like to wear, to eat, etc. Such skills illustrate a child’s growing sense of
independence and autonomy. Moreover, he states that it is critical that parents allow
their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment
which is tolerant of failure.
For instance, rather than put on a child’s clothes, a supportive parent should have
the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask assistance. Thus, parents
must encourage the child to becoming more independent while at the same time
protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.
A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for
the child but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for
failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training). As stated by Gross (1992), the
aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self0esteem.” Success to this stage will lead
to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their
increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to
survive the world.

3. INITIATIVE vs. GUILT (3-6 years). In this stage children are increasingly expected to
be responsible. This is also the stage where children assert themselves more frequently.
These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. Bee (1992)
illustrates that it is a “time of vigor of action and of behavior that the parents may see as
aggressive.”
Moreover, this period’s primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with
other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the
opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities. Thus if this
tendency is suppressed, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of
guilt. They may feel like nuisance to others and will therefore, remain followers, lacking
in self-initiative.
Usually in this stage, the child will begin to ask many questions as his first thirst for
knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions trivial, a nuisance, or
embarrassing, then the child may have feelings of guilt of being a nuisance. Too much
guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity.
Some feelings of guilt are, of course, necessary otherwise the child would not know how
to exercise self-control or have a conscience.
4. INDUSTRY vs.. INFERIORITY (6-12 years). Children operating at this stage appear
determined to master the tasks that are set before them. They cooperate with other
children toward achieving a common goal. They frequently engage in activities that
allow them to practice skills required by their culture. The childe now feels the need to
win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society, and
begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. The conflict of industry
versus inferiority emerges as a sense that they are inferior if they cannot show that they
are competent and so these children are constantly comparing themselves with their
peers. Success at this stage brings a sense of industry, a good feeling about oneself
and one’s abilities. Failure creates a negative self-image, a sense of inadequacy that
may hinder future learning. Failure, in this sense, may not be real; it can be the inability
to “measure up’ to one’s standards or those of parents, teachers, or siblings. Some
failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Lastly, a balance
between competence and modesty is a necessity to reach the virtue of competence.

5. IDENTITY vs. ROLE CONFUSION (12-18 years). This is a crucial stage in which
children are becoming more independent and begin to look at the future in terms of
career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong in a society
and fit in. This is considered a major development where the child has to learn the roles
he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will reexamine his
identity and try to find out exactly he/she is. The focal point now is the search for
identity. This includes cultural identity as well as personal identity, identity as a member
of a community as well as identity as an individual. The development of identity is linked
with self mastery. Adolescents grapple with the question of who they will become as well
as the question of who they are. They often have a close attachment to their parents,
yet are searching for other associations.
Adolescence is a time for change. Teenagers experiment with various sexual,
occupational, and educational roles as they try to find out who they are and who they
can be. This new sense of self is an alignment of the individual’s sense of self, the
resolutions of crises in the preceding stages, his/her needs, skills, and goals as well as
the demands of adolescence and approaching adulthood. If he/she cannot successfully
integrate his/her psychosocial past, present, and future, he/she will experience role
confusion which involves the individual not being sure about him/herself or hi/her place
in the society.
Also, Bee (1992) presents what happens at the end of this stage is a “reintegrated
sense of self, of what wants to do or be, of one’s appropriate sex role.” Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity that involves being able to commit oneself to
others on the basis of accepting others even when there may be ideological differences.

6. INTIMACY vs. ISOLATION (18-40 years old). This stage occurs in young adulthood.
This happens when an individual begins to share himself more intimately with others.
He or she explores relationships leading toward longer term commitments with
someone other than a family member.
Completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of
commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. On the other hand, avoiding
intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. GENERATIVITY vs. STAGNATION (40-65 years old). During middle adulthood, one
establishes a career, settles down within a relationship, begins his own family, and
develops a sense of being. The person gives back to society through raising children,
being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and
organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, the individual becomes stagnant
and feel unproductive. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

8. EGO INTEGRITY vs. DESPAIR (65 years and above). As the person grows older and
become senior citizen, he or she tends to slow on productivity and explore life as a
retired person. It is during this time that one contemplates accomplishments and is able
to develop integrity if one sees himself or herself as leading a successful life.
If one sees his or her life as unproductive feels guilty about the past, or feels life
goals were not accomplished, one becomes dissatisfied with life and develops despair,
often leading to depression and hopelessness. On the other hand, success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of wisdom. This enables the person to look back on his life with a
sense of closure and completeness and also accepts death without fear.

