Module 5: Cofferdams and caissons

5.1 Cofferdams: Types, Design, and Construction

Cofferdams are temporary structures built to create a dry working environment in areas that are
normally submerged underwater, such as riverbanks or construction sites near water bodies.
They are essential for carrying out underwater construction work, such as building foundations,
bridges, or dams. Here’s a comprehensive overview of cofferdams, including their types, design
considerations, and construction methods.

Types of Cofferdams

1. Single-Wall Cofferdams

o Description: Composed of a single row of walls that create a barrier against

water.

o Construction Materials: Often made of sheet piles (steel, timber, or concrete).

o Application: Suitable for shallow water and low hydraulic pressure situations.

2. Double-Wall Cofferdams

o Description: Consist of two parallel walls with a space in between, often filled
with sand or gravel.

o Construction Materials: Similar to single-wall, using sheet piles or concrete.

o Application: Used in deeper water or where higher pressures are anticipated. The
inner wall can provide extra stability and reduce water seepage.

3. Earthfill Cofferdams

o Description: Constructed using earth materials (soil, gravel) to form a barrier.

o Application: Effective for large areas and provides good resistance to water.
They are typically used for long-term applications.

4. Braced Cofferdams

o Description: Incorporate bracing systems to support the walls, especially in

unstable soil conditions.

o Application: Suitable for deep excavations where lateral soil pressure is

significant.

5. Inflatable Cofferdams
 o Description: Made of flexible materials that can be inflated to create a barrier
against water.

o Application: Useful for temporary applications and quick deployments in various

water depths.

Design Considerations

• Hydraulic Analysis: Assess water levels, currents, and potential wave action to
determine design loads.

• Soil Conditions: Evaluate the soil properties (bearing capacity, stability) to ensure that
the cofferdam can withstand the pressure exerted by water and soil.

• Construction Method: Select appropriate construction techniques based on the type of

cofferdam and environmental conditions.

• Safety Factors: Incorporate safety factors in the design to account for uncertainties in
water flow, soil conditions, and construction practices.

• Seepage Control: Design to minimize water seepage through the cofferdam walls, using
materials and configurations that enhance water tightness.

Construction Process

Single-Wall Cofferdam

1. Site Preparation:

o Clear the area and ensure that the foundation is stable.

o Assess water levels and prepare for drainage.

2. Installation of Sheet Piles:

o Drive or install sheet piles vertically along the perimeter where the cofferdam will
be located.

o Overlap the joints of the sheet piles to enhance water tightness.

3. Water Removal:

o Once the sheet piles are in place, pump out water from inside the cofferdam to
create a dry working area.

4. Excavation:
 o Begin excavation within the cofferdam for the intended construction project.

Double-Wall Cofferdam

1. Initial Steps:

o Similar to the single-wall cofferdam, prepare the site and install the outer sheet
piles.

2. Inner Wall Installation:

o Install a second row of sheet piles parallel to the first, leaving a gap between
them.

3. Filling the Gap:

o Fill the space between the walls with sand, gravel, or other suitable material to
provide stability and reduce water seepage.

4. Water Removal and Excavation:

o Pump out water from the inner area and proceed with excavation.

Earthfill Cofferdam

1. Site Preparation:

o Clear the area and level the ground as needed.

2. Construction of Embankment:

o Construct the earth embankment using soil, gravel, or a combination.

o Ensure the embankment is well-compacted to enhance stability.

3. Water Removal:

o Install pumps to remove water from inside the cofferdam.

4. Excavation:

o Proceed with the necessary excavation for construction.

5.2 Sheet Pile Cofferdams

Sheet pile cofferdams are a type of temporary structure used to create a dry working
environment in submerged or water-logged areas. They are particularly effective for construction
projects near water bodies, such as bridges, docks, and foundations. This method utilizes vertical
sheet piles driven into the ground to form a barrier that keeps water out.

Characteristics

• Materials: Typically made from steel, but can also be constructed from reinforced
concrete or plastic. Steel is the most common due to its strength and durability.

• Installation: Sheet piles are driven into the ground, often overlapping to ensure
watertightness.

• Flexibility: Can be designed to accommodate various depths and site conditions.

Construction Process

1. Site Preparation:

o Clear the area and assess existing site conditions, including soil and water levels.

2. Sheet Pile Installation:

o Driving Method: Use a vibratory hammer or impact hammer to drive the sheet
piles vertically into the ground along the designated perimeter.

o Overlap: Ensure that the sheet piles overlap to minimize gaps and enhance water
resistance.

3. Water Control:

o Once the sheet piles are in place, use pumps to remove water from inside the
cofferdam, creating a dry working environment.

