Reading-201
Reading-201
Reading-201
Prepared by
CATHERINE D. MOQUITE
M.Ed - ESL II
October 2016
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN READING
Strang asserts that the abilities to see, speak, and listen are not the only factors that
influence reading development and reading ability. Instead similar significance is given
to factors such as values and motivation that largely determine reading success and
failure. In his view on the reading process, he emphasizes his view of reading which
involves the whole personality that encompasses a learner’s/reader’s personal and
social values. Strang adds that all the factors mentioned must be seen as
interdependent. Hence, if a teacher recognizes the need to be cognizant of the
physiological, cognitive and linguistic aspects of reading development, he or she should
also consider the importance of socio-emotional aspects.
As support to Strang’s claims, Burton (1956), Olson (1959), and Russell (1961)
present their child-development theory of reading as a structure to explain, “...how
various aspects of the child’s development - his physical growth, his language
development, his general mental development, and his social development - are related
to and contribute to his development in reading.” This development brings about growth
in other areas: skills for advanced learning; happiness and enjoyment; understanding of
himself, of others, and of the world; and social and emotional adjustment.
Based on these premises, one cannot deny the necessity to explore the various
psychological and social theories, conditions, and principles underlying reading
development of a child. Meanwhile, the National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development (NICHD, 2000) points out the two main factors in psychological
development of a person that affect his or her reading ability and achievement. These
factors are (1) Environmental Factors and (2) Emotional Factors.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
A. Home Environment
A number of factors at home may positively or adversely affect the child’s reading
development. These factors range from socio-economic status, parents’ engagement
with the child in literacy events (McNaughton, 2006), parents’ educational involvement
and expectations in the child, parent’s view, beliefs, and attitude toward reading,
parents’ educational level, and availability of reading materials at home.
Although it is widely known that children from low socio-economic status families
achieve less in school-based reading and writing (Askov, 2004; Juel, 2006) and children
from these families may be less successful in literacy learning (Snow, Burns, Griffith,
1998), other evidence indicate that literacy activities engaged by parents together with
the creation of a home environment that encourages learning may override social class
factors and become a more accurate predictor of the child’s academic achievement
(Sylva, 2000). Parents on the other hand are seen as the major socializing force at
home. Lonigan, Dyer, and Anthony (1996) found that children’s increased knowledge of
phonological sensitivity was related to parental involvement in literacy activities in the
home, such as the frequency of parents reading for pleasure. The frequency of
children’s experiences with genres of literacy in their environment, such as shared book
reading or parents reading newspapers in the child’s presence, as well as oral language
use (mealtime conversations, true story telling), related to children’s language and
literacy development in the early grades (Leseman & van Tuijl, 2006). Parents’ beliefs
about literacy development also play an important role in the socialization of children
into literacy (McNaughton, 2006). Parents hold many ideas about how children learn to
read (Evans, Shaw, Moretti, & Bell, 2001) that may be influenced by how they learned to
read themselves. Also, parents’ educational expectations are significantly and positively
associated with reading gains. On average, students whose parents had higher
educational expectations and who showed more involvement at school had higher
reading gains during kindergarten, regardless of their levels of achievement at the start
of the school year (Galindo & Sheldon, 2012). Studies show that parents with higher
educational levels are esteemed to set higher expectations to their children’s
performance at school and tend to groom their children’s literacy. This maybe because
parents with higher educational levels have the resources and knowledge of
developmental needs to provide stimulating home environments (DiLalla & Lovelace,
1996). Parents’ attitude toward reading also holds an important influence to the child’s
own reading attitudes. Parents or caregivers who read to children, take them to library,
model positive reading behaviors, and encourage children to read increase their child’s
likelihood of becoming good readers. If parents provide these services for their children
and have positive attitudes toward reading, their children should look on reading as a
pleasurable activity, so they read more. The amount of time spent reading with parents
is one of the clearest predictions of early reading achievement (Paris, Wasik, and
Turner, 1991). Furthermore, access to and availability of reading materials at home also
affect the child’s early acquisition of reading skills (Durkin, 1996).
