LEARNING OBJECTIVES © Compatibility and partial ordering © Set theory relations Principle of inclusion and exclusion © Relations Set theory is the most fundamental concept used in various disciplines, particularly in moderne ematics. Knowledge of set theory is essential to establish the concepts of relations, ordering. m pings and transformations from which the matrix idea follows. Furthermore, sets and mathens Iogic are the basic concepts used in the design of computer and electric circuits. Also, set is bss the axiomatic formulation of probability theory. 2.1.1 Basic Concepts Set Any collection of well-defined objects is called a ‘set’, The objects in a set can be nut people, letters, etc. Any object belonging toa set is called a member or element of that set. A stt8* to be well-defined if it is possible to determine whether any given object is a member of the set. Provide some examples of sets. Example ‘Solution The following are examples of sets: (i) The set of vowels of the alphabet (Gi) The set of all positive integers less than 10 (iii) A collection of rocks iv) The set of people living on the Earth, a | © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 59 Notations Capital letters A, B, C, ..., X, Y, Z, ... will be used to denote sets, Lowercase letters a, b, c, y, 2 «« Will be used to denote the elements, Ifan element x belongs to a set 4, then we write.x € 4, which is read as “x is an element of A”, “x belongs to A” or “x is in A”. If x is not an element of the set 4, then we write x¢ A. The number of members in a set A is denoted by n(4). Description “y A set can be specified in two ways: tabular form and set-builder form. & Tabularform _ Asset can be defined by listing its members. For example, a set containing the mem- bers 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 is generally written as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. The members of the set are separated by commas and enclosed in braces {}. This form of representing a set is called tabular form of a set. The order of the elements in the braces is immaterial. This method of representing a set is not always convenient. Set-builder ferm A set can also be defined by stating the characteristics that its elements must satisfy. For example, let X be the set of all even integers. This can be represented as X= {x/x is an even integer}. This is read as “X’is the set of integer x such that x is even”. Thus, a set can be defined by stating the rule or property. This way of representing a set is called set-builder form of a set. Example 2.2| Represent the sets given in Example 2.1 in either tabular form or set-builder form Solution The sets given in Example 2.1 may be repersented as follows: () X= fa, ¢, i, 0, u} p (ii) X= (1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} (iii)_X4 = {x is a rock} (iv) X= {x/x is a person living on Earth} 7 Null set A set that does not contain any element is called a null set or an empty set and is denoted by «p or {}. [Example 2.3] Give an example of a null set. Solution Consider the following set. A = {x/x is an integer and 2 ZCX {c} c {a,c} WZ and {ce} {a,b,c} 9H CX ' Properties of set inclusion Every set is a subset of itself, that is, for any set A, A < A; set inclusion * therefore, reflexive. Note 2.2 Anempty sct is a subset of every set. Set inclusion is transitive, that is, for any three sets Band C,ifAcBand BoC, then a cC. Proof Let AGBandBCC, then Acc. Letxe A = xe B,sinceACB = xe Csinee BEC Therefore, Ac C Example 2.7| Prove the statement ‘if 4 & B and B C, then 4 c C’, where A, Band C are th sets, with an example. © scanned with OKEN Scannerwhe Sot Theory and Rolations —6t Sobetion How, . Cod , Properswbves Let Vand Y be any two sets, Wis said to be a proper subser of YI Y is a subset of Y e is.at Teast one element in that is not in In other words, a set.’ is a proper subset set PACVE YOUN & XK Symbotioully, itis written as. VEY, () Ve Vis also called a proper inetusion, ii) Proper inclusion is not t (iii) Pooper inclusion is Thus, for any three sets Vy Vand 240 Yand Ye Z, then Vc Z, Example 2.8] Given V= {1.3.5} and Yo (1, 2,3, set of Y? Solution: NS Y, but Ve Y, Therefore, Ve Y. that is a proper subset of Y. . s Vand Yare said to be equal if.N G Yand oN, that is, Y= Yifboth Yand Yhave Equalsets ‘Wo the same members 5, 1.2.4}. Are they equal xeY, » 5} and ¥ [Example 2.9] Given V= {1.2.3.4 Solution Since both Vand Y have the same member {Example 2.10] Given X= (1, 2,3}, Y= (1, 1.2, 3}. Are they equal sets? Solution Clearly Vc Y and ¥ GX. : Yay [Example 2.11 ] Given A= {{1, 2}, 3} and Y= (1, 2,3}. Are they equal sets? Solution Since the members of the set are not same, V4 Y. Note 2.4. Finite and infinite s Vis said to be a finite Nis said to be an infinite Equality of sets is I the number of distinet elements in a set. cet, [the number of elements in a set Vis not fi et. ite or countable then the set ie or uncountable then the set of Wand is denoted by p(X). 7 Power sets ‘The collection of all subsets ofa set V is called the power 2" or P(A), [Example 2.12] Find the power set of a set.¥'= (1, 2,3). Solution The power set of a set is writen as POY) (9. (2) Ch 2h Eh ab Gh Th 3) « Note 2.§ 164 set A has n distinct elements then there are 2" subsets of © scanned with OKEN Scanner62 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science ing sets and indicat xample 2.13] Give another description of the following infinite sets. (i) {elvis an integer and 5 $x$ 12} ii) (2,4, 8.0} Gii) All the countries of the world. Solution (i) {5, 6,7, 8,9, 10, 11, 12}. § finite set. . (ii) os is a positive integer}. It is an infinite set since the number of elements in this set, e which of these , , ince the set contains countable number of elements it jg; uncountable. . Ay (iii) [xis a country of the world). It is a finite set, since the number of elements in this sy is countable. 1 Example 2.14] Which of the following sets are equal: {a, b, a}, {a, a, b}, (b, a} and {a, b}? Solution Since the order and repetition of the elements do not change a set, all the given sets are equal to each other. . . Example 2.15] Find the power set of set (a, {b}}. Solution Let X= {a, {b}}. The power set of X may be written as p(X) = {{a}, {b}, {a,b}, 9}- s used to repersent sets in a simple manner are known as Venn diagrams ‘d to denote relationships between two or more sets. The Venn diagram Venn diagrams The diagram: Venn diagrams may also be use of Xc Yis shown in Fig. 2.1. Figure 2.1 | Representation of X < Y by Venn diagram In Fig. 2.1, the rectangle represents the universal set, while, the sets X and Y are represented by the interior of simple closed curves within the rectangle. Disjoint sets Two sets X and Y are said to be disjoint if there is no common element between the sets, that is, Xand Y are disjoint if no element of X is in Y and no element of ¥ is inX. Example 2.16] Provide some examples of disjoint sets. Solution (i) Let X= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and ¥= {a, b, ¢, d, e}. Then, X and ¥ are disjoint. (ii) Let X= (x)v is a positive integer} and Y= {y/y is a negative integer}. Then, X and Ya" disjoint since there is no common element. a 4 © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 63 The Venn diagram for disjoint sets ¥ and Y is shown in Fig. 2.2. 20 re 2.2 | Representation of disjoint sets X and Y by Venn diagram EXERCISES 2.1. Write the following sets in the set-builder 2.3. Write all the subsets of en (®) {0,1,2) () 11,3,5, Tou} DS ihe () (2,4,6,8, 10} ©) {1,4} (©) f2,¢,i,0, u} 24. X= (1, 2,3, 4), find P(X). 2.2. Write the following sets in tabular form: 2.5, Enumerate the elements in the following sets: (a) {x7 = 16) (a) (re Rp? -5x+6=0} (b) {2\r is an even positive integer less than () fre Rp? +2=0). 15} (© {p?-4=0,x-2=0}. 