4. Excavation:

o With the area dewatered, proceed with excavation work for foundations or other
construction activities.

5. Monitoring:

o Continuously monitor the structure for signs of instability or water ingress during
the construction process.

Advantages of Sheet Pile Cofferdams

• Effective Water Control: Provides a reliable barrier against water, allowing for dry
construction areas.
 • Quick Installation: Sheet piles can be installed relatively quickly compared to other
methods.

• Reduced Environmental Impact: Minimal disturbance to surrounding soil and aquatic

environments compared to traditional cofferdams.

• Versatile Applications: Suitable for a variety of projects, including underwater

foundations, bridge supports, and utility installations.

Limitations

• Cost: Sheet piles can be expensive, especially when using high-quality materials like
steel.

• Depth Restrictions: In very deep waters or strong currents, sheet pile cofferdams may
not provide sufficient stability without additional support.

• Maintenance: Regular inspection and maintenance may be needed to ensure structural

integrity, especially in corrosive environments.

5.3 Concrete Wall Movable Cofferdam

Concrete wall movable cofferdams are temporary structures used to create a dry working
environment in submerged or waterlogged areas, similar to traditional cofferdams. However,
these cofferdams are unique in that they are designed to be movable, allowing for flexibility in
construction operations, particularly in projects that require frequent repositioning or
adjustments.

Characteristics

• Construction Material: Typically made of reinforced concrete, which provides strength

and durability.

• Modular Design: Often constructed in sections or panels that can be assembled on-site
and moved as needed.

• Water Tightness: Designed to minimize water seepage, with careful attention to joints
and seals.

Design Considerations

1. Hydraulic Analysis: Assess water levels, currents, and potential wave action to
determine the design loads on the cofferdam.

2. Soil Conditions: Evaluate soil properties to ensure stability and resistance to lateral earth
pressures.
 3. Structural Integrity: Ensure that the design accounts for potential loading scenarios,
including buoyancy, uplift, and lateral forces.

4. Movability: Design features that facilitate easy movement, such as a lightweight

structure or tracks for transport.

5. Seepage Control: Implement measures to reduce water infiltration, ensuring the

cofferdam remains effective during use.

Construction Process

1. Site Preparation:

o Clear the area and perform necessary geotechnical investigations to understand

the site conditions.

2. Panel Fabrication:

o Construct the concrete panels off-site or on-site, depending on logistics. Each

panel is typically reinforced for strength.

3. Assembly:

o Assemble the panels to form the cofferdam. Ensure that joints are tightly sealed to
minimize water ingress.

4. Placement:

o Position the cofferdam in the water, typically using cranes or specialized

equipment. It may be anchored to the bottom for stability.

5. Water Control:

o Pump out water from the inside of the cofferdam to create a dry working area.
Ensure that the structure can withstand the external water pressure.

6. Movement:

o Once the work is complete in one area, the cofferdam can be moved to another
location as needed. This may involve disassembling panels or using transport
equipment.

7. Monitoring and Maintenance:

o Continuously monitor the cofferdam for stability and integrity during its use,
especially when repositioning.
Advantages

• Flexibility: The ability to move the cofferdam makes it suitable for projects where
construction activities are not fixed to one location.

• Robustness: The concrete construction provides high durability and resistance to

environmental factors.

• Water Control: Effective at managing water ingress, allowing for dry working
conditions in aquatic environments.

Limitations

• Cost: Higher initial costs due to the materials and fabrication processes compared to
other types of cofferdams.

• Weight: The weight of concrete can make it more challenging to reposition compared to
lighter materials.

• Installation Time: Assembly and placement may require more time and specialized
equipment compared to simpler cofferdam designs.

Applications

• Bridge Construction: Useful in constructing bridge foundations where water levels

fluctuate.

• Water Treatment Facilities: Employed in the construction of facilities that require dry
working conditions.

• Repair Works: Ideal for repairing existing structures in water bodies, allowing for safe
and efficient work.

5.4 Land Cofferdams

Land cofferdams are temporary structures used to create a dry work area for construction
activities in environments that are not submerged but may experience water-related issues, such
as high groundwater levels or flooding. Unlike traditional water-based cofferdams, land
cofferdams are employed primarily on solid ground to control water and soil conditions during
excavation or construction work.

Characteristics

• Purpose: Designed to prevent water from entering the work area, enabling safe
construction activities, especially when working near rivers, lakes, or coastal areas.
 • Materials: Can be constructed from various materials, including soil, sandbags, sheet
piles, or reinforced concrete, depending on the site conditions and project requirements.

• Height and Design: The height and design of the cofferdam depend on the anticipated
water levels and soil conditions.