Emergent Literacy
A study among Filipino preschoolers showed children from homes with a print-rich
environment (presence of reading materials, presence of adults who read and write,
adults who interact and read to children, where children are encouraged to read and
write) develop many literacy behaviors: book orientation, book handling, early reading
and writing. This emergent literacy behavior help children to successfully tackle the
demands of beginning reading when they enter school (Pado, et.al, 1990).
Emergent Literacy is the early awareness of the purpose of written language in the
environment of their homes and communities (Pappas, et.al).
B. School Environment
Engaging in early literacy activities should be a positive experience for parents and
children. When such is not the case, stronger significant support is required from the
school and the teachers (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998).
In conceptualizing social and motivational influences in school, of particular
importance would seem to be children’s attitudes toward reading, the teacher-student
relationship, the role of the teacher for reading-rich environment, the reading materials
use in the classroom, classroom design and peer influences.
The list below are Chris Crowe’s (1999) advice to reading teachers which has stood
the test of time.
Help students realize that reading books can be refreshing and rewarding
alternative to TV, movies, shopping, or hanging out.
Help students discover or remember the pleasure of reading.
Allow them to exercise Daniel Pennac’s “Reader’s Bill of Right” whenever
possible
Require and encourage outside elective reading and steer them toward
good books and literature.
Help them connect on what they read, and nudge them to works related to
what they have just read, if they are in the reading rut, nudge them into
something different.
Encourage students to read at other available moments during the day:
while eating lunch, when they have finished class work early, or at various
waiting times during the day.
Read yourself and talk to your students about what you read.
Read some of what they read.
Read aloud in class and give students time to read in class.
Be a library ahead with your students.
Aside from the physical arrangement and resources found in the classroom, class
routines are also helpful in designing a literate classroom environment. Fenlon,
McNabb, & Pidlypchak (2010) state that to make the most of literacy instruction, teacher
and students should follow an established daily routine. Literary practices of the daily
routine should include print, concepts, familiar or self-selected reading, word/letter work
and vocabulary development, guided or structured shared reading, writing for authentic
purposes and interactive read alouds. The said routine also involves a mix of grouping
formats where students have the chances to work cooperatively with the teacher or
other students. During collaborative activities, teachers may make use of the following
strategies:
Manipulative based activities within groups
Open discussion with groups (literacy groups)
Reading games and sequence cards
Tape recordings and book talks
C. Social Environment
Bandura’s social cognitive theory defines environment as the factors that affect a
person’s behavior. There are physical and social environments. Social environment
includes interactions with family members, teachers, and peers. Social learning theories
further help us to understand how people learn (by learning with each other) in a social
context and inform us on how teachers construct active learning communities. Lev
Vygotsky (1962), first stated that we learn through our interactions and communications
with others. He suggested that learning takes place through the interactions children
have with their parents, peers, teachers, and other experts. In his key social processes,
he claimed that learning is enhanced when interacting with a more knowledgeable
other. As part of social-constructivist theory, parents or teachers scaffold or assist
children’s performance by modeling the types of responses to particular situations.
Moreover, in school, teachers can create a learning environment that maximizes the
learner’s ability to interact with each other through discussion, collaboration, and
feedback.
Social-cultural theory strengthens this claim when it also states that without social
interaction with other more knowledgeable agents, cognitive development will not occur.
Indeed, mediation and scaffolding are prerequisite for cognitive development to take
place (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Lantolf & Thorne, 2006). The Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) is a central concept in sociocultural theory that explicates the
important role of teachers as mediators and is at the heart of the concept of scaffolding
(Clark & Graves, 2004; Huong, 2003; Kozulin, 2004; Lantolf & Poehner, 2008; Lantolf &
Thorne, 2006). From the viewpoint of sociocultural theory of learning (Lantolf, 2006;
Remi & Lawrence, 2012), reading is a social skill which requires an active participation
and interaction of the learners involved in it.
Meanwhile, interactions between children and adults are seen as “the primary
medium by which literacy is acquired” (Pianta, 2004,p.175). Interactions with others
around print (Purcell-Gates, 1996), as well as general talk about event not present
(Snow, 1991) have played key roles in children’s literacy development. Interactions
around print can take many forms. The most studied parent/teacher-child interaction
around print involves story-book reading and read aloud.
