UNIT - 1

INTRODUCTION
In society, human beings share their thoughts, feelings, emotions, reactions, facts and figures
with individuals as well as groups at all level, higher, lower or equal. Communication is, in fact,
the most important of all our activities as it has helped us to organize ourselves as a civilized
society. In a civilized society there are well defined roles for one and all. The only way to play
this role is through communication. All communication is based on and guided by role
relationships. Only when we understand and appreciate these role relationships we can
successfully communicate. In the words of John Adair, "Communication is essentially the ability
of one person to make contact with another and to make himself or herself understood. Or if you
prefer a slightly more formal version, communication is the process by which meanings are
exchanged between people through the use of common set of symbols."

DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
The term 'communication' is derived from the Latin word 'communis' which means common;
consequently it implies that the communication is common understanding through communion
of minds and hearts. This common understanding results not only through the transfer of
information and idea but also from transmission of the attitude. Communication is complete
when the receiver, receives the message and understands in the same sense and spirit that the
sender intends to convey.
Communication means transference of message or exchange of ideas, facts, opinion or feelings
by two or more persons. It is the act of making one's ideas and opinions known to others. It also
involves the receiver listening to it, interpreting it, or acting according to it. It takes a wide
variety of forms - from two people having a face-to-face communication to hand signals to
messages sent over the global tele-communication networks. The process of communication
facilitates interaction among people; without it, we would be unable to share our knowledge or
experience with anybody else. Common forms of communication include speaking, writing,
reading, gesturing and broadcasting.

FOUR SKILLS OF COMMUNICATION

Four important skills of communication are -
(i) Listening Skills
Listening is a process of receiving and interpreting the spoken word. It involves recognizing
what is said and comprehending the matter, i.e. understanding the main and subsidiary points as
well as the links between the different parts of speech.
Listening skills are probably one of the most important communication skills that one need, to be
successful in his academic and professional life. As students, you have to listen to lectures,
explanations during tutorials and practical sessions, seminars and workshops, technical test, viva
voce tests, etc. As aprofessional, one is required to listen to discussions in meetings and
conferences, business presentations, news bulletins, telephonic conversations,
teleconferencesand video conferences, and so forth. It is hard to imagine any academic,
professional, or business work which does not require efficient listening skills. In fact, each and
every individual needs effective listening skills as it is a state of receptivity that permits
understanding of what is heard and allows the listener to be part of a communication process.
One cannot be an effectivespeaker unless being an effective listener. The importance of listening
skills can be understood from the functions it serves, viz.
(a) Makes oral interaction possible.
(b) Helps in decision making.
(c) Stimulates others to act to achieve individual as well asprofessional objectives.
(d) Develops information and understanding essential for decision making in meetings and
conferences.
(e) Promotes maintenance of professional relations.

(ii) Speaking Skills

Speaking skills are also very important for a person's professional survival and growth. Every
academic, professional or business work requires effective speaking skills. A person need to
exhibit speaking (oral communication) skills in several formal communicative situations like
meetings, conferences, group discussions, panel discussions, interviews, teleconferencing, video
conferencing, seminars, workshops, and so on. Without oral communication there will not be
social as well as professional interactions. Students need to develop speaking skills if they need
to be successful in their careers. Most of the professionals are hired through a selection process,
which requires speaking skills in the form of group discussions, case discussion, personal
interview, oral presentation or some other form of oral communication.
As oral communication is necessary for professional and business interaction, one should be able
to use it fluently, effectively and confidently. A person should know how to speak using
appropriate grammatical and lexical forms and how to sound using appropriate phonological and
graphical forms.

(iii) Reading Skills

You definitely know how to read. Skillful reading is reading for specific information for a better
learning experience in a short span of time. Of all the four skills - listening, speaking, reading
and writing reading is probably the most crucial skill. A good reader can rise above the
disadvantages of limited opportunity received in terms of listening, speaking and writing a
language. Both students and professionals need to have excellent reading skills to be successful
in their pursuits. Professional in different fields need to read technical and business documents
such as reports, proposals, instruction manuals, and corporate brochures. Now-a-days reading is
not limited to reading of letters and memos, it includes receiving and interpreting sophisticated
technical materials, e-mail messages, intranet information, information on websites, and so on.