Types of Land Cofferdams

1. Earthfill Cofferdams:

o Constructed from compacted earth materials like soil, clay, or sand.

o Often used for larger areas where significant water control is needed.

2. Sheet Pile Cofferdams:

o Involves driving sheet piles into the ground to create a barrier against water.

o Suitable for areas with higher hydraulic pressures or where soil stability is a
concern.

3. Bagged Sand Cofferdams:

o Made by stacking sandbags to form a barrier.

o Typically used for short-term applications or in situations where quick

construction is necessary.

4. Reinforced Concrete Cofferdams:

o Constructed with poured concrete or precast panels.

o Provides high durability and stability, especially in areas with challenging soil
conditions.

Design Considerations

• Hydraulic Analysis: Assess potential water sources, flow rates, and pressure levels that
could impact the cofferdam’s integrity.

• Soil Properties: Evaluate soil characteristics, including bearing capacity and drainage
capabilities, to ensure stability.

• Seepage Control: Design to minimize water infiltration, ensuring that the work area
remains dry throughout construction.
 • Structural Integrity: Include safety factors in the design to account for unexpected
water levels or soil movement.

Construction Process

1. Site Preparation:

o Clear the area of debris and vegetation.

o Conduct a site survey to understand soil conditions and groundwater levels.

2. Cofferdam Installation:

o Earthfill Cofferdam: Construct using compacted earth materials, forming a berm

or embankment around the work area.

o Sheet Pile Cofferdam: Drive sheet piles into the ground along the perimeter,
ensuring that they are tightly sealed.

o Sandbag Cofferdam: Stack sandbags in a continuous line, filling gaps with

additional bags or soil.

3. Water Control:

o Use pumps or drainage systems to remove any water that enters the work area
during construction.

4. Excavation and Construction:

o Proceed with excavation and construction activities within the dry work area.

5. Monitoring:

o Continuously monitor the cofferdam for signs of instability, water seepage, or

erosion during construction.

Advantages

• Effective Water Management: Allows for safe and dry working conditions in areas
prone to flooding or high groundwater levels.

• Variety of Materials: Flexibility in construction materials allows for tailored solutions

based on site conditions and project needs.

• Cost-Effective: Generally lower in cost compared to more complex water-based

cofferdam systems, especially for short-term use.
Limitations

• Temporary Nature: As a temporary solution, land cofferdams may not be suitable for
long-term water management.

• Stability Risks: If not designed or constructed properly, there is a risk of failure,

especially during heavy rain or flooding events.

• Maintenance: Regular monitoring and maintenance may be necessary to ensure ongoing

effectiveness.

Applications

• Excavation Projects: Used in construction activities like utility installations, foundation

work, or drainage improvements.

• Flood Protection: Temporary flood barriers during emergency situations or construction

in flood-prone areas.

• Soil Stabilization: Helps manage water levels during soil stabilization projects.

5.5 Cofferdam Soldier Pile Construction Method

The soldier pile cofferdam construction method combines the use of soldier piles (vertical steel
beams) and retaining walls to create a temporary structure for dewatering and facilitating
construction activities in areas adjacent to water bodies. This method is particularly effective for
excavations that need lateral support while managing groundwater.

Components

1. Soldier Piles: Vertical steel beams, usually H-shaped or I-shaped, driven into the ground
at regular intervals to provide structural support.

2. Lagging: Horizontal wood or concrete panels placed between the soldier piles to retain
soil and water.

3. Bracing (if necessary): Diagonal braces may be added to provide additional stability,
especially in deeper excavations.

Advantages

• Strength: Soldier piles provide robust lateral support for deep excavations.

• Flexibility: The design can be adapted to various soil and water conditions.

• Reduced Environmental Impact: Minimal disturbance to surrounding areas compared

to traditional excavation methods.
 • Ease of Installation: Quick to install, allowing for efficient project progression.

Design Considerations

• Hydraulic Analysis: Assess water pressures and potential seepage.

• Soil Properties: Evaluate soil stability, bearing capacity, and drainage requirements.

• Load Analysis: Consider the loads acting on the soldier piles and lagging to ensure
structural integrity.

Construction Process

1. Site Preparation:

o Clear the area and conduct geotechnical investigations.

o Mark the layout for soldier pile installation.

2. Installation of Soldier Piles:

o Driving: Use a pile driver or vibratory hammer to install the soldier piles
vertically into the ground at predetermined intervals.

o Alignment: Ensure proper alignment and spacing for effective support.

3. Lagging Installation:

o Once the soldier piles are in place, insert lagging panels horizontally between the
piles, starting from the top and working downward.

o Secure the lagging to the soldier piles to retain soil and manage water ingress.