On the other hand, successful interactions with friends will allow children to gain
confidence (Bryan, et.al, 1998). Contrary to this, social unpopularity, according to most
studies, tends to accompany school failure. Bryan, et.al (1998) added poor achievers
are often ignored or rejected by classmates in extracurricular activities. Students with
reading problems also tend to have problems interacting with others because they
exhibit poor social perception skills such as the inability to be sensitive to social
nuances (what to say, how to behave, how to give and take) and to be aware of how
others interpret behavior. Students with reading problems are unable to accommodate
another person’s point of view because they fail to consider the needs of others thus the
chances for successful interaction are reduced. In other cases, low achieving students
overestimate their own popularity thus, they are unable to recognize their own social
shortcomings and have difficulty relating to peers.
D. Cultural Environment
It has long been recognized that cultural variables influence how children present
themselves , understand the world, and interpret experiences. Indeed, culture plays an
important role in shaping children’s earliest learning opportunities that strongly affect
their ability and their desire to learn. The cultural environment of the child involves the
assemblage of practices and beliefs found in the home and social environment. Luis
Moll (1992) describes these cultural resources as “funds of knowledge” which include
parents’ beliefs about when and how children learn school-related skills, parents’s daily
interaction with their children, and the social rules that guide these interactions.
Parental beliefs
The nature of literacy interactions in the home is a direct reflection of parents’ views
about how children learn to read, write, and acquire other competencies. Parents hold
implicit theories of learning that affect whether and how they attempt to influence the
literacy and learning of their children before they enter formal schooling (Stipek, Milburn,
Galluzzo, and Daniels, 1992). The intentional or unintentional practices at home are
dominantly determined by the parents’ view toward literacy development. For instance,
some parents often consider books as treasured possessions and deliberately kept out
of the reach of children. These parents, it was noted in the study conducted among
Latino mothers in Chicago for instance, do not appear to perceive that their children’s
attempts to scribble or talk as they leaf through books have significance for literacy
development and do not elaborate on these occurrences as a teaching opportunity.
Social Conventions
A growing literature is documenting ways in which children from different cultural
background are exposed to different conversational rules, conventions of displaying
respect, and other patterns of social interaction that have significant effects on the way
children start to acquire literacy. Many researches assert cultural practices and cultural
values are attributed to geographical origin, socioeconomic status, or language. Take for
example learners from families with incomes below the poverty level who are more
concerned with basic survival needs, parents have less energy to devote to their
children’s development. However, this does not hold true to all low income families
because some poor families cherish education and uphold the values of education
because education is seen as an opportunity for social mobility and economic security.
Given the diversity of children’s cultural backgrounds, schools and teachers in
particular should strive to strike a balance between demonstrating respect for cultural
differences. To do this involves understanding how children’s cultural backgrounds
affect the skills, knowledge and expectations that they bring in the school (National
Research Council, 1994).
EMOTIONAL FACTORS
Low-achieving students, particularly those with a long history of failure, often have
accompanying emotional problems that impede learning ( Richek, et.al, 2002). Unless
these emotional problems are resolved, they increase as youngsters move up to
elementary years until they enter adolescence.
EMOTIONAL RESPONSES TO READING PROBLEMS
Every learner is unique hence, no one personality type can describe all low
achieving students, for learners react to learning problems in different ways. These
responses include the tendency of failing readers to exhibit learning block, hostile-
aggressive behavior, learned helplessness, low self-esteem and depression, and
anxiety.
A. Learning Block
If learning has been a painful experience, the students may simply block it (Richek,
et.al, 2002). Doing this keep themselves away from experiencing pain and distress.
Learning block can often be overcome when reading is taught in interesting and
nonthreatening ways and students begin to find pleasure in reading.
B. Hostile-Aggressive Behavior
Pupils with reading problems may become hostile and overly aggressive to
compensate for feelings of inadequacy. Students who appear to be tough, ready to fight,
and show signs of delinquency may be seeking a sense of accomplishment that they fail
to find in school or even at home. Anti-social behavior can be a manifestation of
student’s anger and frustration with academics and with the failure of others to
understand them. Often, such students display less hostility when they are taught in
small groups or individually and when their problems receive earnest attention from
teachers (Richek, et.al, 2002).