(iv) Writing Skills

Importance of writing skills cannot be overemphasized as writing is so important for students
and professionals in all fields. As a student, effective writing skills are required to write
examination answers, project reports, lab reports, summaries, synopsis, abstracts and subject
notes. A professional needs writing skills to write business letters, memos, e-mail messages,
reports, proposals, minutes, notes, professional summaries, and so on.

LISTENING
Listening can be described as a skill that involves receiving, interpreting and responding to the
message sent by the communicator. Like any other skill, listening also needs to be learnt and
developed for effective communication. It is, in fact, most important skill that plays a vital role in
the process of communication. Real communication occurs when listening is done with
understanding i.e., to see the idea and attitude from the other person's point of view, to sense how
it feels to them, to achieve their frame of reference in regard to the thing they are talking about.
As listening is fundamental to all communication, poor listening can go on to become amajor
barrier to communication. It can result in the breakdown of communication orwrong
communication. Messages can be lost, misunderstandings may crop up and peopleperceive and
may be perceived wrongly. According to researchers, listening is mostneglected of all the skills
of communication.
In general sense, listening implies the minimum of two people talking to each other. Proper
interaction is a two way movement. It is much more than hearing. It is a process of matching of
the mental faculties of the sender and the receiver. In fact it is at the top of the list in the four
forms of communication:
1. Listening
2. Speaking
3. Writing
4. Reading
Top executives and businessmen spend almost 65 to 90 percent of the working day listening to
people.
Difference between Listening & Hearing
BASIS FOR
HEARING LISTENING
COMPARISON
Meaning Hearing refers to one's ability to Listening is something done
perceive sounds, by receiving vibrations consciously, that involves the
through ears. analysis and understanding of the
sounds you hear.
What is it? An ability A skill
Nature Primary and continuous Secondary and temporary
Act Physiological Psychological
Involves Receipt of message through ears. Interpretation of the message
received by ears.
Process Passive bodily process Active mental process
Occurs at Subconscious level Conscious level
Use of senses Only one More than one
Reason We are neither aware nor we have any We listen to acquire knowledge and
control over the sounds we hear. receive information.
Concentration Not required Required

The listening process

There are six stages of listening process-
1. Receiving
2. Interpreting
3. Remembering
4. Evaluating
5. Responding
6. Acting
1. Receiving. In receiving we hear the message and take note of it. The efficiency of this stage is
affected by various external factors, such as noise, poor hearing, and lack of attention.
2. Interpreting. This is where we infer the speaker's meaning based on our own experiences. We
may need to consider whether the speaker's frame of reference is similar or different to ours, and
how this will affect our understanding of the speaker's meaning.
3. Remembering. At this stage, the message is stored for future reference. We make a mental
note of the key points as they are mentioned.
4. Evaluating. We consider the points mentioned and assess their importance. We need to
separate fact from opinion chaff from the grain of truth.
5. Responding. While listening, the response given may be in the form of nods or sounds of
approval or rejection.
6. Acting. This is the final stage of listening i.e. actually working on the thing that has been told.
That is the action, something concrete, a response.

APPROACHES TO LISTENING

The 5 levels of listening are:

1. Ignoring – we completely ignore what has been said
2. Pretend listening – we use body language and eye contact to show that we are
listening but the reality is you are not
3. Selective listening – we listen to the parts that interest us and switch off for the parts
that don’t
4. Attentive listening – we pay attention and really take on board what has been said
5. Empathetic listening – we concentrate and listen to understand the intent behind the
message

1. Ignoring Listening

The first of the 5 levels of listening is ignoring. Here, we are not listening at all. Our body
language likely shows this is the case too. For example, we may look away, do something else
and not engage with the person who is communicating with us.
There are no situations where this level of listening is appropriate and should be avoided. Even
in a scenario where the communication coming toward is negative or insulting. This is because it
will likely frustrate the person communicating with us and make their negative communication
even worse.