4. Bracing (if required):

o If the excavation is deep, install diagonal braces to provide additional lateral

support.

5. Dewatering:

o Use pumps to remove water from the excavation area to create a dry working
environment.

6. Excavation:

o Proceed with excavation work within the cofferdam, ensuring the area remains
stable.
 7. Monitoring:

o Continuously monitor for signs of instability or water infiltration throughout the

construction process.

Applications

• Foundation Construction: Used for building foundations in areas near rivers or lakes.

• Utility Installation: Suitable for installing utilities in wet conditions without

compromising safety.

• Retrofitting and Repairs: Effective for repairing existing structures that require
dewatering.

5.6 Cofferdam Wall by ICOS Method

The ICOS method (Integrated Cofferdam and Operational System) is an innovative approach to
constructing cofferdam walls, primarily focusing on efficiency and safety in challenging
construction environments, particularly in waterlogged or aquatic areas. This method is designed
to streamline the process of creating temporary barriers for dewatering and facilitating
underwater or near-water construction.

Key Features of the ICOS Method

1. Integrated Design: The ICOS method integrates various construction techniques and
materials to optimize the cofferdam’s performance and stability.

2. Modular Components: Utilizes prefabricated modular components, which can be easily

transported and assembled on-site, reducing construction time and complexity.

3. Operational Flexibility: Allows for adjustments in design and construction processes

based on site-specific conditions, such as water levels and soil types.

Advantages

• Efficiency: The modular nature and prefabricated components speed up construction and
reduce labor costs.

• Adaptability: Can be customized to suit different project requirements and site

conditions.

• Safety: Enhances safety during construction through streamlined processes and improved
structural integrity.
 • Cost-Effectiveness: Reduces material waste and construction time, resulting in lower
overall project costs.

Design Considerations

1. Hydraulic Analysis: Thorough assessment of water pressure, flow rates, and potential
wave action.

2. Soil Evaluation: Detailed geotechnical investigations to understand soil properties and

stability.

3. Load Requirements: Calculation of expected loads on the cofferdam, including

hydrostatic and hydrodynamic forces.

Construction Process

1. Site Preparation:

o Clear the work area and perform necessary geotechnical studies.

o Determine the layout and dimensions of the cofferdam based on design

specifications.

2. Prefabrication of Components:

o Manufacture modular components in a controlled environment, ensuring high

quality and precision.

o Components may include wall panels, anchors, and other structural elements.

3. Installation:

o Transport the prefabricated components to the site and assemble them according
to the design.

o Use cranes or other lifting equipment for safe handling of heavy elements.

4. Water Management:

o Install dewatering systems as necessary to remove water from the work area and
maintain a dry environment for construction activities.

5. Excavation and Construction:

o Proceed with excavation and other construction tasks within the dry cofferdam
area, ensuring structural integrity is maintained throughout.
 6. Monitoring and Maintenance:

o Continuously monitor the cofferdam for signs of instability or water ingress and
make adjustments as necessary.

Applications

• Bridge Foundations: Ideal for constructing foundations in river or lake environments.

• Marine Structures: Used in the construction of docks, piers, and other waterfront
structures.

• Utility Installations: Effective for installing pipelines or other utilities in wet conditions.

5.7 Cofferdams with Touching and Interlocking Piles and Diaphragm Wall
Cofferdams constructed with touching and interlocking piles combined with a diaphragm
wall are sophisticated temporary structures designed to create a dry working area in aquatic
environments or areas with high groundwater. This method enhances stability and
watertightness, making it suitable for a variety of construction projects.

Key Features

1. Touching and Interlocking Piles:

o Touching Piles: These piles are installed closely together, creating a barrier that
helps resist water pressure.

o Interlocking Piles: The piles are designed with interlocking features (often
tongue-and-groove) to improve watertightness and structural integrity.

2. Diaphragm Wall:

o A continuous wall made from reinforced concrete that provides additional lateral
support and helps in minimizing water ingress.

o Constructed using a trenching method, allowing for deep excavations and

effective water control.

Advantages

• Enhanced Watertightness: The combination of interlocking piles and a diaphragm wall

significantly reduces water seepage into the work area.

• High Stability: Provides strong lateral support, which is critical in unstable soil or deep
water conditions.
 • Versatility: Suitable for various applications, including foundation work, underwater
construction, and utility installations.

Design Considerations

1. Hydraulic Analysis: Evaluate water pressures, flow rates, and potential wave action that
may impact the structure.

2. Soil Properties: Conduct thorough geotechnical investigations to understand the soil

behavior and ensure adequate bearing capacity.

