Fundamentals of Information technology

Unit-I

Introduction to Computers: Introduction, Definition, .Characteristics of computer,

Evolution of Computer, Block Diagram Of a computer, Generations of Computer,
Classification Of Computers, Applications of Computer, Capabilities and limitations of
compute5

Computer Introduction

A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculations and operations based
on instructions provided by a software or hardware program. It has the ability to accept data
(input), process it, and then produce outputs.

• High Speed. One of the reasons for the improvement in the quality of life is the personal
computer's speed.
• Accuracy. Humans make errors.
• Automation.
• Storage.
• Ease of Access.
• Multitasking.
• Better understanding of data. ...
• Reduced Cost for Online Ventures.

Explain about Characteristics of Computer

Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while
performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of
instructions per second. The time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds
and nanoseconds.
Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data
inconsistency or inaccuracy.
Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and
accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it
superior to that of human beings.
Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with
same accuracy and efficiency.
Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same
set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.
Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual
intervention.
Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used
to store data.

Generations of Computer Time-Period Evolving Hardware

First Generation 1940s – 1950s Vacuum Tube Based

Second Generation 1950s – 1960s Transistor Based

Third Generation 1960s – 1970s Integrated Circuit Based

Fourth Generation 1970s – Present Microprocessor Based

Fifth Generation Present – Future Artificial Intelligence Based

First Generation Computers

The technology behind the primary generation computers was a fragile glass device, which
was called a vacuum tube. These computers were very heavy and really large. These
weren’t very reliable and programming on them was a tedious task as they used low-level
programming language and used no OS. First-generation computers were used for
calculation, storage, and control purpose. They were too bulky and large that they needed a
full room and consume a lot of electricity.
Examples of some main first-generation computers are mentioned below.
• ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built by J. Presper Eckert and
John V. Mauchly was a general-purpose computer. It had been cumbersome, and large,
and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes.
• EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed by von
Neumann. It could store data also as instruction and thus the speed was enhanced.
• UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer was developed in 1952 by Eckert and
Mauchly.

Characteristics Components

Main electronic component Vacuum tube.

Programming language Machine language.

 Characteristics Components

Main memory Magnetic tapes and magnetic drums.

Input/output devices Paper tape and punched cards.

Very slow and very large (often taking up an entire

Speed and size
room).

Examples of the first

IBM 650, IBM 701, ENIAC, UNIVAC1, etc.
generation

Second Generation Computers

Second-generation computers used the technology of transistors rather than bulky vacuum
tubes. Another feature was the core storage. A transistor may be a device composed of
semiconductor material that amplifies a sign or opens or closes a circuit.

haracteristics of Second-Generation Computers

Characteristics Components

Main electronic component Transistor.

Programming language Machine language and assembly language.

Memory Magnetic core and magnetic tape/disk.

Input/output devices Magnetic tape and punched cards.

Third Generation Computers

During the third generation, technology envisaged a shift from huge transistors to
integrated circuits, also referred to as IC. Here a variety of transistors were placed on
silicon chips, called semiconductors. The most feature of this era’s computer was speed and
reliability. IC was made from silicon and also called silicon chips.
Characteristics of Third-Generation Computers
Characteristics Components

Main electronic component Integrated circuits (ICs).

Programming language High-level language.

Memory Large magnetic core, magnetic tape/disk.

Input/output devices Magnetic tape, monitor, keyboard, printer, etc.

Examples of the third IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, NCR 395, B6500, UNIVAC
generation 1108, etc.

Fourth Generation Computers

In 1971 First microprocessors were used, the large-scale of integration LSI circuits built on
one chip called microprocessors. The advantage of this technology is that one
microprocessor can contain all the circuits required to perform arithmetic, logic, and control
functions on one chip.
Characteristics of Fourth-Generation Computers
Characteristics Components

Main electronic Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) and the microprocessor

component (VLSI has thousands of transistors on a single microchip).

Memory semiconductor memory (such as RAM, ROM, etc.).

pointing devices, optical scanning, keyboard, monitor, printer,

Input/output devices
etc.
 Characteristics Components

Examples of the fourth IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple Macintosh, Alter 8800,
generation etc.

Fifth Generation Computers

The technology behind the fifth generation of computers is AI. It allows computers to
behave like humans. It is often seen in programs like voice recognition, area of medicine,
and entertainment. Within the field of game playing also it’s shown remarkable
performance where computers are capable of beating human competitors.

Block diagram of digital Computers

CPU

CPU stands for Central Processing Unit. It acts like the brain of the computer. The primary
function of a CPU is to execute programs. Besides this, it also controls the operation of IO(
Input-Output) devices and memory.