2. Pretend Listening

The second of the 5 levels of listening is pretend listening. Here, we may use body language that
shows we are engaged and listening to what is being said, but our mind is probably elsewhere –
either intentionally or because we have something else to concentrate on.
We will eventually get caught out if we use pretend listening because we either have to ask the
other person to repeat what was said or, we get a question from them that we can’t answer or an
action that we will be unable to carry out.

3. Selective Listening

The third of the 5 levels of listening is selective listening. Here we do the same as pretend listing
in that we show that we are listening through body language, but we do hear certain parts or
engage on occasions. These are times where what is being said interests us.
Just like pretend listening, we will get caught out if a question comes our way or we have an
action to carry out.

4. Attentive Listening

The fourth of the 5 levels of listening is attentive listening. When we are listening attentively, as
the word suggests, we are paying attention. This means that we are concentrating on what is
being said and responding appropriately. We will also be using the right body language to show
that we are listening.
In order to use attentive listening, we must first decide that we want to listen. This explains why
listening is a skill as it is something that we ‘need to turn on’ and use. Then, we ensure we give
the person communicating with us our full attention – no distractions.

5. Empathetic Listening

The fifth of the 5 levels of listening is attentive empathetic listening. When listening
empathetically, we not only listen to what is being said, we listen to understand. It means trying
to see things through the eyes of the person communicating with us. What are they feeling, why
are they communicating this and how do they want me to feel.
By listening empathetically, we are able to formulate a more appropriate response that matches
the person who is communicating with us.

HOW TO IMPROVE LISTENING EXERCISES

For an executive, the aim of good listening is not only to follow what the speaker is saying but
also to get at the problems of employee relations, motivation, raising morale etc. To succeed, he
has to follow some rules. The following rules are called the ten commandants of good listening

(i) Stop talking: It is not possible to listen while talking.

(ii) Put the speaker at ease: An uneasy, uncomfortable person does not speak clearly.

(iii) Show a desire to listen: It is not enough to listen, the speaker must see and feel that the
listener is interested. If the listener writes down a few points now and then, and gets them
checked for correctness, the speaker becomes more responsible and clear in what he says
because he realises that he is receiving serious attention.

(iv) Do not create or tolerate distractions: Tapping with the boot or a pencil shuffling papers,
attending to other work, or allowing others to interrupt disturbs the speaker and irritates him.

(v) Be patient: The speaker must be given time to say what he wants to say. Some people are
shy or nervous or cannot easily find words. If they are interrupted or hurried, they get more
nervous.
(vi) Keep your temper: Angry persons cannot communicate and cannot listen.

(vii) Try to be in the speaker's position: It helps the listener to understand better if he imagines
the speaker's position and tries to see from his point of view. This is called empathy.

(viii) Postpone judgement until the speaker has completed what he has to say: A hasty
judgement is a prejudice, and it closes the mind. A proper judgement can be made only after
getting full information and understanding it.

(ix) Ask questions at suitable moments to get a clear understanding.

(x) Make the mind stop wandering: Only closing the mouth, and allowing the mind to think of
the reply to be given or an argument to be put forward, is not listening.
LISTENING BARRIERS

Unfortunately, effective listening can be held back by barriers. These barriers to listening can be
grouped into two major categories: external and internal.