3. Structural Load Analysis: Calculate the loads acting on the cofferdam, considering
factors like hydrostatic pressure and lateral soil pressures.

Construction Process

1. Site Preparation:

o Clear and level the site, conducting necessary geotechnical assessments.

2. Installation of Piles:

o Driving: Install the touching and interlocking piles using a vibratory hammer or
impact hammer.

o Alignment: Ensure piles are installed in a straight line with appropriate spacing to
maintain structural integrity.

3. Construction of the Diaphragm Wall:

o Trenching: Excavate a trench along the perimeter of the cofferdam to the

required depth.

o Concrete Placement: Pour reinforced concrete into the trench to create a

continuous diaphragm wall, ensuring it integrates effectively with the interlocking
piles.

4. Water Management:

o Implement a dewatering system to keep the work area dry, using pumps as
necessary.

5. Excavation and Construction Activities:

o Once the cofferdam is operational, proceed with excavation and other

construction activities within the dry area.
 6. Monitoring:

o Continuously monitor the structure for any signs of instability, seepage, or

structural failure throughout the construction process.

Applications

• Foundation Construction: Ideal for building foundations in marine environments or

flood-prone areas.

• Bridge and Pier Construction: Used for constructing bridges, piers, and other structures
requiring deep foundations.

• Utility Installation: Effective for installing pipelines or cables under waterways.

CAISSONS
A caisson is a large, watertight structure used in construction, particularly for building
foundations in or under water. It is designed to provide a dry working environment in submerged
conditions, allowing for the excavation and construction of foundations for bridges, piers, and
other marine structures.

Key Features of Caissons:

• Waterproof: Designed to keep water out, enabling construction activities to take place
without flooding.

• Varied Shapes: Can be box-shaped, cylindrical, or other forms depending on the specific
application.

• Foundation Support: Used to support structures in challenging environments, such as

rivers, lakes, or coastal areas.

• Construction Techniques: Can be built on land and floated to the site, or constructed in
place using specialized techniques.

Purpose

Caissons are primarily used to create stable foundations where traditional building methods
would be impractical due to water or soft soil conditions.

5.8 Types of Caissons

Caissons come in several types, each designed for specific construction needs and environmental
conditions. Here are the main types of caissons:

1. Box Caissons

2. Pneumatic Caissons

3. Open Caissons

4. Floating Caissons

5. Combination Caissons

1. Box Caissons

Overview: Box caissons are rectangular or square watertight structures used primarily for
underwater construction, often serving as foundations for bridges, piers, and other marine
structures.

Characteristics

• Shape: Typically box-shaped, though they can be customized to fit specific project
requirements.

• Materials: Made from reinforced concrete, they are designed to withstand significant
loads and resist environmental conditions.

Construction Process

1. Fabrication: Box caissons are constructed on land in a controlled environment. This

allows for high-quality construction and the use of reinforcement materials.

2. Floating to Site: Once completed, the caisson is floated to the desired location on the
water.

3. Sinking: The caisson is gradually sunk to the required depth, often using ballast (such as
water or other heavy materials) to help it descend.

4. Excavation: Once in place, excavation can occur at the base to ensure proper seating and
stability.

Applications

• Bridge Foundations: Ideal for supporting bridge piers in rivers and other bodies of
water.
 • Retaining Walls: Can be used to create stable retaining walls in waterfront
developments.

• Marine Structures: Suitable for various marine construction projects where dry working
conditions are needed.

Advantages

• Stability: Provides a strong and stable base for construction, especially in soft or unstable
soil conditions.

• Controlled Environment: Being constructed on land allows for better quality control
and construction practices.

• Adaptability: Can be designed to meet specific load and size requirements based on the
project.

Disadvantages

• Limited Depth: Not suitable for very deep underwater conditions compared to
pneumatic caissons.

• Transportation: Requires careful planning for transportation and placement, especially

in urban or busy waterways.

2. Pneumatic Caissons

Overview: Pneumatic caissons are specialized underwater construction structures that allow for
excavation and building at significant depths while maintaining a dry working environment.
They are typically cylindrical or box-like in shape and are used in situations where water
pressure is a concern.

Key Features

• Pressurized Environment: Pneumatic caissons operate under air pressure to keep water
out, allowing workers to excavate safely at depth.

• Construction: Made from reinforced concrete, they are designed to withstand both the
weight of the structure above and the pressure of the surrounding water.

• Access: Workers enter and exit through a lock system that maintains pressure, ensuring
the interior remains dry.

Construction Process
 1. Placement: The caisson is floated to the construction site and then sunk to the desired
depth using its own weight or added ballast.