In small computers, a microprocessor chip acts as a CPU. The CPU contains the following
major sub-components:

• Control Unit (CU)

• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
• Accumulator
• Registers (General & Special purpose)

Control Unit

Control Unit is responsible for coordinating various computer operations. It generates the
timing and control signals that are necessary to execute the instructions. It also determines the
sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed.

Arithmetic & Logical Unit

The processing of the data and instructions is performed by the Arithmetic & Logical Unit.
The ALU is used to perform arithmetic operations such as Addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication, and Division. It can also perform logic operations such as AND, OR, NOT,
EXCLUSIVE OR.

Registers

Registers are used to store the temporary results and data while performing the operations.

Memory

The main purpose of memory is to store information. Two types of memories are as follows:

• Main memory/ Primary memory

• Secondary memory/Auxiliary memory
The Main memory is volatile memory. The information stored in the main memory will be
lost when the computer is shut down. On the other hand, the information stored on the
Auxiliary memory like a hard disk is permanent. To improve the performance of the
computer other memories like cache memory, virtual memory, etc are also used.

Input devices
Input devices are used to enter information into the computer. An input device converts input
information into a suitable binary form acceptable to a computer.T he standard input device
used on most computers is the keyboard. Examples of input devices are as follows:

• Mouse
• Mic
• Joystick
• Light pen
• Touch screen
• Trackballs

Output devices

Output devices receive results and other information from the computer and display them to
the computer users. The computer usually sends the information in the form of binary coded
representation.

Examples of output devices are as follows:

• Monitor
• Printer
Classification of computers

The computer systems can be classified on the following basis:

1. On the basis of size.
2. On the basis of functionality.
3. On the basis of data handling.

On the basis of size.

Super computers : The super computers are the most high performing system. A
supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared to a general-
purpose computer. The actual Performance of a supercomputer is measured in FLOPS
instead of MIPS. All of the world’s fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-based operating
systems.

eg: PARAM, jaguar, roadrunner.

Mainframe computers : These are commonly called as big iron, they are usually used by
big organisations for bulk data processing such as statistics, census data processing,
transaction processing and are widely used as the servers as these systems has a higher
processing capability as compared to the other classes of computers,

Eg: IBM z Series, System z9 and System z10 servers.

Mini computers : These computers came into the market in mid 1960s and were sold at a
much cheaper price than the main frames, they were actually designed for control,
instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from
calculation and record keeping, later they became very popular for personal uses with
evolution.

Eg: Personal Laptop, PC etc.

1. Micro computers : A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer with a

microprocessor as its CPU. It includes a microprocessor, memory, and minimal I/O
circuitry mounted on a single printed circuit board.The previous to these computers,
mainframes and minicomputers, were comparatively much larger, hard to maintain and
more expensive. They actually formed the foundation for present day microcomputers
and smart gadgets that we use in day to day life.
Eg: Tablets, Smartwatches.

on the basis of functionality

1. Servers : Servers are nothing but dedicated computers which are set-up to offer some
services to the clients. They are named depending on the type of service they offered.
Eg: security server, database server.

2. Workstation : Those are the computers designed to primarily to be used by single user
at a time. They run multi-user operating systems. They are the ones which we use for
our day to day personal / commercial work.
3. Information Appliances : They are the portable devices which are designed to perform
a limited set of tasks like basic calculations, playing multimedia, browsing internet etc.

on the basis of data handling

Analog : An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-

changeable aspects of physical fact such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic
quantities to model the problem being solved. Any thing that is variable with respect to
time and continuous can be claimed as analog just like an analog clock measures time
by means of the distance traveled for the spokes of the clock around the circular dial.
Digital : A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system of “0” and “1”, “Computer
capable of solving problems by processing information expressed in discrete form. from
manipulation of the combinations of the binary digits, it can perform mathematical
calculations, organize and analyze data, control industrial and other processes, and
simulate dynamic systems such as global weather patterns.
Hybrid : A computer that processes both analog and digital data, Hybrid computer is a
digital computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to digital and processes
them in digital form.

Applications of computers

Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business, educational
institutions, research organizations, medical field, government offices, entertainment, etc.