External Listening Barriers

External listening barriers are easier to manage than internal barriers. They include a variety of
environmental distractions that can usually be avoided or minimized with simple corrections,
like removing yourself from the interfering barrier or removing the issue from the area that you
are in. External barriers include:

 Noise: Any external noise can be a barrier, like the sound of equipment running, phones
ringing, or other people having conversations.
 Visual distractions: Visual distractions can be as simple as the scene outside a window
or the goings-on just beyond the glass walls of a nearby office.
 Physical setting: An uncomfortable temperature, poor or nonexistent seating, bad odors,
or distance between the listener and speaker can be an issue.
 Objects: Items like pocket change, pens, and jewelry are often fidgeted with while
listening.
 The person speaking: The person listening may become distracted by the other person’s
personal appearance, mannerisms, voice, or gestures.

Internal Listening Barriers

Internal listening barriers are more difficult to manage, as they reside inside the mind of the
listener. Internal barriers’ elimination relies on a high level of self-awareness and discipline on
the part of the listener, like catching oneself before the mind starts to wander and bringing full
attention back to the speaker. Internal barriers include:

 Anxiety: Anxiety can take place from competing personal worries and concerns.
 Self-centeredness: This causes the listener to focus on his or her own thoughts rather
than the speaker’s words.
  Mental laziness: Laziness creates an unwillingness to listen to complex or detailed
information.
 Boredom: Boredom stems from a lack of interest in the speaker’s subject matter.
 Sense of superiority: This leads the listener to believe they have nothing to learn from
the speaker.
 Cognitive dissonance: The listener hears only what he or she expects or molds the
speaker’s message to confirm with their own beliefs.
 Impatience: A listener can become impatient with a speaker who talks slowly or draws
out the message.

Working through these barriers is crucial for better listening. If a listener can remove these
barriers, they will find that they can gain better understanding of the tasks at hand, communicate
more effectively, and achieve greater success in the workplace.

SPEAKING

PARALANGUAGE

Paralanguage is another aspect of the way people communicate. Paralanguage is non-verbal

because it does not comprise words. But without it, words do not convey their intended meaning.
The word 'Para' means 'like'. Thus, paralanguage in simple words means 'like language' and
paralinguistic is the systematic study of how a speaker verbalizes his words/speech.
Paralanguage is defined as, "a type of non-verbal communication that includes articulation,
pronunciation, rate, pitch, volume, pauses and other vocal qualities. The verbal communication
consists of the 'what' or the content of the message, but paralanguage involves the 'how' of a
speaker's voice or the way in which he speaks.

Paralanguage is a method of communication that relates the way in which we say the words. This
may happen consciously or unconsciously. Paralanguage is a kind of action language. It involves
tone of voice, hesitations or speed or speech, and variations of language other than the actual
words. A qualitative voice involves a proper blend of force, pitch, rate and quality. Force or
volume signifies the energy or amplitude of the sound. For example, when we want to convey
anger or displeasure, we tend to raise your voice. When someone is excited, he or she talks fast,
while he/she is unhappy, he/she will talk slow with some pauses.

A simple sentence can convey several meanings, depending upon the paralanguage employed.
By changing emphasis on each of the words of a sentence, different meanings or inferences may
be drawn. Let us look at the following example -

(i) My manager was a good writer. (my, not yours)

(ii) My manager was a good writer. (manager, not anybody else)

(iii) My manager was a good writer. (was, not now)

(iv) My manager was a good writer. (good, not a mediocre)

(v) My manager was a good writer. (writer, not speaker)

The underlining of different words in the above statements shows how the speaker varies the
emphasis. In the first statement, the emphasis is on word 'My' which indicates my manager and
not yours. Similarly in the second statement, the emphasis is on 'manager'. In third statement, the
emphasis ison 'was'. The next statement emphasises the 'good', and the last one emphasises the
writer.

In everyday workplace situations, apart from verbal messages indirect cues are given through
paralanguage. Good business communicators know how to interpret paralinguistic aspects in
their day-to-day communication. Being aware of the indirect cues that emerge from their voice
quality and intonation or emphasis, and interpreting them would make communication more
effective.

Advantages of Paralanguage

Some prominent advantages of paralanguage are –

(i) It is closely allied to language and no oral message is complete without it.

(ii) It is a dependable indicator of the speaker's place in the organization.