C. Learned Helplessness
For some disabled learners, avoiding failure is an important goal. To make sure they
do not fail, they refuse to try. Trying means a stress for them so they avoid stress
through withdrawal and apathetic behavior. The kind of students may become passive
and refuse to complete assignments, participate in class discussions, or read. Teachers
need to encourage them to take risks, reward them for doing so and to make them learn
that certain amount of failure is unavoidable and acceptable part of living. When
instructing students, teachers should tell them what they will be learning and why they
are learning it. In some cases poor achievers cannot accept personal responsibility for
learning even when they are successful. Attribution theory suggests that such students
attribute their success and failure to the teacher who is in charge of the learning
situation (Yasutake & Bryan, 1995). These students need more personal involvement in
the learning situation and need to take responsibility for it.
E. Anxiety
Reading anxiety can be thought of as a type of specific phobia or having an anxiety
producing reaction toward reading. Everson and colleagues (1994) found that anxiety is
related to some reading comprehension detriments. Anxious readers are never sure of
their abilities and are afraid of making mistakes and being reprimanded. Stress clouds
their lives and drains their energy and ability to concentrate on learning. Anxious
students need reassurance that they can learn. Obviously, these students require a lot
of reinforcement and guidance. Their phobia eats away at their self-confidence. They
need a lot of sincere positive feedback and praise in order to move forward.
Over hostility. Some children have built up intense feelings of resentment, and
their angry feelings break out easily so they are generally regarded as “bad” and
are usually punished by the school.
Negative conditioning to reading. The child regards reading with fear, anger,
or dislike. Reading is associated with someone or something already feared or
disliked, such as a grade one teacher walking around the room rapping the
knuckles of a ruler.
Quick discouragement. Some children start off wanting to learn to read but
meet difficulty and quickly give up and stop trying. Such children usually come
to school with marked feelings of inferiority and insecurity. Many of them feel
that their parents do not care for them.
It is important to note however that not all emotional reactions to reading problems do
not fit neatly into any of the categories.
PERSONALITY MALADJUSTMENT AND READING: A CIRCULAR
RELATIONSHIP
Personality Reading
Maladjustment Failure
Reading Personality
Failure Maladjustment
Leeds (2010) notes that the concept of emotional difficulties and reading problems
are associated. Reading difficulty may be a symptom of an underlying emotional
conflict. Conversely, the emotional problem may be caused by the inability to read.
Similar relationship is prevailing between personality maladjustment and reading failure.
No clear evidence can tell whether personality maladjustment is the result of reading
problems or it is the other way around. The only certain thing is that early failure in
reading leads to maladjustment and personal maladjustment in turn prevents further
growth in reading, though both may have their own distinct causes. If the child’s reading
failure is emotional in nature, he or she will have difficulties in other content areas as
well. If the emotional problem was caused by failure in reading, this difficulty can be
reduced when the child learns to read.
SYMPTOMS OF PERSONALITY MALADJUSTMENT
1. TRUST vs. MISTRUST. This is the first psychosocial crisis. During this stage, the
infant is uncertain about the world in which he/she lives in. To solve these feelings of
uncertainty, the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency
of care. If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, he/she will
develop a sense of trust which will carry him/her to other relationships, and he/she will
be able to feel secure even when threatened.
Erikson (1959) posits that success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By
developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a
real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support. Failing to acquire
the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear.
For instance, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and
unreliable, then, the infant will develop a sense of mistrust and will not have confidence
in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events. The infant will carry the
basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety,
heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
2. AUTONOMY vs. SHAME AND DOUBT. (18 months-3 years). Children on this stage
no longer want to depend totally on others. Children begin to assert their independence
by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices
about what they like to wear, to eat, etc. Such skills illustrate a child’s growing sense of
independence and autonomy. Moreover, he states that it is critical that parents allow
their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment
which is tolerant of failure.
For instance, rather than put on a child’s clothes, a supportive parent should have
the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask assistance. Thus, parents
must encourage the child to becoming more independent while at the same time
protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.
A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for
the child but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for
failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training). As stated by Gross (1992), the
aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self0esteem.” Success to this stage will lead
to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their
increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to
survive the world.
3. INITIATIVE vs. GUILT (3-6 years). In this stage children are increasingly expected to
be responsible. This is also the stage where children assert themselves more frequently.