2.1.2 Operations on Sets Having discussed some introductory concepts of sets, we will now introduce some basic operations on sets, Using these operations, new sets can be constructed by combining the elements of given sets. Union of two sets The union of two sets is defined as the set of all the elements that are members of Set A, set B or both and is denoted by A U B, read as A union B. Symbolically, it is written as A U B = tlre Aorxe B}. [Example 2.17] Given 4 {1,2,3,4,5, a,b} and B= (a,b, c,d, e}, find AUB. Solution AW B={1,2,3,4, 5, 4, b, ¢, d, €}. The Venn diagram for AU Bis given in Fig, 2.3. A and Haare any (wo sets, then A U 2 is the set of points shaded in Fig, 2.3. Figure 2.3 | Representation of A UB by Venn diagram © scanned with OKEN ScannerJia Foundation for Computer Science roperties of union operation Let 4, B and C be any three sets. Then (idempotent property) Gi) AUU=U Gv) AUA =U () ACAUBandBCAUB . (i) AUB=BUA (commutative property) (il) AUB)UC=AUBULO) (associative property) Proof The proofs of some of the properties are given below. (®) Idempotent property: A UA =A It is enough to prove that AUACAandACAUA Letx CAUA = xe Aorxe A = xed * AUVAGCA Letye A = yedoryed = yeAUA * AGAUA From Eqs (2.1) and (2.2), we have AUA=A (vi) Commutative property: 4U B= BUA Letye AUB = yedoryeB = ye Boryed => ye Bud * AUBGBUA Letye BUA = ye Boryed = yedoryeB => yeAUB ¢ BUAGAUB From Eqs (2.3) and (2.4), we have AUB=BUA Figure 2.4 shows the proof of 4 UG p = BUA by Venn di iagram, Se IE Tite ae 4 © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 65 A 8 A B AUB BUA Figure 2.4 | Representation of proof of AU B = B UA by Venn diagram From Fig. 2.4,A UB=BUA. (vii) Associative property: (4 UB) U C=4U(BUC) It is enough to prove that (AUB) UCCAU (BUC) and dA UBUC)C(AUB)UC Letxe (AUB)UC = xe (AUB)orxe C = (xe Aorxe B)orxe C = xe Aor(xe Borxe C) = xe Aorxe (BUC) = xe AU(BUC) « (AUB)UCCAUBULO) 5) Letye AU(BUC) = yeAorye BUC) = ye Adore Borye C) = (eAorye B)orye C = ye AUB)orye C = ye (AUB)UC + AUBUC)C(AUB)UC Hence, from Eqs (2.5) and (2.6), we have (AUB)UC=AU(BUC) . Figure 2.5 shows the proof of (A U B) U C= U (BU ©) by Venn diagram. (2.6) TAuB)ue on w © scanned with OKEN Scanner66 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science a ra A g BUC Av(BuC) Gi) (wv) Figure 2.5 | Representation of proof of (AUB) UC = AU (B UC) by Venn diagram From Fig. 2.5 (ii) and (iv), we have (AUB)UC=AUBUC) Similarly, we can prove the other results. ‘Intersection of two sets The intersection of any two sets A and B is the set consisting of all elements that belong to both A and B and is denoted by A 7 B, read as A intersection B. Symbolic: it is written as A A B= {x/x € A andxe B). Example 2.18 | Given A = {a, b, c, de, f, g, h} and B= {a, d, f, i, j}, then find A 4 B. Solution A B= {a,d, f}. Figure 2.6 shows the Venn diagram of the set A 7 B. 7] A 8 AnB Figure 2.6 | Representation of the set Am B by Venn diagram IfA and B are two sets, then 4 B is the set of points shaded in Fig, 2.6. Example 2.19] Given A = {x/x is an integer and 1 ye dorye B,sinceeAcB = yedUB + BS(UB) 8) From Eqs (2.7) and (2.8), we have Conversely, assume that A UB = B, We need to prove that dc B. Let xe A = xeAorre B (sinceAUB=B) =>xeB “AGB Hence the result. Properties of intersection operation Let 4, B and C be three sets. Then () Ana=A Gi) A U=A, where Uis the universal set Gi) ANg=o@ WW) AN Bo Aad ANBGB ™ ANB=BOA (commutative property) Wi) An BACHAN@waC) (associative property) on of sets is associative, that i Band Care any theee sets, then Proof Wis chough to prove that ANB ACCANBAC IMAABACG MAB AC © scanned with OKEN Scanner68 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science Let re (AA B)AC = xe (AA B)andxe C = (we Aandye B)andxe C = xed and (ve Bandxe C) => xe Aand(ve BNC) = xedAnBOQ 2 ANB)ACEAN(BAC) @ Let ye AN(BNO) = ye dandye BAO = ye Aand(ve Bandye © =} (ve Aandye B)andye C = ye (ANB)andye C = ye (nB)ac 2 AABNOCUNBAC Qu From Eqs (2.9) and (2.10), we have AnB)nC=AN BAO) Figure 2.7 shows the proof of (4 0B) AQ C= A.A (BA C) with the help of a Venn diagrain. 1 A ° > ° ‘AB TAB) AC o wi) > > 8B 8 (Ac) AA(BAC) iy w | Representation of proof of (AB) 1 C = A (BAC) using a Venn diagram From Fig. 2.7 (ii) and (iv), we have UAB ACHAABAC) © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 69 _, A collection of sets is called a disjoint collection if every pair of sets in the int, The elements of a disjoint collection are called mutually disjoint. Mutually collection 22| IfX= {a,b}, {e}}, Y= {{a}, {b, c}) and Z= {{a, b, c}} then show that X, Y and Zave mutually disjoint, Solution XAY=QYAZ=gandXaz=o 7 & Xi Vand Zare mutually disjoint, a “ Difference of two sets The difference of any two sets A and B is the set of elements that belong to 4 but not to B. It is denoted by A~B and is read as ‘A difference B’. That is, A-B= {xv A andy ¢ BY hve A and (x € B)} A-Bis also denoted by A\B or A~B. It is also called the relative complement of B in A. : Example 2.23] Ifa = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B = (3, 5, 7, 9}, then find A~B and B—A. = (1,2, 4, 6} {7, 9} 5 Solution A- Be Example 2.24] If A = {a, b, c} and B= {d, e}, then find A~B and B—A. Solution A-B= {a,b, ¢} and B-A = {d, ¢). Figure 2.8 shows the Venn diagram for A ~B and B— A. U u A 8 A 8 A-B B-A Figure 2.6 | Representation of A~B and B ~A using a Venn diagram IfA and B are any two sets, then A-B and B-A are the sets of points in the shaded regions in Fig, . aoe ofaset Let Ube the universal set. For any set A, U-d is called the absolute complement of A. The absolute complement of a set 4 is also known as the complement of A and is denoted by ~A, Aor A). [Example 2.25] ar U2! and A= (1.345, oJ then fad AS Solution y © scanned with OKEN Scanner70 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science Figure 2.9 shows the Venn diagram of the set A°. Figure 2.9 | Representation of the set A° using a Venn diagram Propérties of complement (i) The union of any set A and its complement 4! is the universal set, that is, A U.A'=U. (ii) The intersection of any set 4 and its complement 4' is the null set, that is, A A.A! =9. (ii) The complement of the universal set is the null set, that is, U! = 9. (iv) The complement of the null set is the universal set, that is, g! = U. (v) The complement of the complement of a set 4 is the set A itself, that is, (4')' =A. (i) AUB) =4'nBt (iil) (40B)'=A' UB! De Morgan’s laws For any two sets A and B (i) (4UB)=4'aB! Gi) (408) =A! UB! Proof (i) Letxe (AUB)! @x€AUB @ x¢AandxeB @ xe A! andxes! @ xe dias! Thus, (4 U.B)' = 4'9 Bt (ii) Letye (AB)! @ yeAnB © ye AoryeB @ yeAloryeB! ye Abus! Thus, (AB) = Alp! Figure 2.10 shows the proof of De Morgan's laws with the help of Venn diagrams. © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 71 Alns* ” Fig [Figure 2.10 | Respresentation of proof of De Morgan's laws using Venn diagrams. From Fig. 2.10 (ii) and (v), we have (4 UB)! = A! mB. Similarly, we can prove the second part. Distributive laws For any three sets A, B and C fi) AU(BAC (i) AN(BUC) Proof ) AGBAC)=(AUB)A(AUC) Itis enough to prove that AYBAQSAUB)A(AUC) and (AU BYN(AUC)CAU(BOC) Letxe AU(BAC) 9 re Aorre (BAC) © scanned with OKEN Scanner(y€ Amd FE Awd Aorye B) ye Amy EAE) YEA-UCB) - © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 73 2 A-BCA-(4N8) (14) From Eqs (2.13) and (2.14), we have A-(ANB)=4-B n Properties of the difference operation Let 4, B and C be any three sets and Ube the universal set. Then, @4 s (i) 4- Reflexive Gi) 4- Bers ate) Gv) 4- Segmamertte @) 4- J (i) 4- Gig? (i) 4- Cyr) Proof The proofs of some of the properties are given below. (i) Letxe A-B @ xeAandxe B @ xe dandre B! @xeAns' » A-B=AQB! (vi) A~B=A if and only ifANB=@ Let us assume that 4 — B= A. We have to prove A B= 6. Let xe A = xe 4-B,sinceA-B=A = xe AandxeB = xeB .xeASxeB Hence, AM B=9 Conversely, let A > B = 6. We have to prove A - B= 4. Let xe A=>xe B, sinceANB=9 = xed andxeB = xeA-B : ACA-B Similarly, 4- BCA A-B=A. Example 2.27] Show that (i) A~B=AnB! (i) ACB B' ca! Solution (i) Let xe A-B xe AandxeB @ xe Aandxe B! © scanned with OKEN Scanner74 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science exe AB! s A~B=AQB' (ii) Assume that A cB. We have to prove that B'c A’. Let xe B! >x€B = xed, sineACB = xed! © BEcAl Now, assume that B' c A!, We have to prove Ac