(iii) It gives us a clear idea about the speaker's educational background.

(iv) It can tell about the speaker's national and regional background.

(v) It gives us useful clues regarding the speaker's mental state. His voice quality, intonation and
rate of speaking make it easy for the receiver of the message to deal with him in the best possible
manner.

(vi) It has an important educational value that a careful listener can learn from an effective
speaker.

Disadvantages of Paralanguage

Some disadvantages of paralanguage are -

(i) Paralanguage is like language, but not language. Thus, cannot be fully relied upon.

(ii) What is said and how it is said, must be blended. Since this does not happen often, it requires
extra care to get to the exact content of the message.

(iii) The voice quality and pitch of the speaker may prejudice the receiver of the message.

(iv) Sometimes, it may misguide or mislead, as there may be a difference in the speech and the
intention behind the spoken words.
(v) Speaker may belong to different speech community, thus, it is difficult to achieve uniformity
in oral communication.

Role of paralanguage in face-to-face communication

The first signal we receive or use is that of our voice. By listening voice of the speaker, we can
know about his/her sex, background, education, training and temperament. Various kinds of
voices can be clear, musical, raucous, cultivated, pleasant, unpleasant and so on. Human voice,
unless damaged by some injury to the vocal cords or some neurological problem, does a
satisfactory job. Importance of voice in communication cannot be over estimated. For effective
communication a good quality voice is must. In general communication, voice with some defects
can also work, but in certain jobs, it is absolutely necessary for the employee to have a clear and
pleasant voice. For example jobs like actors, radio or video jockeys, customer care
representatives, call centre executives, sales agents, etc.

Elements of Voice - Following elements need to be taken care in our voice for effective
conveyance of message -

(i) Pitch Variation - Variations in pitch are necessary, while we speaking to catch the listener's
attention and to keep him interested in the presentation. Those who speak in monotones (single
tone, without variation) fail to keep the listener's attention.

We have to select pitch carefully while speaking. A high pitch may indicate nervousness,
anxiety, tension, fear, surprise, dynamism, anger, joy, or impatience. A low pitch on the other
hand shows affection, sadness, boredom, pleasantness, intimacy or empathy.

(ii) Speed - In relaxed mood, we speak at a comfortable speed. An increase in speed indicates
impatience, urgency or anxiety, while decrease in rate may indicate thoughtfulness or a reflective
attitude. However, we speak at different speeds on different occasions and while conveying
different parts of the same message. In general, easy parts of the message should be present at a
brisk pace, because it is likely to be understood easily and soon. While the difficult, complicated
and highly technical part of the information should be conveyed at a slower pace.

(iii) Pause - The pace of speaking is also accompanied by a pause. We cannot, and should not,
go on speaking without pausing voluntarily or involuntarily. But pauses need to be use at the
right moments, unnecessary pauses can create problems. A pause can be highly effective in
emphasising the upcoming subject and in gaining the listener's attention. But too many or
arbitrary pauses spoil the speech and distract the listener's attention.

(iv) Non-fluencies - The pauses in speech may be inserted with sounds or utterances like 'oh',
'uh', 'you know', 'ok', etc. Pauses may also be inserted with laughing, yawning or chuckling.
These are called non-fluencies. They help to invite listener's attention by giving a non-verbal
edge to the verbal communication. If they used carefully and sparingly, add to the fluency of the
speaker, give him time to breath or relax, make him more alert and get the message conveyed
overtly or covertly. However, too frequent insertion of these non-fluencies can irritate the
listener and make him un-attentive.
(v) Volume Variation - Volume of voice also conveys meanings especially in conjunction with
speed. The loudness of our voice should be adjusted according to the size of our audience.
Loudness should be enough so that our audience can hear us, but also not to be too loud to cause
discomfort. If your boss says softly, "I would like to see you in my office" you might feel
somewhat at ease, but if, he said loudly, "I would like to see you in my office! You would feel
fearful and uncomfortable.