Home
Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill payment, watching movies
or shows at home, home tutoring, social media access, playing games, internet access, etc.
They provide communication through electronic mail. They help to avail work from home
facility for corporate employees. Computers help the student community to avail online
educational support.
Medical Field
Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history, diagnosis, X-rays,
live monitoring of patients, etc. Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical devices to perform
delicate operations, and conduct surgeries remotely. Virtual reality technologies are also used
for training purposes. It also helps to monitor the fetus inside the mother’s womb.
Entertainment
Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a virtual entertainer in
playing games, listening to music, etc. MIDI instruments greatly help people in the
entertainment industry in recording music with artificial instruments. Videos can be fed from
computers to full screen televisions. Photo editors are available with fabulous features.
Industry
Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory, designing
purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior designing, video conferencing, etc. Online
marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell various products to inaccessible
corners like interior or rural areas. Stock markets have seen phenomenal participation from
different levels of people through the use of computers.
Education
Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online examinations, referring
e-books, online tutoring, etc. They help in increased use of audio-visual aids in the education
field.
Government
In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a database of
citizens and supporting a paperless environment. The country’s defense organizations have
greatly benefitted from computers in their use for missile development, satellites, rocket
launches, etc.
Banking
In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers and conduct
transactions, such as withdrawal and deposit of money through ATMs. Banks have reduced
manual errors and expenses to a great extent through extensive use of computers.
Business
Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective of business is
transaction processing, which involves transactions with suppliers, employees or customers.
Computers can make these transactions easy and accurate. People can analyze investments,
sales, expenses, markets and other aspects of business using computers.
Training
Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to save money and
improve performance. Video conferencing through computers allows saving of time and
travelling costs by being able to connect people in various locations.
Arts
Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid movement
of dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be digitized using computers.
Science and Engineering
Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic process in Science and
Engineering. Supercomputers have numerous applications in area of Research and
Development (R&D). Topographic images can be created through computers. Scientists use
computers to plot and analyze data to have a better understanding of earthquakes.

Capabilities of Computer System

Capabilities of a computer system are the qualities of the computer that put it in a
positive light and make the user experience more efficient.

Speed
Speed means the duration computer system requires in fulfilling a task or completing an activity.
It is well-known that computers need very little time than humans in completing a task.
Generally, humans take into account a second or minute as a unit of time.

Nevertheless, computer systems have such fast operation capacity that the unit of time is in
fractions of a second. Today, computers are capable of doing 100 million calculations per
second and that is why the industry has developed Million Instructions per Second (MIPS) as the
criterion to classify different computers according to speed.

Accuracy
Accuracy means the level of precision with which calculations are made and tasks are
performed. One may invest years of his life in detecting errors in computer calculations or
updating a wrong record.

Reliability
Reliability is the quality due to which the user can stay dependable on the computer. Computers
systems are well-adjusted to do repetitive tasks. They never get tired, bored or fatigued. Hence,
they are a lot reliable than humans. Still, there can be failures of a computer system due to
internal and external reasons.

Any failure of the computer in a highly automated industry is disastrous. Hence, the industry in
such situations has a backup facility to take over tasks without losing much of the time.

Adaptability
Adaptability of computer system means the quality of it to complete a different type of tasks:
simple as well as complex. Computers are normally versatile unless designed for a specific
operation. Overall, a daily purpose computer is used in any area of application: business,
industry, scientific, statistical, technological and so on

A general purpose computer, when introduced in a company, can replace the jobs of multiple
specialists due to its flexibility. A computer system can replace the functions of all these
specialists because of being very versatile.

Storage
Storage is the ability of the computer to store data in itself for accessing it again in future.
Nowadays, apart from having instantaneous access to data, computers have a huge ability to
store data in a little physical space.

A general computer system has a capacity of storing and providing online millions of characters
and thousands of pictures. It is obvious from the above discussion that computer capabilities
outperform the human capabilities. Therefore, a computer, when used rightfully, will tenfold the
effectiveness of an organization.

Limitations of Computer Systems

Limitations are the drawbacks of the computer system in which humans outperform them.

Lack of common-sense
This is one of the major limitations of computer systems. No matter how efficient, fast and
reliable computer systems might be but yet do not have any common sense because no full-
proof algorithm has been designed to programme logic into them. As computers function based
on the stored programme(s), they simply lack common sense.

Zero IQ
Another of the limitations of computer systems is that they have zero Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
They are unable to see and think the actions to perform in a particular situation unless that
situation is already programmed into them. Computers are programmable to complete each and
every task, however small it may be.

Lack of Decision-making
Decision-making is a complicated process involving information, knowledge, intelligence,
wisdom, and ability to judge. The computer system does not have the ability to make decisions
on their own because they do not possess all the essentials of decision-making.

They can be programmed to take such decisions, which are purely procedure-oriented. If a
computer has not been programmed for a particular decision situation, it will not take a decision
due to lack of wisdom and evaluation faculties. Human beings, on the other hand, possess this
great power of decision-making.
Evolution of computer

1. First Generation Computer (1940-1956)

2. Second Generation Computer (1956-1963)
3. Third Generation Computer(1964-1971)
4. Fourth Generation Computer(1971-Present)
5. Fifth Generation Computer(Present and Beyond)

You can write same as history computers content for the above question