B. Let xe A => xed! = x B', since B'c A! =>xeB ACB Hence, Ac Be B'c A! Symmetric difference of two sets Let A and B be any two sets. The symmetric difference of A andé is the set consisting of all the elements that belong to A or B, but not to both A and B. It is denoted y A@B,AABor A+B. Thatis, A+B= {x\(x¢ Aandxe B)or(x¢ Bandx¢ A)}=(4—B)U(B-A) +B)+(B+O). Solution A+B={1,3,4} B+ C= {1, 2,4, 5, 6) A+B+C=(4+B)+C= (1,3, 5,6} (4+ B)+ (B+ C) = {2, 3, 5, 6} Figure 2.11 shows the Venn diagram of 4 + B. 4 BU A+B Figure 2.11 | Representation of A + B using a Venn diagram If Wand B are any two sets, then A + B is the set of points shaded in Fig. 2.11. ‘operties of symmetric difference ‘If A and B are any two sets, then ()AtAng (i) At mA Gil) At Be Bad (iv) AY B= (AGB) (ANB) wv Example 2.28 | If A= {2,3, 4}, B= {1,2} and C= {4, 5, 6}, then find A+B, B+C,A+B+Cand( © scanned with OKEN ScannerSot Theory and Relations 75 Proof () AtA=(A-A)U(A-A) =ouo =o (i) A+ $= (4-9) U (GA) =AUO =A (ii) A+B = (A~B) U (B-A) = (B-A) U (A-B) = (B+A) (iv) AUB)-(ANB)=(AUB)N(ANB)' (ince X-¥=X 0 ¥') = Ava)n lus) = LAVBNAT AGB) OB!) by distributive property) (ANA) U Boal naeansy) (by distributive property) ANB')UBOA), since A OA (A-B)U(B-A) =At+B 2.1.3 Basic Set Identities Some important set identities are discussed as follows: ‘* Idempotent laws: For any set A, AU A=Aand A.A =A. © Commutative laws: For any two sets A and B, AUB=BUA and ANB= BOA. © Associative laws: For any three sets A, B and C, (AU B)U C= AU (BUC) and (NB)NC=AN(BNO). © Distributive laws: For any three sets A, B and C, A U (BC) = (AUB) A (AU C) and ANBUO=ANBYUNC). tAnd=Q * Absorption laws: For any two sets A and B, AU (AM he =Aand AM(AUB)& A. ' * De Morgan's laws: For any two sets A and B, (AUB)! = A! a Bland (AB)! = A! UB AN nha AC! (by the definition of difference) =AN(B' AC!) (by associative laws) © scanned with OKEN Scanner76 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science =AA(BUC)! (by De Morgan’s laws) =A-(BUC)! (by the definition of difference) Example 2.30] Show that (4 —B)- C=(A-B) U(ANC) Solution A—(B-C)=A~(BOC') (by the definition of difference) =AN(BOC!)' (by the definition of difference) =AQ(B'UC) (by De Morgan’s laws) =(ANB)U(ANC) (by distributive laws) =(A-B)UANO) ' Example 2.31 | If AU B=A UG, then is it necessary that B = C? Explain. Solution If AU B=AUC, then it is not necessary that B = C. For example, take 4 = (1, 2,3, 4, 5,6) B= (3, 4,7, 8} and C= {1, 2, 3, 7, 8}. Then A UB = {1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} AUC={I,2,3, 4,5, 6,7, 8} ButB¥C ' Example 2.32 | If4 UB=AU Cand A B= 40 C, then prove that B= C. Solution LetAUB=AUCandANB=ANC NowAUB=AUC = BO(AUB)=BA(AUC) (25, LHS. =BO(4UB) i =B, since Bc (AUB) (2.6, RHS. =BN(AUC) (BNA)U(BAC) (by distributive laws) =(ANB)UBOC) (by commutative laws) =(ANQUBNC) (sinceANB=ANC) =(AUB)OC (by distributive laws) =AUOQNC (since AUB=AUCO) =C [since CC(AUO)] aur Hence, from Eqs (2.16) and (2.17), we have B = C. ' ‘Example 2.33 | Show that A (B-C)=AAC. Solution (ANB)-(ANC)=(ANB)A(ANC)! (by the definition of difference) =AOB) OA UC!) (by De Morgan’s laws) AOBOA)AOBAC!) (by distributive laws) BOM AN VAOBOC) (by as OB GAOBAC (since Arr Al @ @) PIAOBAC (since POH py AOBAC (since pon= x) © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 77 =An(BNC) =AN(B-C) Thus, (40 B)- (AN C)= 408-0) Example 2.34 | If A, B and C are any three sets, then prove that (A-B)N(4-C) Solution (i) AU (B-A)=AU(BOA) (since B-A=BOA') =(AUB)O(AVA') (by distributive law) =(AUB)AU (since AU A' =U) =AUB (since XA U=X) (i) A-BUOQ=ANBLC) (since X-Y=X0 ¥') =AQ(B'NC') (by De Morgan’s law) sAnB'ac (A-B)A(A-C)=(ANBYA(ANC) (since X-¥=X0 ¥') * =AnBinc! From Eqs (2.18) and (2.19), we have 4-@UC=(A-B) (4-0) Example 2.35] Show that A U (B—C) = (A UB) ~ (CA) Solution AU(B-C)=AU(BAC!) (since B~C=BOC') =(AUB)A(AUC!) (by distributive law) =(AUB)O (4) UC) (since (4!)' = A) =(4UB)A(4'AC)! (by De Morgan's law) =(AUB)A(COA})! (by commutative law) =(4UB)n(C-A)! =(4UB)-(C-A) Note 2.6 Union is not distributive over difference, that is, A U (BC) # (AU B)=(AUC), —_——________ EXERCISES 2.6. Prove the distributive laws of union and 2.8, Prove absorption laws, intersection by using Venn diagram. 2.9. Draw a Venn dingram to illustrate 2.7. Find BUC (4) from the following sets: nba 2.10, Using a Venn di ALN 5b dg” (12,4, ds” BT nec Be (2,4) ands (1,2, 3} (2.18) (2.19) © scanned with OKEN Scanner78 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science » PRINCIPLE OF INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION How many elements are there in the union of two finite sets? When two tasks can be done at the x, time, to count the number of ways in which any one of the tasks can be done, we add the numb, \Wways of doing each of the two tasks and then subtract the number of ways of doing both tasks, technique is called the principle of inclusion and exclusion. Principle Let Aand B be any two finite sets. Then the number of elements in the union of the two, ‘A and B is the sum of the number of eléments in the sets minus the number of clements in i, intersection, that is, | U B|=|A| + |B|—-|4 OBI : Example 2.36] Among 60 students in a class, 45 passed in the first-semester examinations ang: passed in the second-semester examinations. If 12 did not pass in either semeg, how many passed in both semesters? Solution Let A represent the set of students who passed in the first-semester examinations an represent the set of students who passed in the second-semester examinations. Then, [4] = 45 and |B|=; Given that 12 students did not pass in either semester, we can write ay Mn Bl=12 4 60 — 12 = 48 students have passed in either the first or the second semester or both => 4 UB|=48 We know that |A U | =|4| + [B|-|4 0 BI, by the principle of inclusion and exclusion. A 8:4 Figure 2.12] Venn diagram representation for Example 2.36 48 = 45 +30-[4 Bl An B= 45 + 30-48 =27 Hence, the number of students who passed in both the semesters is 27 (shaded portion in Fig. 2.!! 1 [Example 2.37 | How many positive integers not exceeding 2000 are divisible by 7 or 117 Solution Let Abe the set of positive integers not exceeding 2000 that are divisible by 7 and B be“ set of positive integers not exceeding 2000 that are divisible by 11. Then, A U Bis the set of po integers not exceeding 2000 that are divisible by 7 or 11. A 7 B is the set of positive integ exceeding 2000 that are divisible by 7 and 11. J © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 79 £ 2000| = (A =181 Bi | Il By the principle of inclusion and exclusion, we have UB =14] + B|- AB 85 + 181-25 =441 = Thus, the number of positive integers not exceeding 2000 that are divisible by 7 or 11 is 441. = [Example 2.38 | In a class of 50 students, 20 students play football and 16 students play hockey. It is found that 10 students play both the games. Find the number of students who play neither. Solution Let A represent the set of students playing football and B represent the set of students playing hockey. Therefore, A > B represents the set of students playing both the games, Given and | B|= 10 By the principle of inclusion and exclusion, we have UuBl= [Al+|Bl-l4 Bl ‘ = 20+ 16-10 = 26 Thus, the number of students who play either football or hockey is 26. Total strength of the class = 50 Thus, number of students who play neither hockey nor football = 50-26 = 24 2 Resuli2.2 If, B and C are any three sets, then AYBUC|= lA) +B) +1] B|-M + BNO +nBnc| Proof We know by the principle of inclusion and exclusion that AvB\=\Al+|B|-nB| AVBUC=AU BUG) =| + BUG -lAn (BU C),, by Eq. (2.20) IA| + |B] #1C] = |B A Cl =A BYU (A C)), by distributive law and Eq. (2.20) (2.20) © scanned with OKEN Scanner80 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science AAAI MCE IBA CL MEO BE ELEAC ODOM ACH Ay 220) f = HEEB HOS MAB BACs MaAC+ habac ieneral form of the principle ¢ and exelusion Waly dys soos ae any finite s Moduuddes Sid VY lead Yo badd oto" adnan, line staan Isteyatsn [Example 2.39 | Give a formuta for the number of elements in the union of four s Solution Let « sand ly be the given four finite sets, Then, by the principle of inclusion exclusion, we have My sD HD GT EGE ed = HU, 0 ela = fel eal = 1 ll = Ht 0d = Hac TAA Ly A gL gy ght lg lgl gh enol [Example 2.40] survey of 260 television viewers produced the following information: 64 va ~ sports, S8 watch films, 4 wateh news, 28 watch both sports and films, 26 watch bt sports wate both films and news items and 14 are interested ini the thee aire not interested in any of these thr types? How many people in the survey are interested in secing only news items? Solution Consider the Venn diagram given in Figure 2.13] Representation of Example 2.40 by Venn diagram Let § represent the set of people who watch sports items, F represent the set of people whe films and N represent the set of people who sce news items. Then IS1= 64, JF = S8, IM = 94, [S89 F]= 28, ISON = 26, [FO M = 22, SAFO N= I Number of people interested in any of these three types = [SU FU MI ‘Therefore, by the principle of inclusion and exclusion, we have ISO FUOM= |S FEE IMS F-SONFAN +A FON = 64+ 58494 ~ 28-26-22 4 14 = 230-76 = 154 © scanned with OKEN ScannerSot Thoory and Rolations #1 Hence, the number of people in the survey not interested in any of these three typ elu -ISUFUM , 260 = 154 = 106 Number of people interested in seeing only news items and filo = |FANT= 18.0 FO NI (see Big, 2.13) ani =8 Number of people interested in seeing ont =SAM-SAFAM (ee 3) 6-14 = 12 Number of people inter N= 12- 14-8, from 94-34 0 8 Example 2.41 | A total of 1, 2. French and 114 have taken a course in R both Spanish and French, 25 have taken courses in both Spanish and Russian and 12 have taken courses in both French and Russian, If 2,092 students have taken at least one of Spanish, French and Russian egurses, how many students have taken a languages? ports and news items (ed in secing only news item rse in Spanish, 879 have taken a course in jan. Further, 100 have taken courses in course in all thre Solution Let A be the set of students who have taken a course in Spanish, # be the set of students who have taken a course in French and C be the set of students who have taken a course in Russian, Then LAl= 1,232, [B] = 879, [C= 114, [4.0 BI = 100, [4.9 C1= 25, [B.C] 12, [AU BUC» 2,092 By the principle of inclusion and exclusion, we have HUBUCE=lA| +B] 4 (C]- [4 A BI- [BAC +A BOG = 2.092 = +879 + 114 = 100 = 25 = 12+ AN BAC] = ld Bad =2,092-2,088 4 Thus, the number of students who have taken a course in Spanish, French and Russian is Example 2 42 | Show by a Venn diagram that the following data is wrong, Out of 1,000 students, it was reported that 750 drove cars, 500 rode bicycles and 200 drove both ears and bicycl vot represent the set af eardriving stents Solution and aed Bute 2-13 depicts A > B for Example f Present the set of bicycle-riding, students, ive By Al 750, i= 500 and [a > B= 200 “Principle of inclusion and exelusion, we have © scanned with OKEN Scanner82 A Figure 2.14 MvuBl (4) + [BI-|4 BI = 750 + 500 — 200 = 1,050. Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science 8 7] Representation of A © B for Example 2.42 using Venn diagram If the data were correct then 1,000 = 1,050, which is absurd. Hence, the data is not correct. 20. 2.12. 2.13. 2.14. 215. EXERCISES A discrete mathematics class has 25 students majoring in computer science, 13 students majoring in mathematics and 8 joint mathematics and computer science majors. How many students are there in this class if every student is majoring in mathematics, computer science or both mathematics and computer science? Among 50 students in a class, 26 passed in the first semester and 21 passed in the second semester examinations. If 17 did not pass in either semester, how many passed in both semesters? Suppose there are 1,807 freshmen in a school. Of these, 453 are taking a course in computer science, 567 are taking a course in mathematics and 299 are taking courses in both computer science and mathematics. How many freshmen are not taking a course either in computer science or in mathematics? Ina survey of 100 students, it was found that 40 studied mathematics, 64 studied physics, 35 studied chemistry, 1 studied all the three subjects, 25 studied mathematics and physics, 3 studied mathematics and chemistry and 20 studied physics and chemistry. Find the number of students who studied chemistry only and the number of students who studied none of these subjects. A survey of 500 television viewers produced the following information: 285 watch football, 2.16. 2.17. 2.18. 195 watch hockey, 115 watch basketbal watch football and basketball, 70 watch | ball and hockey, 50 watch hockey basketball and 50 do not watch any of thet sports. How many people in the survey w all the three sports and how many pe watch exactly one of the three sports? Ina survey of college students, it was fo that 40% use their own books, 50% library books, 30% use borrowed books,? use both their own books and library bo 15% use their own books and bor: books, 10% use library books and borro books and 4% use their own books, lib: books and borrowed books. Calculate percentage of students who do not use ab atall. There are 2,504 computer science studeat a school. Of these, 1,876 have taken a cot in Pascal, 999 have taken a course in For and 345 have taken a course in C. Furthes! have taken courses in both Pascal and Fott 231 have taken courses in both Fortran a and 290 have taken courses in both Pascal! C. If 189 of these students have taken cour in Fortran, Pascal and C, how many of 2,504 students have not taken a course it! of these three programming languages? Find the number of positive integers ' exceeding 100 that are divisible by 5 ot © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 83 22.1 Applications of Inclusion and Exclusion Principle ion and exclusion exists that can be used to solve prob- ro! # Set that have none of m properties Py, Pay... set containing the elements that have property P,. The number of elements with all & Pray Pry --» Pg will be denoted by N(P,, Pz, ..., Pr). bese in terms of sets, we have Pity Pay oon Pa) ents with none of the properties P,, P,, ...., P, is denoted by N=(A! PL..P!) ‘ber of elements in the set is denoted by N, then (8 8..P!) = N-[x,0%,U.1%,|- ple of inclusion and exclusion, we have MAP, Example 243 Determine the number of primes not exceeding 100 and not divisible by 2, 3, 5 or 7. Solution Let P, be the property that an integer is divisible by 2 P, be the property that an integer is divisible by 3 P, be the property that an integer is divisible by 5 P, be the property that an integer is divisible by 7 ‘Thus, the number of positive integers not exceeding 100 that are not divisible by 2, 3, 5, 7 is (AAP) =N-N (APRA) <99~[N(P;) + NPs) + N(P3) + MP4) — N(P\P2) — (P,P) ~N(P;Pe) ~ N(PaP) ~ N(P Pa) ~ N(P3Ps) + N(P{PaP3) + NOP PoP) + N(PP,P,) + NPaPaP,)—NPLPPSPy)} Ho po -pae pow oe oe po fol oo || 100 | 100 | st l7 = 99 [100] | 2] 2.3 42.5) 2.7] }3.5}° [3.71 [5.7] 23.5] [2.3.7 ~ {200 _| 100 |, |_100 2.5.7] |3.5.7| |2.3.5.7 22-80-33 -20 144 164 1047464442-3-2-1-040 Peng || ha ‘he number of integers not exceeding 100 that are divisible by none of 2, 3, 5, 7 is 21. “the number of prime numbers not exceeding, 100 is m4 M(H An rh) 442) "25 © scanned with OKEN ScannerP11 Foundation for Computer S Yenwoe 84, Mathemation fe where Vy Vs ad Vy ane foos VEN tA STUN Ys dlys dank yse jfxample 244 | Now many solubons ¢ 7 ne swith Jysion to solve the problent jaf inclusion: and exc! . aul 2 tepresent the pry, Solurion Lotus use the principle OF ine clusion Let Py represent the property > SPs represent the property > 6. N The number of solutions satisfying the inequalities Vy 5 4X5 and AS ois GH Pi Ae) NOP yPd) Neen ered ened NOP where Nis the total number of solutions = CG + T= TDs and is expressed as CQnt r= 1): Ps) is the number of solutions with Y= 4 CEETHL D&E COT 36 N(Py) is the number of solutions with Ys = 5 CB 4G= 1.6) = C80)" 28 N(Py) is the number of solutions with Vy 2 7 HCB HALA CHAE IS N(P,P9) is the number of solution vary MEY NOEL where C represents combing, CUD © 6 =! N(PyPy) is the number of solution: N(PsPy) is the number of N(PyP:P4) is the number of solutions with Xy 24, N (Pi PL Pl) = 78-36 IS464140-056 which is the required solution. Example 2.45 | Determine the number of p\ divisible by 2, 3 or 5 but is divi 2A and Ay 27 lutions with Vy 2S and.Xy2 790 y2Sand.Yy27"0 Hen itive integers m, Where LS nS 2000 and 1 ist ible by 7. , Solution Let P, be the property that is divisible by 2, P be the property that n is di be the property that n is divisible by 5 and P, be the property that » is divisible by 7 Now, number of positive integers », where | $n $ 2,000, that are divisible by 2, 3 and 5is N (P| P}P3)=N=-N(P Py Ps) -[P,UP,U Py 000 —[1Pi] + [Pal + [Pal =P, Pal = [Py Pal = [P2Pal + [Pp P2Pall 2,000] KI 2,000 HI 2,000} iF px" _f]2,000/], []2,000| 2 3 5 23 2s ("Fas UI" 2,000 — 1,000 — 666 ~ 400 + 333 + 200 + 133 = 66 = 2,000 ~ 1,466 = 534 sible by ! 