Erikson states that the accomplishment of certain tasks at each stage of


development is central to healthy personality growth. In our society, learning to read is a
major developmental task of the elementary school years. Those who succeed tend to
develop feelings of autonomy, mastery of their environment, accurate perception of
reality, positive attitudes toward learning and low anxiety. Those who fail tend to show
the opposite traits.
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
Approximate Psychosocial Significant Psychosocial Virtues
Ages Crises Relationships Emphasis
1. Infancy
(Birth to 18 Trust vs. Maternal To get Hope
months) Mistrust Person To give in
return
2. Toddler
(18months to 3 Autonomy vs. Parental To hold Will
years) Doubt Persons To let go
3. Preschooler To make (going
(3 to 6 years) Initiative vs. Basic Family after) Purpose
Guilt To “make like”
(playing)
4. School Age To make things
Child (6 to 12 Industry vs. Neighborhood To make things Competence
years) Inferiority School together
5. Adolescent Peer groups To be oneself
(12 to 18 years) Identity vs. and model of (or not to be) Love
Role Confusion leadership To share being
oneself
6. Young Adult Parents in To lose and find
(18 to 40 years) Intimacy vs. friendship, sex, oneself in Love
Isolation competition, another
cooperation
7. Middle Aged Divided labor
Adult (40 to 65 Generativity vs. and shared To take care of Care
years) Self-absorption household
8. Late Adult “Mankind” To be through
(65+ years) Integrity vs. “My kind” having been Wisdom
Despair To face not
being

SOME BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES


(Sutherland & Arbuthnot, 1991)
Stages Books
Early Stories that deal with relationships between parent and child.
Childhood
Middle Fiction in which characters experience conflict when their actions
Childhood oppose of others. These books will make the children experience,
along with the story characters, how it is to make more responsibility
for one’s actions.
Late Childhood Books that pose situations in which children strive to be as
successful as their peers; books focusing on the way on which
children perceive their parents; biographies of people who
succeeded; realistic fiction about people who overcame hardships.
Adolescence Realistic fiction about teenagers searching for identity -where the
character’s fears and joys are evident throughout as they strive to
discover themselves and to experience success.
RESEARCH FINDINGS ON READING INTERESTS (Sutherland & Arbuthnot, 1991)
1. Generally, children prefer fiction to nonfiction and prose poetry.
2. Girls read more than boys and before the age eight or nine, prefer the same content
as boys.
3. Interest in reading reach a peak during early high school and then declines sharply.
4. Primary children like fairytales, animals stories, nature stories, humorous tales,
adventure stories, comic books, and how-to-do-it books. Boys show special interest in
animal stories; girls like stories with child characters.
5. Intermediate children are interested in adventure stories, animal stories, fantasies,
stories about family life, famous people or children; they are interested in sports, humor,
and readings about machines, personal problems, physical science, and social studies.
Boys are more interested in real-life adventures; girls prefer fantasy stories and those
dealing with school, home, and personal problems. Comic books are popular during this
period.
6. Early high school boys prefer comic books, animal stories, western stories,
adventure, and biography; girls prefer fiction, comic books, animal stories, biography,
and western stories.
7. Upper high school girls prefer romance, society and fashion, but also read adventure,
science and mystery books; boys like sports, adventure, mystery, action, exploration,
travel, science, mechanics, and politics. Humorous books and books on hobbies are
also popular during this period.
8. Children with high IQs generally read books that are more difficult.

SELF-CONCEPT THEORY
What one thinks of himself/herself is his/her self-concept. How an individual views
oneself is a result of resolved past crises, of how others, especially people who are
important to the person, treat his/her feelings of success or failure in the tasks and skills
required in the society and by one’s culture (Hermosa, 2002).
With the interest on self-concept, carl Rogers 91959) believes that the self-concept
has three different components: (1) self-image; (2) self-esteem or self-worth; and (3)
ideal self.
Self image. It is the view of what you have for yourself. This does not necessarily
reflect the reality. Take for instance a person with anorexia who is thin may have a self-
image in which the person believes he is fat. A person’s self-image is strongly
influenced by factors such as parental influences, teachers, friends, media, etc.
Typically, young people describe themselves more in personality traits whereas older
people feel defined to a gretaer extent by their social roles.

Self-esteem or Self-worth. This involves how much value a person places on


oneself. Also, it refers to the extent to which people accept or approve of themselves or
how much they value themselves. Self-esteem always involves a degree of evaluation
and they may have either a positive and negative view of themselves. Argyle (2008)
believes that four ,major factors accompany self-esteem: (1) reaction of others; (2)
comparison with others; (3) social roles; and (4) identification.

Ideal Self. If there is a mismatch between how a person sees him/herself (self-
image) and what he/she would like to be (ideal self), then, this is likely to affect how
much you value yourself (self-worth). A difference that exist between self-image and
ideal self may support Mcleod’s (2008) idea of incongruence. If consistency occurs
between these two stages, congruence exists. Rogers (1959) believes that for a person
to achieve self-actualization one has to be in the state of congruence.