These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. Bee (1992)
illustrates that it is a “time of vigor of action and of behavior that the parents may see as
aggressive.”
Moreover, this period’s primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with
other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the
opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities. Thus if this
tendency is suppressed, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of
guilt. They may feel like nuisance to others and will therefore, remain followers, lacking
in self-initiative.
Usually in this stage, the child will begin to ask many questions as his first thirst for
knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions trivial, a nuisance, or
embarrassing, then the child may have feelings of guilt of being a nuisance. Too much
guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity.
Some feelings of guilt are, of course, necessary otherwise the child would not know how
to exercise self-control or have a conscience.
4. INDUSTRY vs.. INFERIORITY (6-12 years). Children operating at this stage appear
determined to master the tasks that are set before them. They cooperate with other
children toward achieving a common goal. They frequently engage in activities that
allow them to practice skills required by their culture. The childe now feels the need to
win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society, and
begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. The conflict of industry
versus inferiority emerges as a sense that they are inferior if they cannot show that they
are competent and so these children are constantly comparing themselves with their
peers. Success at this stage brings a sense of industry, a good feeling about oneself
and one’s abilities. Failure creates a negative self-image, a sense of inadequacy that
may hinder future learning. Failure, in this sense, may not be real; it can be the inability
to “measure up’ to one’s standards or those of parents, teachers, or siblings. Some
failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Lastly, a balance
between competence and modesty is a necessity to reach the virtue of competence.
5. IDENTITY vs. ROLE CONFUSION (12-18 years). This is a crucial stage in which
children are becoming more independent and begin to look at the future in terms of
career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong in a society
and fit in. This is considered a major development where the child has to learn the roles
he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will reexamine his
identity and try to find out exactly he/she is. The focal point now is the search for
identity. This includes cultural identity as well as personal identity, identity as a member
of a community as well as identity as an individual. The development of identity is linked
with self mastery. Adolescents grapple with the question of who they will become as well
as the question of who they are. They often have a close attachment to their parents,
yet are searching for other associations.
Adolescence is a time for change. Teenagers experiment with various sexual,
occupational, and educational roles as they try to find out who they are and who they
can be. This new sense of self is an alignment of the individual’s sense of self, the
resolutions of crises in the preceding stages, his/her needs, skills, and goals as well as
the demands of adolescence and approaching adulthood. If he/she cannot successfully
integrate his/her psychosocial past, present, and future, he/she will experience role
confusion which involves the individual not being sure about him/herself or hi/her place
in the society.
Also, Bee (1992) presents what happens at the end of this stage is a “reintegrated
sense of self, of what wants to do or be, of one’s appropriate sex role.” Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity that involves being able to commit oneself to
others on the basis of accepting others even when there may be ideological differences.
6. INTIMACY vs. ISOLATION (18-40 years old). This stage occurs in young adulthood.
This happens when an individual begins to share himself more intimately with others.
He or she explores relationships leading toward longer term commitments with
someone other than a family member.
Completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of
commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. On the other hand, avoiding
intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.
7. GENERATIVITY vs. STAGNATION (40-65 years old). During middle adulthood, one
establishes a career, settles down within a relationship, begins his own family, and
develops a sense of being. The person gives back to society through raising children,
being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and
organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, the individual becomes stagnant
and feel unproductive. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.
8. EGO INTEGRITY vs. DESPAIR (65 years and above). As the person grows older and
become senior citizen, he or she tends to slow on productivity and explore life as a
retired person. It is during this time that one contemplates accomplishments and is able
to develop integrity if one sees himself or herself as leading a successful life.
If one sees his or her life as unproductive feels guilty about the past, or feels life
goals were not accomplished, one becomes dissatisfied with life and develops despair,
often leading to depression and hopelessness. On the other hand, success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of wisdom. This enables the person to look back on his life with a
sense of closure and completeness and also accepts death without fear.
SELF-CONCEPT THEORY
What one thinks of himself/herself is his/her self-concept. How an individual views
oneself is a result of resolved past crises, of how others, especially people who are
important to the person, treat his/her feelings of success or failure in the tasks and skills
required in the society and by one’s culture (Hermosa, 2002).