000 — | a J © scanned with OKEN Scannermo) Ok Set Theory and Relations 8§ umber of positive integers n, 1 $m $2,000, that are divisible by 7 7 visible by 7 is algo. MP) . MA) 15 Hace, HE number of positive integers n, 1 . Ix and y are any two real that (x,y) €7- Thus, the relation > is numbers and x >} Solas ‘olution The relation “greater than” "umbers such that x > y, then We say 2.20) > = {(x, ye and y are real ® ‘Eample 2.47 | Represent the relation “father to child” in set-builder form. represents the set of be denoted by a set F such her is the NAME of the father and the s form as Soluii ion Thi ae 1 relation “father to his child” can { econd ment ordered pai Crh ali which the ist member is the name | The relation can be written in set-builder F= {(x,y)}v is the father of vy " © scanned with OKEN Scanner86 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science Example 2.48 | Give an example of a relation. Solution The set S= {(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6), (a, 7), John, b), (¢, d)j is an example of a relation Example 2.49 | Give an example of a relation for a set of real numbers. Solution Let R denote the set of real numbers. Then, Q= {07 ,y)lv € R} defines a relation, Example 2.50 | Define a relation between two sets A = {5, 6, 7} and B= {x,y}. Solution fA = {5,6,7} and B= (x, y}, then the subset R= {(5, x), (5, ¥)s (6, )s (6, y)}i8.a rea, from A to B. ' 2.3.1 Domain and Range of a Relation Let S'be a binary relation. The domain of the relation $ is defined as the set of all first elements of, ordered pairs that belong to S and is denoted by D or D(S). Thus, —D(S) = {x|(4y) ((x, y) € S)} The range of the relation $ is defined as the set of all the second elements of the ordered pairs thy belong to S and is denoted by R or R (5). Thus, R (S) = {y|(3x) ( y) € S)} Example 2.51 | Consider the relation $= {(1,2), (3, 4), (a, ), (p, q)}. ind the domain and range ofS Solution Given S= {(1, 2), (3, 4), (at), (p, q)}. The domain of $ is written as D(S) = (1,3, oni ‘The range of S is written as R(S) = {2, 4, t, q} Note 2.7 © Arelation is a subset of A x B, where A and B are any two sets, In other words, if A and Bar any two sets, then f (the cartesian product, A x B) defines a relation S. * For any relation S, D(S) cA and R(S) ¢ B. © Any relation in A is a subset of Ax A. © The set A xA itself defines a relation in A and is called a universal relation in A. © The empty set is also a subset of A x A and is called void relation in A. 2.3.2 Operations on Relation If Rand S are any two relations, then (R U S) defines a relation such that x (RUS) y @ x Ry orx Sy Similarly, x(R 7S) y € x Ry and x Sy x (R~S) ye x Ry and x fy and x(-Ryyeox Ky Let P= {(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3)} and = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (4, 2)}. Find PU QO, po DP), D(Q), D(P'G Q), R(P), R(Q) and R(P GQ), Show that D(P.U Q) = D(P)G DQ) and RPO) CRIP) A RQ). Solution P= (1,2), (2,4), (3, 3)} 1 © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 87 Q= {(1, 3), (2, 4), (4, 2)} PUO=X(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3) (4, 2)) POO={2,4)} 1,2, 3} D(Q = (2,3, 4} D(PUQ)= {1, 2, 3, 4} (2.32) DP) YDO)={1,2, 3, 4) (2.24) ‘Therefore, from Eqs (2.3) and (2.4), we have DPV O)=D(P)UDO) Also, R(P) > R(Q) = {2, 3, 4} RPO Q)= {4} Clearly, {4} < {2, 3, 4} RPAQERP)ARO) Hence the result. fn [Example 2.53 ] What is the range of the relation S= {(x, x°)|x€ N) and T= {(x, 2x)|x € N}, where N= {0, 1, 2, ....}? Find SU Tand $7. Solution $= {(x, x*)|x € N} where N= {0, 1,2, ...} = S= ((0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), 3, 9), (4, 16), ..} and T= {(x, 2x)[x © N} where N= {0, 1, 2, T= {(0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 4), G, 6), (4, 8) SUT= {(, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2) (2,4), B, 6), B, 9). (4, 8). =} SOT= ((,0), 2,4) " (i) Let X= (1, 2, 3, 4}. Given R= {(x, yee Xandy € Yand ((x—y) is an integral non-zero multiple of 2} ; ‘S= {(x,y) bre Xandy € Yand (xy) is an integral non-zero multiple of 3} Find RU Sand RS. Gi) X= (1, 2,3, ....}, then what is RO S for R and S as defined in (i)? Solution x= (1,2,3, 4} R= {(1, 3), (3, 1), (25.4), (4, 2)} S={(1, 4), (4, 1)) 4(1, 3), (3, 1), (2, 4), (4, 2), (Us 4). (4 1) ° Hx, y)he © X and (xy) isa non-zero multiple of 6)) © scanned with OKEN Scanner88 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science ion “I ”” and D denote the relation «3: fe 2.55 | Let L denote the relation “less than or equal to” an 10 Example where xDy means ‘x divides y’. Both L and D are defined on the set (1,2, 3, A Land Das sets and find L 0 D. {1, 2,3, 6} (C1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), CL, 6), 2, 2), 2, 3)s (2, 6), 3; 3), B, 6), (6, 6), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2, 6), (3, 3), (3, 6), (6, 6)} Solution Let LOD= (1, 1), (1,2), (1, 3), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2, 6), G, 3), B, 6), (6, 6)} EXERCISES 2.22 , Let R be the relation from X= {2, 3, 4, 5} to Y= (@) write R as a set of ordered pairs, 3, 6, 7, 10}, which is defined by ‘x divides y”. (b) find the domain and range of R, Then 2.25 Let R be the set of real numbers. Consige, (2) write R as a set of ordered pairs, relations in which x * y means xy. (b) find the range and domain of R. Let R,={(e,y)IG9) € RxRandx* 21) 2.23 Let R be the relation in X = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6) R= (GY), y) © RX Rand2+y25 defined by xRy € |x — y] is divisible by 3. : Then, write R as a subset of A x A. R= {YI y) € RXR and x=y, foreveryx,y eX. [Example 2.61 | Give an example of a relation that is both symmetric and antisymmetric. Solution Let R be the set of all real numbers. The relation of equality in R is both symmetric and Antisymmetric. It is also reflexive and transitive. a [Example 2.62 Dixgan example of a relation that is irreflexive and transitive. Solution Let R be the set of all real numbers. The relations > and < in R are both irreflexive and transitive, a [Example 2.63 | Give an example of a relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive. —ee | Solution Let. X be the collection of the subsets of a universal set. The relation of inclusion in X is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive. 0 oa / Example 2,64 ] Give an example of a relation that is irreflexive, antisymmetric and transitive. [Example 2.64 | Solution Let X be the collection of the subsets of a universal set. The relation of proper inclusion in X is irreflexive, antisymmetric and transitive. 2 [Example 2g] . (Example 2,65 | Given, $= (1, 2, «+.» 