Loudness of voice seems to occur in conjunction with anger, cheerfulness, strength, fearlessness,
and high status. While softness of voice appears with affection, boredom, sadness, intimacy,
empathy, fear, weakness, and low status.

(vi) Pronunciation - People speaking different may pronounce words differently. This variation
in pronunciation convey different meanings to different people. There is no such thing as a
'correct pronunciation' because there is no one right way of speaking. It is better to consider
pronunciation in terms of 'acceptable' or 'unacceptable' rather than 'correct' or 'incorrect'.
Acceptable pronunciation is clearly intelligible to all ordinary people, whereas unacceptable
pronunciation refers to a way of talking that is difficult for most people to understand.

INTONATION

In day-to-day conversation, a person does not speak on the same note throughout. There will be
frequent rises and falls in the person's voice. This variation in the pitch patterns of voice is called
intonation. A tone refers to the modulation of the voice expressing a particular feeling or mood.
It is an important feature of spoken English and plays an important role in verbal
communication. The tone of a voice helps to identify the attitude of the speaker and reveals his
intention. It also gives implicit information by indicatingthe type of sentence spoken by the
speaker.

In English, stress, rhythm and intonation are linked inextricably. It is impossible to speak of any
one of these aspects of spoken English without referring to the others.

After deciding which syllable is to be stressed more and which one less, next is rhythm. English
is a stress-timed language, which tends toward aregular rhythm of broadly equal length beats on
stressed syllable, while unstressed syllables being compressed/squeezed in to fit the available
time. Thus, stressed syllable follow each other at equal intervals, which sounds like a pulsating
rhythm. The next step is to decide appropriate intonation. While speaking, we glide over the less
important words such as pronouns, articles, auxiliary verbs, prepositions and conjunctions which
are called functional words, whereas nouns, principal verbs, adjectives and adverbs which are
called content words are stressed more.

For example, consider a simple sentence

'There was an Elephant at the corner of the street'.

In this sentence three words 'e-le-phant', 'cor-ner' and 'street' (highlighted syllables are stressed)
stressed and rest are unstressed syllables. This is assertive sentence, for which we should use
falling tone.

Types of tones

There are several tones which are used in spoken English. But three prominent of them are
discussed below -

(i) Falling Tone: In this type, the pitch of our voice falls on the tonic syllable (the syllable on
which the pitch change begins). Falling tone is used in ordinary statements (assertive sentences,
including both affirmative and negative, without any implication), wh-questions (questions
beginning with what, where, when, which, etc.), polite expressions, greeting, imperative
sentences (commands, prohibitions, and so forth) and exclamatory sentences.

Some examples are -

I'm 'pleased to 'talk to you.

'What's the 'problem?

'Close the 'door.

'What a 'fine 'morning!

(ii) Rising Tone: In this type, the pitch of our voice rises on the tonic syllable. Rising tone is
used for polite questions, polite requests, conditional expressions, direct questions and
incomplete utterances. Some examples are-

'What's the time?

If you work hard, you 'may 'get the promotion.

(iii) Falling-rising Tone: In this type, the pitch of our voice changes from high to low. This
tone is used when we are in doubt or want to convey some implicit or special meaning.

Some examples are - Her 'husband is smart.

(Implied meaning is - Her husband is smart but not intelligent.

I don't 'want to 'go to the party.

(Implied meaning is - I don't want to go but I'll go because of you.

CONVERSATION SKILLS

Conversation is an interactive process involving speakers and listeners. It links people together,
as it is probably the most important factor that makes social interaction possible. Every one of us
takes part in some kind of conversation.

As conversation is a tool of social interaction, it is essential that one should be able to converse
well in both formal and informal situations. One should have good conversation skills to start a
conversation, pick a topic for conversation, help others to start, keep a conversation going, move
smoothly from one topic to another and conclude a conversation naturally. Good conversation
skills enable a person to understand and take appropriate turn in conversations.