2. Pressurization: Once in position, the interior is pressurized to prevent water from

entering.

3. Excavation: Workers can then excavate soil and rock from the base of the caisson while
it remains pressurized.

4. Foundation Construction: After reaching the desired depth, the foundation for the
intended structure is built inside the caisson.

Applications

• Bridge Foundations: Commonly used for constructing deep foundations for bridge piers
in rivers and coastal areas.

• Marine Structures: Suitable for underwater structures where water pressure is

significant and dry working conditions are necessary.

Advantages

• Safety: Allows for safe work in high-water pressure environments.

• Versatility: Effective for various soil types and underwater conditions.

• Efficiency: Facilitates rapid excavation and construction at depth.

Disadvantages

• Cost: Can be more expensive than other methods due to the complexity of pressurization
and safety measures.

• Health Risks: Workers may be exposed to risks associated with high-pressure

environments, such as decompression sickness.

3. Open Caissons

Overview: Open caissons are large, hollow structures that are open at the bottom, allowing for
excavation from within. They are typically used in shallow water or on land where water
pressure is manageable.

Key Features

• Shape: Usually cylindrical or rectangular, designed to be heavy enough to sink into the
ground under their own weight.
 • Excavation Method: The open bottom allows workers to excavate soil or rock directly
from inside the caisson, facilitating sinking to the desired depth.

• Materials: Constructed from reinforced concrete or steel, designed to withstand the loads
imposed by the structures they support.

Construction Process

1. Placement: The open caisson is positioned at the construction site, often using cranes or
barges.

2. Sinking: It sinks into the ground or seabed under its own weight, and additional ballast
may be added if necessary.

3. Excavation: As the caisson sinks, workers excavate the material from inside, allowing it
to descend further.

4. Foundation Construction: Once the caisson reaches the desired depth, a foundation can
be built within it, typically involving pouring concrete to form a stable base.

Applications

• Bridge Piers: Commonly used for foundations in rivers or shallow marine environments.

• Buildings: Can be used in urban construction where foundations need to be placed in soft
or unstable soil.

• Marine Structures: Suitable for jetties and other structures that require a solid base.

Advantages

• Simplicity: The construction process is relatively straightforward and does not require
complex pressurization systems.

• Cost-Effective: Generally less expensive than pneumatic caissons, making them a good
option for certain projects.

• Versatility: Effective in a variety of soil conditions, particularly where water depth is not
extreme.

Disadvantages

• Water Intrusion: If used in deep water or high-water pressure environments, they may
not be as effective due to potential water intrusion.

• Limited Depth: More suitable for shallow applications compared to pneumatic caissons,
which can handle greater depths.
5.9 Well foundations
Overview: Well foundations, also known as "well-type caissons," are deep foundation systems
used to support structures in locations where soil conditions may be unstable or where significant
load-bearing capacity is required. They are typically cylindrical in shape and are constructed by
digging a large, vertical shaft into the ground.

Key Features

• Shape: Well foundations are generally circular or cylindrical.

• Construction Method: They are created by excavating a hole in the ground, which is
often lined with concrete or masonry to prevent collapse.

• Depth: Designed to reach stable soil layers below weaker surface soils, making them
suitable for high-load applications.

Construction Process

1. Excavation: A vertical shaft is excavated to the required depth, often using specialized
drilling or digging equipment.

2. Lining: The walls of the excavation may be lined with concrete or reinforced materials to
provide stability.

3. Base Construction: Once the desired depth is reached, the base of the well is typically
filled with concrete to form a solid footing.

4. Column or Pier Installation: A column or pier is then built on top of the well
foundation to support the structure above.

Applications

• Bridges: Commonly used for bridge foundations, especially in river or coastal

environments.

• Tall Structures: Effective for supporting high-rise buildings and other heavy structures
where deep stability is needed.

• Marine Structures: Suitable for piers, wharves, and other marine constructions that
require a strong foundation.

Advantages

• Load-Bearing Capacity: Well foundations can support substantial loads and are suitable
for various soil conditions.
 • Stability: Reaching deeper, stable soil layers provides a solid foundation for
construction.

• Adaptability: Can be used in diverse applications, from bridges to tall buildings.

Disadvantages

• Construction Complexity: The excavation and lining process can be labor-intensive and
may require specialized equipment.

• Cost: Depending on the depth and soil conditions, well foundations can be more
expensive than other types of foundations.

Design of Well Foundations

Designing a well foundation involves several key considerations to ensure stability, load-bearing
capacity, and overall structural integrity. Here’s an overview of the essential aspects of well
foundation design:

1. Site Investigation

• Soil Testing: Conduct geotechnical investigations to assess soil properties, including

bearing capacity, shear strength, and groundwater conditions.