Family, peers, and teachers play a significant role in the formation of a child’s self-
concept. Factors such as the mother’s use of the library, reading materials in the home,
and the father’s occupational level affect the child’s concept of him/herself as a reader
and his/her concept of his/her reading progress.
According to self-concept theory, as explained by Hermosa (2002), children with
feelings of adequacy, self-confidence, and self-reliance tend to be good readers.
Underachieving readers, on the other hand, tend to be immature and to have negative
feelings about themselves, particularly in relation to school success.
Harris (1980) suggests the painful emotional events during early efforts at reading
may turn young learner against reading. After repeated failures, the child may be
challenged by feelings of inferiority, inadequacy, and loss of confidence that result to
disliking reading, aggressive, or withdrawn behavior and emotional and social
maladjustment.
Self-concept and Risk-taking
Moreover, Canfield’s “poker-chip theory” (1975) explains how self-concept
influences the risk-taking behavior of children in the classroom. According to Canfield, a
child with a positive self-concept is like a poker player with plenty of chips while a child
with a negative self-concept has very few chips. More chips mean more confidence to
take risks even if ability is lacking. Few chips mean less confidence to take risks and
very cautious to gamble even if there is enough ability. In a classroom, a child with
positive self-concept can afford to make mistakes. In recitation for instance, this child
will more likely to participate even if he/she is not sure of the answer because there is
no fear of being ridiculed or being thought of as stupid. With a positive self-concept, the
child thinks he/she is smart and a few mistakes will not change his/her classmates or
the teacher’s perception of him/her. On the contrary, the child with a negative self-
concept rarely volunteers or never at all unless he/she is very sure of his/her answer.
One mistake means losing another chip.

Increasing a Child’s Self-Concept


Teachers and even parents must be concerned on how to help the child develop a
positive perception of him/herself. The best way to do this is for both teachers and
parents to raise children’s self-esteem by helping them experience success on what
they do. For disabled readers, teachers can provide reading materials that are easy
enough so that successful performance is assured. It is suggested to begin one or two
years below the child’s level as indicated by test scores (Hermosa, 2002). Once a child
has tasted the delightful flavor of a successful beginning, estimate how much to cover,
how fast to go, and how soon to move to a higher level of difficulty. Teachers need to
observe the child’s responses to the material and the pace of instruction before he or
she decides. Before a child succeeds in reading, he or she must experience success
first. Without success in reading, success in almost any other areas becomes
improbable (Hermosa,2002).
How teachers build self-concept
(Jason and Dubnow, 2013)
 Show your respect for each child and treat each one as an individual.
 Show an interest in each child’s activities.
 Help children recognize their own successes, even if they are not related to
reading instruction. Then channel these positive feeling into the realm of
reading.
 Give honest praise for success; Children recognize praise that is undeserved.
Dishonest praise is destructive because it can make the child feel inadequate.
 Help children accept failure without being defeated by it.
 Assist children in setting realistic goals. Children who consistently try for lofty
goals will often meet failure and be frustrated.
 Teachers should be confident of their own abilities and model positive self-
concept.

MOTIVATION AND READING


Readiness for, and achievement in, reading also depend on the pupil’s motivation.
Lack of interest is an important cause of poor reading. To achieve in reading, the child
must want to learn (Hermosa, 2002).

Reinforcement Theory
Behaviorist B.F. Skinner in his Operant conditioning states that “an individual’s
behavior is a function of its consequences” (management Study Guide, 2013).
Hence, psychologists have focused more attention on the power of consequences,
rewards, punishment, and removing something unpleasant to change behavior than
any other method. According to reinforcement theory, there are four types of
reinforcement: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, non-reinforcement
and punishment.

 Reinforcement. It is an event following a behavior that increases the


likelihood of that behavior occurring again.
 Positive Reinforcement or Reward. Responses that are rewarded are
likely to be repeated. For example good grades reinforce careful study.
 Negative Reinforcement. Responses that follow escaping from painful or
undesirable situations that are likely to be repeated. For example, no
assignments given for finishing tasks promptly.
 Non-Reinforcement. Responses that are not reinforced are likely to be
extinguished. For example ignoring student’s misbehavior should extinguish
that behavior.
 Punishment. Responses that bring painful or undesirable consequences
will be suppressed. For example, penalizing tardy students to stand the
whole period in class.

The Use of Reinforcements in the Classroom


 Determine what constitutes a reinforcement for a student and make that
reward dependent upon the desired academic behavior. Different reinforcers
are needed for different children. Some are highly motivated by good
grades, others by public recognition, and still others by consumables such
as money or candies.
 Reinforce only desirable behavior and ignore or punish undesirable
behavior. Examples of desirable behavior: paying attention to teacher or
task at hand, persisting in difficult tasks, selecting challenging tasks, and
completing tasks; undesirable behaviors: inattentiveness, giving up quickly,
selecting very easy tasks, turning incomplete or haphazardly done
assignments.