Despite the fact that conversation skills are important for social, academic and professional
situations, people generally ignore it. We rarely prepare for a conversation. Many of us are self-
complacent or over-confident and believe that conversation is a natural process and there is no
need to prepare for it. But some people shy away from conversations because they fear
inadequate in talking to others. The fact is that conversation provides us with opportunities to
express ourselves, establish our individuality and show our true potential to others. Lacking good
communication skills, it become hard to express our feelings, reactions, responses or views
properly to other persons.

How to improve conversation skills

Conversation skills can be improved by following suggestions given below

(i) Be an Active Listener - To have an effective conversation, one should be an active and
efficient listener. In order to respond properly to a person, one should listen him first carefully
and attentively.

(ii) Be a Subtle Speaker- A speaker should always think before speaking about the
consequences of what he is telling. He should not just speak whatever comes to his mind and
should never tell things he is not supposed to.

(iii) Speak with Clarity - The speaker should be clear and effective in his style of speaking. He
should take care of articulation and pronunciation, and speak distinctly, focusing attention on his
message, while taking care of his voice quality, accent and intonation.

(iv) Be Simple - Use simple and familiar language while talking to people. One cannot impress
others by being difficult, vague and abstract.

(v) Use Appropriate Pauses - Speak slowly with appropriate pauses, as speaking too quickly
may result in lack of comprehension on the part of the listener.

(vi) Be Polite - A good conversation reflects good manners. Never be rude and impolite during a
conversation. Be courteous and use polite expressions and phrases.
 (vii) Be Friendly - People do not like to talk to a dogmatic and unfriendly person. On the other
hand, it is easy to talk to friendly people so, be friendly. Make the other person comfortable.
Avoid making a remark that might hurt the other person. Do not jump to conclusions. Use
moderate statements and avoid generalizations.

(viii) Be Flexible - A good conversationalist is always flexible in his approach, attitude and
style. Being rigid may lead to arguments instead of a conversation.

(ix) Be Tactful - It is necessary to be tactful during conversation, especially when talking to

one's teacher, boss, senior colleague or someone very close. It is always better to think before
speaking than to suffer afterwords.

(x) Do not argue - Most people argue for argument's sake, without realizing what they want to
achieve by it. A good conversationalist never argues during a conversation. If you are disagree
with the person you are talking, express your disagreement in a friendly way.

(xi) Be Interested - Be interested in the conversation and your behaviour and attitude should
reflect that. Take active part in a conversation and contribute in a meaningful way. Maintain
positive eye contact with the persons involved in a conversation.

PRESENTATION SKILLS

Presentation skills are the abilities and qualities necessary for creating and delivering a compelling
presentation that effectively communicates information and ideas. They encompass what you say,
how you structure it, and the materials you include to support what you say, such as slides, videos,
or images.

You'll make presentations at various times in your life. Examples include:

 Making speeches at a wedding, conference, or another event

 Making a toast at a dinner or event
 Explaining projects to a team
 Delivering results and findings to management teams
 Teaching people specific methods or information
 Proposing a vote at community group meetings
 Pitching a new idea or business to potential partners or investors

Effective presentation skills

Imagine yourself in the audience at a TED Talk or sitting with your co-workers at a big meeting
held by your employer. What would you be looking for in how they deliver their message? What
would make you feel engaged?
These are a few questions to ask yourself as you review this list of some of the most effective
presentation skills.
 Verbal communication
How you use language and deliver messages play essential roles in how your audience will receive
your presentation. Speak clearly and confidently, projecting your voice enough to ensure everyone
can hear. Think before you speak, pausing when necessary and tailoring the way you talk to
resonate with your particular audience.

 Body language
Body language combines various critical elements, including posture, gestures, eye contact,
expressions, and position in front of the audience. Body language is one of the elements that can
instantly transform a presentation that would otherwise be dull into one that's dynamic and
interesting.