10) and a relation R on S where R= ((x,))}v Ey 10}, What are the properties of the relation R? © scanned with OKEN Scanner90 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science Solution R= {(1, 9), (2, 8), (3, 7), (4, 6), (5, 5) (6, 4), (7, 3), (8, 2), 9, D} 2.26 227 2.28 2.29 2.30 231 2.32 (i) For any xe Xand (x, x) ¢ R: Here, le X but(1, l)é R => the relation 2 is not reflexive, but it is irreflexive. (i) (1, 9e RIVER (2,8)ER=>(1, NER Hence, if (x, y) € R, then (y, x) eR for any x, y €X. = the relation R is symmetric, but it is not antisymmetric. Gii) (1, )¢ Rand, 1)eR => (DER Thus, if @ y) € Rand (y, 2) © R, then (x, 2) € R. => The relation R is not transitive, Hence, R is irreflexive and symmetric, EXERCISES Give an example of a relation that is not reflex- ive, not symmetric and not transitive. Give an example of a relation that is reflexive, but neither symmetric nor transitive, Give an example of relation that is symmetric, but neither reflexive nor transitive, Give an example of a relation that is transitive, but neither reflexive nor symmetric, Give an example of a relation that symmetric but not transitive, Give an example of a relation that is reflexive, ‘transitive but not symmetric, Give an example of a relatior transitive but not reflexive, is reflexive, n that is symmetric, 2.33 Determine whether the following relations in transitive: R= {(1, 2), 2,2} S={G,2), 2,3), 3), (2, D} T={(1, D} 2.34 Given, § = (1, 2, 3) and a relation Roo! defined by R = {(1, 2), (4, 3) (2, 2), (1) (3, D}. Show that R is not transitive, Find? relation R, 3 R such that R, is transitive. Co You find another relation Ry = R that is als transitive? 2.4_ RELATION MATRIX AND GRAPH OF A aga ION MATRIX AND GRAPH OF A RELATION 2.4.1 Relation Matrix A rel matrix of R. Let A= elem mati lation R from a fini Ay gy sseetly) and Be ents, respectively, x My = Inq), which is defined us follows: ite Bet A to a finite set B can be (hy by, and R be the relation from A to B. Th represented by a matrix called the relat bn} be finite sets containing m at : hen R can be represented by an mS © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 91 1, if a,Rb, fa if a, Rby Note that the matrix My has the elements as I's and 0's, [Ezample 266] an = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {by, by, bs}. Consider the relation R= {(1,,), (1, bs), |, bs), (4, b,), (4, b3). Determine the matrix of the relation, bee ee Solution A= {1, 2,3, 4}, B= {b;, by, bs}. Relation R = {(1, bp), (1, 63), (3, bp), (4, b,), (4, bs)}. bei be 3b Matrix of the relation R is written as © ' ' ' dy by by 2 0 ° ° 1/0 171 5 ° 4 My=2|° 9 0 “4 7 : 3/0 1 0 41 01 That is eee 000 Mp= * "lo 10 be eee Example 2.67 | Let A= {1, 2, 3, 4}. Find the relation R on A determined by the matrix 1010 My=|9 9 1 0 1000 1101 Petar 1234 fi 01 0 Mp=2}0 0 1 0 3}1 0 0 0 a1 01 The relation R= ((1, 1), (Ly 3)s (2s 3) (3 1s (4s Ws 4s 2) AD ‘ P “oPerties of a relation ina set ? Ifa relation is reflexive, then all the diagonal entries must be a Ifa relation is symmetric, then the relation matrix is symmetric, be i) Ifa relation is antisymmetric, then its matrix is such that iPr ~ Lthen 7, pust'be 1. ; for every iand j. Otoriey © scanned with OKEN Scanner| a 92 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science 2.4.2. Graph of a Relation eae ion defined in a finite set can also be represented pictorially with te peleots Braph. Let "i A resin sefinite set A = {2 ~odly)- The elements of A are res ied by points or ctlescg arelation in ce See é€ en we connect the rertices. Tf (a) a) € R- tt nodes Se eead ea cas srrow on the arc in the direction from 410% This is eae pain Tee he nodes corresponding to the ordered pairs in R are connected by arcs with pry arrows, then we get a graph of the relation R. : ‘ Note 2.9 IfaRa, and aRa, then we draw two ares between a,and a, with arrows pointing in ™ 7 ca directions. : / Note 2.10 faRa, then we get an arc which starts from node a, and returns to node a,. This ax called a loop. ' Figure 2.15 shows some graphs that can be used to represent relations. a 7 ° SL ard (i) aka (li) aRb« bRa (iv) aRb a bRen cRa (¥) aRb n BR Figure 2.15 | Graphs of relations Properties of relations (i) If relation is reflexive, then there is no loop at any node. Gi) Ifa relation is symmetric and if one node is connected to another, then there must be a ret!" are from the second node to the first, Gil) For antisymmetric relations, no direct return paths should exist. (iv) Ifa relation is transitive, then the situation is not so simple, Figures 2.16 and 2.17 explain the properties discussed above. © scanned with OKEN ScannerCOM EE BIENEES ORB SOA ON CONE fremedy OC ane sen Sot Theory and Relations 93 a \ Se \ es QO \oc ‘symmetric Antisymmotric K+ WU [Figure :2.16 | Symmetric and antisymmetric relations [Figure 2.17 | Transitive relations [Example 2.68] Let A = (5, 6, 7, 8) and R= ((x, y)le > y}. Draw the graph of R and also give its matrix, Solution R= {(8, 5), (8, 6); (8, 7), (7, 5), (7, 6), (6, 5)} ‘The graph of R and the matrix of R are shown in Fig. 2.18, 5 6 \ 4% aye?) (om ee a) ZN sl caw e 7 8 Figure 2.18] Graph and matrix representation of R Matrix of R = coos 000 10 2 ae 111 The relation R is irreflexive, antisymmetric and transitive. = Example 2.69] Find the relation determined by the graph given in Fig. 2.19 and the corresponding relation matrices. Also, determine the properties of the relation given by the graphs. © scanned with OKEN Scanner94 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science Solution The relation given in Fig. 2.19 may be written as R= {(4}, 41), (41; 42), (ay, g (tos 4), (dy, 4) (sy 45) (yy 44)» (ay )s (4p 44)» “The corresponding matrix of the relation is written as Ya, ay ay 03 a4 1101 1110 Mg=a,}0 1 1 0 1001 The relation is reflexive (since every vertex has a loop) and symmetric (since whenever af, ajRa) EXERCISES 2.35 Let A= {a,b,c}. If Ris the relation of proper 2.37 Find the relation determined by the g, inclusion on the subset of A then give the given in Fig. 2.21. matrix of the relation. 2.36 Determine the properties of the relations given by the graphs shows in Fig. 2.6 and also write the corresponding relation matrices. % iS . xX X Xs % x Oy Xe Xs oO Figure 2.21] Graphical representation of a reli % Xe Xs 2.38 IFA = (1, 2,3, 4} and R = {(1, 1), (1,3) 4 re Graphical representation of 3, 2), G, 3), (4, 3), draw a graph to rept the relation R. relations 5 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS Arelation R on a set X is said to be an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transi” Partial-order relation A relation R on a set X is said to be a partial order relation if it is rele antisymmetric and transitive. Example 2.70 | Provide examples of equivalence relations, Solution ‘The following, are some examples of equivalence relations: (i) Equality of subsets of a universal set Gi) Equality of numbers on a set of real numbers ‘ A © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 95 (iii) Relation of lines being parallel on a set of lines in a plane (ix) Similarity of triangles on a set of triangles (x) Relation of propositions being equivalent in a collection of propositions . oe Example 2.71 Let X= {1, 2,3, 4} and R= {(1, 1) (1, 4), (4, 1), (4, 4), (2,2), (2, 3)s (3, 2), (3,3 Prove that R is an equivalence relation. en Solution Tpe matrix of R will be written as given below. = 43 aN i) mee 2 ' mye[o 1 1° “2/0 110 41 0 o1 . The corresponding graph of R is shown in Fig. 2.22. WY Figure 2.22| Graph of relation R of Example 2.71 Clearly, the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Hence, R is an equivalence relation. 