• Depth Assessment: Determine the depth to stable soil layers, which will influence the
well depth.

2. Type and Shape

• Shape: Typically circular or cylindrical, but may be modified based on specific site
conditions or architectural requirements.

• Diameter: The diameter is influenced by the load requirements and the properties of the
soil. Larger diameters can distribute loads more effectively.

3. Load Considerations

• Vertical Loads: Calculate the total vertical loads from the structure above, including live
loads, dead loads, and any additional loads such as wind or seismic forces.

• Lateral Loads: Assess lateral forces, especially in seismic or wind-prone areas, to ensure
stability against sliding and overturning.

4. Depth and Embedment

• Embedment Depth: Design the well to extend deep enough to reach stable soil or
bedrock. The embedment depth is critical for load transfer and stability.
 • Excavation Depth: Consider the excavation methods and the depth required to facilitate
construction and maintain safety.

5. Material Selection

• Concrete Strength: Use high-strength concrete to resist compressive loads and potential
environmental degradation.

• Reinforcement: Incorporate adequate reinforcement (rebar) to enhance tensile strength

and control cracking.

6. Construction Techniques

• Excavation: Use appropriate excavation techniques (e.g., open excavation, drilling)

based on site conditions.

• Lining: Implement lining (concrete or steel) to prevent collapse during excavation,

ensuring the well remains stable.

• Curing: Ensure proper curing of concrete to achieve desired strength and durability.

7. Foundation Cap

• Cap Design: Design a foundation cap or footing to distribute loads evenly across the well
foundation. The cap connects the well to the structure above.

• Thickness and Reinforcement: Determine the thickness and reinforcement requirements

based on loads and soil conditions.

8. Drainage and Waterproofing

• Drainage Considerations: Design drainage systems to manage groundwater and prevent

hydrostatic pressure from affecting the foundation.

• Waterproofing: Implement waterproofing measures if necessary to protect the

foundation from water infiltration.

5.10 Details, design and Construction of pneumatic and precast caissons.

Pneumatic Caissons

Overview: Pneumatic caissons are large, pressurized structures used for underwater
construction, allowing for excavation in deep water while keeping the interior dry. Here’s how
they are constructed:

Construction Process
 1. Design and Fabrication:

o Design the caisson based on project specifications, including dimensions and

material strength.

o Fabricate the caisson on land using reinforced concrete or steel.

2. Floating to Site:

o Once constructed, the caisson is floated to the desired location on water, using
barges or tugboats.

3. Sinking the Caisson:

o The caisson is sunk to the required depth by adding ballast (e.g., water or other
heavy materials).

o The interior is pressurized with air to keep water from entering, allowing safe
working conditions.

4. Excavation:

o Workers enter the caisson through an airlock system.

o Excavation occurs at the base to remove soil and rock, enabling the caisson to
sink further until it reaches a stable layer.

5. Foundation Construction:

o Once at the desired depth, the foundation is constructed inside the caisson,
typically by pouring concrete to form a stable base.

6. Finalization:

o After the foundation is set, the caisson is de-pressurized, and the work is
completed.

Design of Pneumatic Caissons

Designing a pneumatic caisson involves several critical considerations to ensure it can withstand
the pressures of water and support the structures above it. Here’s an overview of the design
process:

1. Site Investigation
 • Soil Analysis: Conduct a geotechnical survey to assess soil types, bearing capacity, and
groundwater levels. Understanding soil conditions is crucial for determining the depth
and stability of the caisson.

• Hydrological Studies: Analyze water depth and flow characteristics to inform design
choices.

2. Load Analysis

• Vertical Loads: Calculate the total vertical loads from the structure that the caisson will
support, including dead loads (weight of the structure) and live loads (temporary loads
like traffic).

• Lateral Loads: Consider lateral forces from water pressure, wind, and seismic activities
that may affect the caisson.

3. Dimensions and Shape

• Diameter and Height: Determine the diameter and height of the caisson based on load
requirements and site conditions. Larger diameters can distribute loads better but may
require more material and cost.

• Shape: Usually cylindrical, but may be adapted to site-specific requirements.

4. Material Selection

• Concrete Specifications: Choose high-strength concrete with appropriate durability

characteristics to withstand environmental conditions, including potential exposure to
seawater if applicable.

• Reinforcement: Specify adequate reinforcement (rebar) to provide tensile strength,

particularly around areas subject to high stress.

5. Pressurization System

• Air Pressure Design: Determine the required internal air pressure to keep water out
during excavation. The pressure must counteract the hydrostatic pressure from the
surrounding water.