With the interest on self-concept, carl Rogers 91959) believes that the self-concept
has three different components: (1) self-image; (2) self-esteem or self-worth; and (3)
ideal self.
Self image. It is the view of what you have for yourself. This does not necessarily
reflect the reality. Take for instance a person with anorexia who is thin may have a self-
image in which the person believes he is fat. A person’s self-image is strongly
influenced by factors such as parental influences, teachers, friends, media, etc.
Typically, young people describe themselves more in personality traits whereas older
people feel defined to a gretaer extent by their social roles.
Ideal Self. If there is a mismatch between how a person sees him/herself (self-
image) and what he/she would like to be (ideal self), then, this is likely to affect how
much you value yourself (self-worth). A difference that exist between self-image and
ideal self may support Mcleod’s (2008) idea of incongruence. If consistency occurs
between these two stages, congruence exists. Rogers (1959) believes that for a person
to achieve self-actualization one has to be in the state of congruence.
Family, peers, and teachers play a significant role in the formation of a child’s self-
concept. Factors such as the mother’s use of the library, reading materials in the home,
and the father’s occupational level affect the child’s concept of him/herself as a reader
and his/her concept of his/her reading progress.
According to self-concept theory, as explained by Hermosa (2002), children with
feelings of adequacy, self-confidence, and self-reliance tend to be good readers.
Underachieving readers, on the other hand, tend to be immature and to have negative
feelings about themselves, particularly in relation to school success.
Harris (1980) suggests the painful emotional events during early efforts at reading
may turn young learner against reading. After repeated failures, the child may be
challenged by feelings of inferiority, inadequacy, and loss of confidence that result to
disliking reading, aggressive, or withdrawn behavior and emotional and social
maladjustment.
Self-concept and Risk-taking
Moreover, Canfield’s “poker-chip theory” (1975) explains how self-concept
influences the risk-taking behavior of children in the classroom. According to Canfield, a
child with a positive self-concept is like a poker player with plenty of chips while a child
with a negative self-concept has very few chips. More chips mean more confidence to
take risks even if ability is lacking. Few chips mean less confidence to take risks and
very cautious to gamble even if there is enough ability. In a classroom, a child with
positive self-concept can afford to make mistakes. In recitation for instance, this child
will more likely to participate even if he/she is not sure of the answer because there is
no fear of being ridiculed or being thought of as stupid. With a positive self-concept, the
child thinks he/she is smart and a few mistakes will not change his/her classmates or
the teacher’s perception of him/her. On the contrary, the child with a negative self-
concept rarely volunteers or never at all unless he/she is very sure of his/her answer.
One mistake means losing another chip.
Reinforcement Theory
Behaviorist B.F. Skinner in his Operant conditioning states that “an individual’s
behavior is a function of its consequences” (management Study Guide, 2013).
Hence, psychologists have focused more attention on the power of consequences,
rewards, punishment, and removing something unpleasant to change behavior than
any other method. According to reinforcement theory, there are four types of
reinforcement: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, non-reinforcement
and punishment.
Consumable A sticker
A candy
Intrinsic Motivation
Many motivation theorists claim that external reinforcement is not needed for
learning to take place. According to them, people learn best in situations where they
perceive themselves to be learning for their own intrinsic reasons.
According to Ryan and Deci (2000), intrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of
an activity for its inherent satisfaction. When intrinsically motivated, a person is moved
to act for the fun or challenge rather than because of external products, pressures, or
reward.
References:
Burns, Roe, Rose (1999). Teaching Reading in Today’s Elementary Schools.7th Edition.
Hermosa (2002). The Psychology of Reading. University of the Philippines Open
University.
Machado (2007). Early Childhood Experiences in Language Arts - Early Literacy.
National Research Council. Cultural Diversity at Home and Early Education. The
National Academies Press, Washington D.C. 1994.
Richek, M.A., et al. (2002). Reading Problems - Assessment and Teaching Strategies. A
Pearson Education Company, Boston Massachusetts.
Stoodt, B. (1981). Reading Instruction. University of Carolina, Greensboro.
Strang, Ruth (1968). Reading Diagnosis and Remediation. Ontario Institute for Studies
in Education.
Witty, et al. (1996). The Teaching of Reading - A Developmental Process.