Potential Reinforcers in the Classroom (Hermosa, 2002)


Source of Information Examples of Reinforcers
Adult Approval Teacher gives you an A, 100%, or a star.
Teacher tells you that you are doing well.

Competition You are on top of the honor roll.


You are first to finish an assignment.

Consumable A sticker
A candy

Peer Approval Classmates come to visit for help.


Classmates invite you to be a member of their group.

Independence Be free to do something else you want to do.


Be free to go outside.

Privilege or Be class monitor.


Responsibility Be group leader.

Problems with reward and punishment


Some problems in the application of the reinforcement model have been identified
(Stipek, 1988).

1. Finding an effective reward. Conventional rewards such as praise, good


grades, and public recognition are effective reinforcers for most students, while
reprimands, poor grades, and public humiliation serve as punishment. But children
with severe motivational problems often do not respond to these.
2. Application of reinforcers. Only observable behavior can be reinforced and
some behaviors (like attention) are not entirely observable.
3. Short-lived effectiveness. If the only reason for doing something is to obtain a
reward, the behavior will occur only under reward conditions. Some rewards are so
distant from the immediate situation (e.g. Getting a degree/job or to enter college).
They are ineffective rewards for students who are used to being reinforced daily for
fear of revealing their ignorance.
4. Effects of Punishment. Punishment can cause severe anxiety, which in turn can
hinder learning. Children may spend more energy trying to avoid punishment than
trying to understand material or learn new skills. For example, they avoid asking
questions or volunteering answers for fear of revealing their ignorance.

Intrinsic Motivation
Many motivation theorists claim that external reinforcement is not needed for
learning to take place. According to them, people learn best in situations where they
perceive themselves to be learning for their own intrinsic reasons.
According to Ryan and Deci (2000), intrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of
an activity for its inherent satisfaction. When intrinsically motivated, a person is moved
to act for the fun or challenge rather than because of external products, pressures, or
reward.

Perspectives on intrinsic motivation


Stipek enumerates the following natural inclinations of human beings that make
some tasks intrinsically motivating (Hermosa, 2002).
1. Competence. The innate drive to explore, to master, to feel effective.
Examples: a two-year-old putting a puzzle together; a six-year-old practicing
writing; an adolescent playing chess.
2. Curiosity. The pleasure gained from activities and events that provide some
surprise, incongruity, complexity, or discrepancy from what is expected.
Examples: infants will look longer at a new stimulus they have seen before;
children’s interest in cartoons, science fiction, and video games.
3. Autonomy. The natural need to feel self-determining, like doing something
because one wants to.
Examples: students paying more attention and doing their best on projects
that they choose, but not those forced on them by the teacher
4. Internalized values. To behave in ways consistent with the values of homes or
society’s values.
Examples: a child feeling proud of himself for studying; a person feeling
guilty for cheating

Maximizing Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom


1. Give tasks that have a reasonable amount of challenge (they are neither too
easy or too difficult).
2. Give tasks with these elements: variety, complexity, novelty, surprise.
3. Task presentation:
 Introduce task in a positive light
 Show that you are enthusiastic about it.
 Explain to students why they are doing it.
 Link tasks to prior knowledge.
4. Nature and Evaluation. Use evaluation measure that give substantive corrective
feedback and orient student’s attention toward developing mastery and away from
grades.
5. Give students help only when it is really needed and in a way that allows them
to take some credit for completing the task.
6. Use of intrinsic rewards:
 Use them for tasks that have limited intrinsic appeal (cleaning the
chalkboard)
 When used in starting tasks, shift student’s attention from extrinsic rewards
to the importance of the task and the feeling of competence derived from
mastery.
7. Allow some student choice. Do not always tell them what, how, and when to do
tasks.
Extrinsic rewards cannot be eliminated altogether but there are many benefits to
maximizing intrinsic motivation and many ways to foster it. Extrinsic rewards must be
reduced and made less important in the classroom (Hermosa, 2002).

References:
Burns, Roe, Rose (1999). Teaching Reading in Today’s Elementary Schools.7th Edition.
Hermosa (2002). The Psychology of Reading. University of the Philippines Open
University.
Machado (2007). Early Childhood Experiences in Language Arts - Early Literacy.
National Research Council. Cultural Diversity at Home and Early Education. The
National Academies Press, Washington D.C. 1994.
Richek, M.A., et al. (2002). Reading Problems - Assessment and Teaching Strategies. A
Pearson Education Company, Boston Massachusetts.
Stoodt, B. (1981). Reading Instruction. University of Carolina, Greensboro.
Strang, Ruth (1968). Reading Diagnosis and Remediation. Ontario Institute for Studies
in Education.
Witty, et al. (1996). The Teaching of Reading - A Developmental Process.

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