2 Theorem 2.1 Let Rand S be relations on X. Then the following hold true: (i) If Ris reflexive, then R U Sis reflexive. (ii) IER and S are reflexive, then R 0 S'is reflexive. IFR and S are symmetric, then RO S and RU S are symmetric. (iv) IfR and S are transitive, then R 7 Sis transitive. (¥) IFR and S are equivalence relations, then RA S is also an equivalence relation. Proof : (i) Let.X be the given set. IfR is reflexive, then {(a, a)|aeX} CR = ((a,a)|aeX} CRUS, since RCRUS _. = RU Sis reflexive. Gi) IER and S are reflexive, then {(a, a)\a eX} c Rand {(a,a)lae X} CS = ((a,a)laeX} ORAS = RO Sis reflexive. . © scanned with OKEN Scanneryy ation for Computer Science i e need to prove ROS is symmetric, (iii), Assume that both Rand S are symmetric. We es pl ic Tr(a, b) € ROS, then (a, 6) Rand (aH) eo Now, (a, de R= (AE R since R is symmetric (a, b) € $= (b,a) € Ssince Sis symmetric Therefore, (b, a)E ROS Thus, (a, bE RASS (bE ROS Hence, (R 7 S) is also symmetric. Now, we need to prove that R U Sis also symmet If (a, b) € RUS then'(a, b) € Ror (a, b) eS (a,b) € R= (b, a) € R since R is symmetric (a,b) Re S= (b, a) € Ssince Sis symmetric 2 (a,b) € RUS = (6, a) € Ror (b,a) oS = (b,a)e RUS Thus, RU Sis symmetric. (iv) Let R and S be transitive. We need to prove that R 1 S is also transitive. Let (a, 6) € RASand (b,c) RAS Now (a,b) € ROS = (a,b) Rand (a, bye S (b,c) € ROS= (b,c) © Rand (6, c)e S. Sitice R is transitive, we have (a,b) € Rand (b,c) € Rand (a,c)e R Since S is transitive, we have (a, b) € Sand (b, c) € Sand (a,c)e S Thus, (a, c)¢ ROS Therefore, (a, b) € RAS(b,c)e RAS= (ache RAS => RO Sis transitive Let R and $ be equivalence relations on X i.e., Rand S are reflexive, symmetric and transitive. We need to prove that R 0 S'is also an equi i ) h equivalence relation on_X. i d to that R 9 Sis reflexive, symmetric and transitive. eee Bema From (ii) (iii) and (iv), we have RA Sis reflexive, i ) , 8) tric and itive. Thus, RO Sis also an equivalence relation. eeeceni Note 2.11 IfRand S are transitive, Let A= (1, 2,3, 4) {A 1, (1, 2), (2, 2), @, 3), 3. 4), 7 » &, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3), (4, 4) 7 im {2, 3), 3, 3), G, 4), (4, 4)} Pee en, RUS = YS={(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3), (4, 4)) (1,26 RUS, But(l, ae RUS RUE ANE RUS = RU Sis not transitive. a 96 Mathematical Found; ric. wv then R US need not be transitive. © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 97 put R and S are transitive, “_ If Rand S are transitive, then R U S need not be transitive, Inverse relation Arrelation R from a set A to a set B has an inverse relation R™! from B to A, which is defined by R= ((b, OIC, b, € RB) ‘That is, the inverse relation R consists of those ordered pairs that when reversed belong to R. Example 2.72 | Provide examples of inverse relation, Solution (i) Let A = {a, b,c} and B= {1, 2} Then R = {(a, 1), (a, 2) (c, 1)} is a relation from A to B The inverse relation of R is R= {(1, a), (2, a), (1, c)} (ii) Let A= {a,b,c} Then, R= {(a, a), (a, b), (a, ©), (b, c)} is a relation in A. The inverse relation of R is R' = {(a, a), (b, a), (c, a), (¢, b)} a Theorem 2.2 Let R be a relation on a set A. The following characteristics are true: (i) If Ris reflexive, then R™ is also reflexive. (i) IFR is transitive, then R“ is also transitive. ii) If R is an equivalence relation, then R™ is also an equivalence relation. Proof (i) Let R be reflexive. Then, {(a, a)|ae A} CR = {(aaiae A} CR! =>R=R! +. Ris also reflexive. Let R be transitive. We need to prove that R' is also transitive. Let (a, b), (b,c) R! = (b, a), (c, VE R (cb), (b,a)eR = (c, a) € R, since R is transitive = (a,c)e R! Thus, R~ (ii) Let R be an equivalence relation. = Risa reflexive and symmetric relation. Since R is symmetric, R= R~' L Since R=" = R and R is an equivalence relation, R'is also an equivalence relation. is also transitive. (1, 2, soon 7} and Re (Cx, 3918 = is divisible by 3) Shoy : W that 2 is an equivalence relation, Draw the graph of R, © scanned with OKEN Scanner98 ~Mathomatical Foundation for Computer Science Solution (i) Vor uny xe Xx x= 0 In divinible by 4, fale + R in reflexive, (ii) For ny VEX, letaly, then x ~ yin divinible by 3, ey yx inalno divinibls by 3 a yx Hence, xRy > ye ‘Thus, the relation 2 in nymmetric, Gi) Vor any x,y,z. X, let xRy and yee, ‘Then, (xy) and (y~ 2) are divinible by 3 sa xm 26 (x= y) 4 (yz) in aluo divinible by 3, = xRe Hence, the relation 2 in transitive, Thus, the relation 2 is an equivalence relation. The graph of R is shown in Fig,4 ® @ 3 | Graphical representation of relation R discussed in Example 2.73 General form et J denote the set of g itive integey 5 itive j; Rdvereumeae "eset Of all pouitive integers and Jet m be 4 positive integer. For an) 2 (Gs, Y)Lk— yin divisible by my Note 2.12 The statement i *~y ls divisible by m” is equivaley ome: iy! the same remainder vhen each iy divisible by “esuhaet othe atement that bo In this case, 2 iy denoted by ‘a? shy reat **y (m) oF.xm y (modm), which in read an F relation » is alno called a com ce relation, 10K be an eqivatence relat La ation on a net X, For any x 6 \ gi bh bye pes Orany x6 X the wet (x}pc x given by ‘This is called an 2. equals y modulo m" equivalenc “ample 2.74) Prove that the relat equivalence relation re clasy yenerated by x @ X. “congruence modulo m over the set of positive intege” © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Folations 99 Solution Let be the wet of all positiv “congruence modulo m" on Nas follown: Lex yeN x#y(modm) if and only if x ~ y in divinible Let x,y. 26 N, Then (i) x- x2 0= 00m = xex(modm) for all x© N ‘Thus, the relation & is reflexive, (ii) Letx® y (mod), Then, x ~y = km for some integer =o y-x= (Kym ie, y= x (modm) ‘The relation = is symmetric integers and my he a positive integer, We define th by m [ht 4 y= km Sor some integer k eZ) ii) Letx= y(modm) and y « z(modm) = x-y= km and y~z= Im for ome integer k and 1, Now (xy) +(y=z) = (e+ I)m ie, x-2= (k-+ 1), where k+/in an integer = x=z(modm) The retation = is transitive Since the relation = is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, the relation congruence modulo m is an squivalence relatioy Example 2.75 tL R denote a relation on the set of all ordered pairs of positive integers, Let it be defined as (x, y) R (u, v) if and only if xv yu. Show that 2 is an equivalence relation. Solution Let R denote the set of all positive integers, Let x, y, u and v be positive integers. Given, (x, y) K (1, v) if and only xv = yu, (i) xy = yx is true for all positive integers = (x, y) R (x, y), for all ordered pairs (x, y) of positive integers, i) Let (x, y) R (u, v) SOX yu = yu = xy = uy vx = (ti v) R(x, y) __ 1+ The relation 2 is symmetric. (iii) Let x, y, u, v, m and n be positive integers Leet (x, y) (1 v) and (10, v) RC, n) 92 yu and un = vm = xvun = yuvm “yan ym, by cancelling vir ' © scanned with OKEN Scanner100 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science = (x,y) R (m,n) ~. The relation R is transitive. : ‘ . : Since R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, the relation R is an equivalence Telati, Let R be a relation defined on the set of all real numbers by “if x, y are real nun, such that xRy € x —y is a rational number”. Show that the relation equivalence relation. Solution xRy e x—y is a rational number. () x—x=0 is a rational number for all numbers x => the relation R is reflexive. (ii) Let xRy = x—y =z for some rational number. Example ~z is also a rational number. =y-x ‘yRe, since if r; is a rational number, then — 7; is also a rational number. Thus, xRy = yRx So, R is symmetric. (iii) Let xRy = yRz xRy = x—y=rj, for some rational number 7, yRz > y—z=n, for some rational number rp Now, x—z=(x-—y) + (y—z) =r, +12 is also a rational number (since if r, and r, are ratio numbers, then 7; + ry is also a rational number). Hence, xRz oo xRy, yRz = xRz Thus, R is transitive. a Since R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, the relation R is an equivalence relation Equivalence classes Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set of all elements thal related to an element ‘a’ of A is called the equivalence class of ‘a’. The equivalence class of ‘a’ respect to R is denoted by [a]. In other words, the equivalence class of ‘a’ is [d]p= {s € Al(a,5)€ If} € [a]g, then b is called a representative of this equivalence class. Example 2.77 Let R be the relation on the set of integers such that aRd if and only if@ et a= — b. What is the equivalence class of an integer for the equivalence relsti®* Solution Since an integer is equivalent to itself and its negative in the equivalence relatio™ [a] = {a, ~ a}. This set contains two distinct integers unless a = 0, For example, [3] = (-3, 3} [5] = {-5, 5} and [0] = {0} Example 2.78 | What are the equivalence classes of O and 1 for congruence modulo 4? © scanned with OKEN Scanner& e Set Theory and Relations 101 pe equivalence class of *0” contains all integers ‘a’ such that a = 0 (mod). The integers solatiot gre those divisible by 4. inthis SR ivalence class of O for this relation is oe 58,74. 