• Safety Factors: Incorporate safety factors into the design to account for variations in
water levels and unexpected loads.

6. Excavation and Construction Considerations

• Excavation Method: Plan for safe excavation practices within the caisson under
pressurized conditions. This includes the use of airlocks for worker entry and exit.
 • Curing and Setting: Design a method for curing the concrete in the caisson once
construction is complete, ensuring it achieves the necessary strength.

7. Stability and Safety

• Stability Checks: Perform stability analyses to ensure the caisson will not float or shift
during construction or in response to environmental conditions.

• Decompression Measures: Plan for safe decompression procedures for workers when
exiting the caisson after construction.

8. Drainage and Waterproofing

• Drainage Design: Consider drainage solutions to manage any groundwater that may
infiltrate during construction or use.

• Waterproofing: If necessary, design waterproofing measures to protect the caisson from

moisture intrusion over its lifespan.

Precast Caissons

Overview: Precast caissons are constructed off-site in a controlled environment and then
transported to the construction site. They are typically box-shaped or cylindrical and are used for
various foundation applications.

Construction Process

1. Design and Engineering:

o Develop detailed designs for the precast caisson, considering load requirements
and site conditions.

2. Precasting:

o Construct the caisson components in a precast concrete facility. This includes

molds for the caisson’s shape.

o Use high-strength concrete and reinforcement materials to ensure durability and

structural integrity.

3. Curing:

o Allow the precast elements to cure adequately to achieve the required strength
before transportation.

4. Transportation:
 o Transport the precast caisson to the construction site using specialized trucks or
barges, depending on the size and location.

5. Installation:

o Position the precast caisson at the intended location using cranes or other lifting
equipment.

o Ensure it is properly aligned and leveled.

6. Ballasting (if required):

o If the caisson is being used in a water environment, ballast may be added to assist
in sinking it to the desired depth.

7. Backfilling and Finishing:

o Once the caisson is installed, backfill around it if necessary, and construct any
additional foundations or superstructures as required.

Design of Precast Caissons

The design of precast caissons involves several critical steps to ensure structural integrity, load-
bearing capacity, and adaptability to site conditions. Here’s an overview of the design process:

1. Site Investigation

• Geotechnical Analysis: Conduct soil tests to determine soil properties, bearing capacity,
and groundwater conditions. This information helps in deciding the caisson dimensions
and depth.

• Hydrological Assessment: Evaluate water levels and flow patterns, especially if the
caisson will be submerged.

2. Load Analysis

• Vertical Loads: Calculate the total vertical loads from the structure, including dead loads
(weight of the structure) and live loads (temporary loads, such as traffic or occupancy).

• Lateral Loads: Assess lateral loads due to soil pressure, water pressure, wind, and
potential seismic forces.

3. Dimensions and Shape

• Diameter and Height: Determine the appropriate diameter and height based on load
requirements and soil conditions. Larger diameters may help distribute loads more
evenly.
 • Shape: Precast caissons are typically cylindrical or rectangular, but the shape may be
modified based on specific project needs.

4. Material Selection

• Concrete Mix Design: Specify high-strength concrete that meets durability requirements,
especially for exposure to harsh environmental conditions (e.g., water, freeze-thaw
cycles).

• Reinforcement Details: Design an adequate reinforcement layout (e.g., rebar or steel

mesh) to enhance the tensile strength of the caisson and prevent cracking.

5. Precasting Process

• Mold Design: Create molds for the caisson components, ensuring they are capable of
achieving the desired shape and dimensions accurately.

• Casting and Curing: Pour concrete into the molds and allow for proper curing to reach
the required strength before transportation. Utilize curing methods that prevent cracking
and ensure quality.

6. Connection Details

• Joint Design: Plan for the connections between caisson segments, ensuring they are
robust enough to handle the anticipated loads and forces.

• Anchoring Systems: Design any necessary anchoring or locking mechanisms to secure

the caisson in place during installation.

7. Transportation and Installation

• Transportation Logistics: Plan for transporting the precast caisson to the construction
site, considering the size and weight of the components.

• Installation Method: Design an installation procedure using cranes or other lifting

equipment, ensuring the caisson is positioned accurately and leveled properly.

8. Stability and Safety

• Stability Analysis: Assess the stability of the caisson during installation and operation,
considering factors like buoyancy and soil conditions.

• Safety Measures: Incorporate safety factors in the design to account for uncertainties in
loads and soil behavior.

9. Drainage and Waterproofing

• Drainage Design: Include drainage provisions to manage any groundwater or surface
water that may affect the caisson.

• Waterproofing: Implement waterproofing measures if necessary to protect the caisson

from moisture and extend its lifespan.