0,4, 8 ood fosnaence class of 1 contains all the integers ‘a’ such that a= 1 (mod). The integers inthis The ea pase that have a remainder of 1 when divided by 4. ho She equivalence class of I for this relation is ene, l= -7,-3, 0, 3, 75 +++} a Note 243 Congruence classes of modulo m are the equivalence classes of the relation congruence : _ The congruence class of an integer a modulo m is denoted by [4]. modulo y (al, $0, [aly (65 22m, a=, ab my, a+IM, Theorem 2,3 Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. Then, the following statements represent equivalence: (i) aRb i) [a] = [2] (ii) fal [#9 Proof We first show that (i) => (ii) Weassume that aRb. We need to prove that [a] = [6], that is, we need to prove that [a] < [6] and [5] < [a] Letce [a]. Since aRb and R are symmetric, bRa. Since R is transitive and bRa, aRe ort SSCS sls) LIBRARY N2\ Similarly, we can prove that Acero 282} Pe 3) Pc [a] Or Yo “Tal = [5] = eons Wwe show that (ii) => (iii) i sume that [a] = [5]. We need to prove that [a] 7 [6] # @- Since [a] is nonempty, [a] = [6] and R is an ‘suivalence relation laln B) eq Next, we sh ow that (ii) => (i “Uppose that lan ble@ ® S There is an el i Sale ang gcemente with ¢ [a] and € 0) By 5 hectic Property, we can write cRb. ¥ transitive property, aRb. Since (iy : ' 99 Gi), (i) = (ili) andl (ity = (i), the three s te said fo be equivalent, ements given above can © scanned with OKEN Scanner102 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Scionco ~ COVERING AND PARTITION OF A SET 2.6.1 Covering of a set Let S be a given set and A= (Ay, Agy ony Ay}s Where cach A, = 1, 2, , m is a subset of § y, ™ + U4, = 8. Then the set A is called a covering of § and the sets Ay, Az, + Ay are Said 10 cover §, ra Example 2.79] Let S= {a, b, c} and consider the following collections of subsets of S, A= (fa, b}, {by c}}, Aa = ({a}}, (a, ch}, Ay = Kf}, (b,c), {{a,b,c}), As= {fa}, {b}, {c}}, and Ag= {fa}, {a,b}, fa, c}), Which of the above sets are covering? Solution The sets Ay, Ay, Ay As and A, are covering of S. But, the set A, is not a covering of S, seo their union is not S. 2.6.2 Partition of a set A partition of a set $ is a collection of disjoint non-empty subsets of § that have Sas their une Suppose, $= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. The collection of sets A, = (1, 2, 3}, 42= (4, 5} and A,= {6} forms: partition of S, since these sets are disjoint and their union is S. Partition of a set can also be defined as follows: Let S be a given set and A = {Aj, Az, ..., 4,}, where cach A, i= 1, 2, ..., m is a subset of S. If (i) A,#J, for each i (ii) 4,0.A,=J, for F#), and Gil) U4 = 5, rl : then A is called a partition of S. The sets Ay, Ay, «ny Ay, are called the blocks of the partition. Note 2.14 Every partition is also a covering. But the converse need not be true, Exam) Let $ = fa, b, ¢}. Consider the following collection of subsets of S. A\= {a,b}, {b,c}, A2= la}, {b, ch], A= (La, bch}, Aa= Ma}, th}, fe}}, and As= (fa), {a,c}}. Solution The sets Az, Ay and A, are partitions of S and also they are covering. Hence, every partition is a covering. The set A, is a covering, the wets {a, b} and {h, c} are not disjoint, co i " n™ ' of? Hence, every covering need not be a partition, The wet As is not a partition, since the union ° subsets is not 5. » ‘The partition A, has only one block and the partition A, has three blocks. but it is not a partition of a set” SS =] © scanned with OKEN ScannerSet Theory and Relations 103 cap DAS i aa e215 segeal, for any Finite set, the smallest partition consists of the set itself as ablock while - We gest partiton consists of blocks containing only single elements. 4, Two partitions are said to equal if they equal as sets. 3, Fora finite set, every partition is a finite partition, i.e., every partition contains only a finite * amber of blocks. nail orem 24 Let R be an equivalence relation on a set 4, Then, the equivalence classes of R form a iol d- conversely, ifa partition (4,|/ ¢ 1) of the set is given, then there is an equivalence Fen hat has the set A, /¢ Las ts equivalence classes. Let R be an equivalence relation on a set 4. The union of the equivalence classes of R is , at a of A is in its own equivalence classes, namely, [a]. That is : spoean eleme! U,fal,=4 (2.25) ram Theorem 2.3, these equivalence classes are either equal or disjoint. su laly [b]a= @ When [a]p # [b]e (2.26) = The equivalence classes form a partition of A, since they spilt 4 into disjomt subsets (Fig. ° 2128) that i, a partition of a set A is the collection of disjoint non-empty subsets of 4 that have A as tei union. Conversely, assume that {4,|i € I} is a partition on A. Let ‘R’ be the relation on A consisting ofthe pair (x, y), where x and y belong to the same subset 4, in the partition. ee oe Figure 2.24 | Partition of A into disjoint subsets that is, R is reflexive, symmetric and trans Weneeg to . Now, (g show that R is an equivalence relation, (a, 9 J Ris a for every a € A since ‘a’ is in the same subset as itself rele Hag tative Ry . 0, hen band a are in the same subset of the partition. JER _ Hay metric, f Rand (4, ¢) taney) in the het wrtition Vand and cate me subset in the pe Rthen are : nthe partion Yo and b are in the © scanned with OKEN Scanner8 Mathematical Foundation for Computer Science Y AND PARTIAL ORI G RELATIONS { MPATIBILITY AND PARTIAL ORDERIN 2.7 COM ee ee ee Anton Ron is ato bea compabilty relation i tig both reflex A relation R on Y'is si . i be given by d Iet the relation R [Example 2.86 \'= {ball, bed, dog, let, egg} an ; ample SE bait ee y€ XA xRy ifx and y contain some common a = R= {Q, y)|x, = bed, ball = let, ba # eee Le =. Note that bell ~ bed, * CBs ibility relation is denoted by the symbol =, t imal companies fay Fcomeaie relation onX. A subset A c X is ee a ee 7 soo i ti Gren chee tneenny: to every other element ofA and noel ie Sinks re fini ‘cama of A. Compatibility relations are useful in See HI the elemeni . ¢ inimisetion ; switching theory, particularly for incompletely eee = bn, bod og, bt al Compatibility relation is denoted by the sym ort by b, “dor bye te otal “ones wa Thus = is not transitive, Let us denote “ball” by a, “bed ry b, . graph of = is given in Fig. 2.28 (i), b a Li e id 0 0) Graphs of compatiblity relations ~, mpatibility relation, it is Not necessary to draw draw bo Not necessary to oth aR b and > Ra. Hence 2.28 ( so," the loops at each element. Ale ify the graph of =, as shown it 4) and {b, 6, & Ss {a,b d) and {b, ©, we can simpli i), Note that the eles rents i each OF the getg fa, b, cera neatly comptes Ae es © €} also has van SOMPALIDLE 0 each eal syle telation matrix of * compatibility relation Therefore, it jy Sufficient to pive only the clementy ‘bility relation discussion, the relat } are related to each other i 6 e} are covering of X. For the compat Symmetric and has i 8 Of the lower Hon matrix can ent vt diagonal eleme ma ‘ EOF the relation from Table 2.1. riangular pa be obtained © scanned with OKEN ScannerFUNCTIONS LEARNING OBjEcTIVes ctive functions * Inverse functions i Permutation functions . es of functions : " eae Recursive functions * Composition of functions e discussed in the pre - It associates any met! Set. It may be possible that some elet member of the sec A relation or correspondet* “Y one member of the seconds in many important applications, Sambuter implementation of any program Computer input. A special class of functions is used in organizing associated with such organizations. ‘J There are several transformations imote Output can be considered as a Ad filesona Computer along with other ted Definition 3.1 Function Let Xand ¥ be any two sets, A relation ffrom X'to ¥ is called a function if for ev unique y © Y such that (x,y) ef ei er" eryve X, Note 3.1 The definition of function Fequires that a re! tion must order to qualify as a function. These Conditions are ito” ae tional condi * satisfy two additional condi as follows, ee © scanned with OKEN Scanner