 Voice projection
The ability to project your voice improves your presentation by allowing your audience to hear
what you're saying. It also increases your confidence to help settle any lingering nerves while also
making your message more engaging. To project your voice, stand comfortably with your
shoulders back. Take deep breaths to power your speaking voice and ensure you enunciate every
syllable you speak.

 Posture
How you present yourself plays a role in your body language and ability to project your voice. It
also sets the tone for the presentation. Avoid slouching or looking overly tense. Instead, remain
open, upright, and adaptable while taking the formality of the occasion into account.

 Storytelling
Incorporating storytelling into a presentation is an effective strategy used by many powerful public
speakers. It has the power to bring your subject to life and pique the audience’s curiosity. Don’t be
afraid to tell a personal story, slowly building up suspense or adding a dramatic moment. And, of
course, be sure to end with a positive takeaway to drive your point home.

 Active listening
Active listening is a valuable skill all on its own. When you understand and thoughtfully respond
to what you hear—whether it's in a conversation or during a presentation—you’ll likely deepen
your personal relationships and actively engage audiences during a presentation. As part of your
presentation skill set, it helps catch and maintain the audience’s attention, helping them remain
focused while minimizing passive response, ensuring the message is delivered correctly, and
encouraging a call to action.

 Stage presence
During a presentation, projecting confidence can help keep your audience engaged. Stage presence
can help you connect with your audience and encourage them to want to watch you. Project
confidence and keep your information interesting.
Watch your audience as you’re presenting. If you’re holding their attention, it likely means you’re
connecting well with them.

 Self-awareness
Monitoring your own emotions and reactions will allow you to react well in various situations. It
helps you remain personable throughout your presentation and handle feedback well. Self-
awareness can help soothe nervousness during presentations, allowing you to perform more
effectively.

 Writing skills
Writing is a form of presentation. Sharp writing skills can help you master your presentation’s
outline to ensure you stay on message and remain clear about your objectives from the beginning
until the end. It’s also helpful to have strong writing abilities for creating compelling slides and
other visual aids.

 Understanding an audience
When you understand your audience's needs and interests, you can design your presentation around
them. In turn, you'll deliver maximum value to them and enhance your ability to make your
message easy to understand.

PUBLIC SPEAKING
A public speaking skill is any quality that helps candidates maintain a positive presence, engage
with their audience and communicate clearly to convey their ideas. These skills allow public
speakers to transform a standard presentation into an engaging and exciting event for their
guests. These skills are essential in the workplace, as candidates may host public speaking events
such as presentations, conferences, trade shows or special events. Public speaking can refer to
engaging with an audience you already know or speaking to hundreds of unknown individuals.

Public speaking skills

1. Know your audience

You're more likely to feel comfortable presenting to an audience if you know who they are. That
way, you can craft your message in a tone that resonates with them, perhaps using humor to ease
the tension.

Start by assessing your audience's level of understanding of the topic you plan to discuss. This will
determine the amount of background to give and whether you should aim to be more professional
or casual. As you’re speaking, stay aware of the group's reactions. Adjust accordingly so you can
connect with them throughout your presentation.
2. Practice, practice & practice
Even the most seasoned public speaker needs practice to be effective. Give a mock presentation of
your speech in advance, so you can determine if you’ve organized the information cohesively and
clearly.
It may help to talk out loud to an imaginary audience or in front of a mirror, but it’s even more
effective to practice with the help of a supportive co-worker, friend, or family member as an
audience.

3. Connect with a personal story

Personal stories or anecdotes can enhance your presentation. When TED Talk Speakers take the
stage, they often begin with a short anecdote about their childhood or personal experience. This
structure helps them connect with the audience, share their passion for what they're about to
discuss or explain their expertise.
To add this kind of personal touch to your presentation, make sure what you share has a direct
connection with the topic at hand.

4. Make eye contact

Making eye contact with your audience can actually help you feel more at ease because you'll get a
sense of whether they understand what you're saying or need to clarify further. Practicing your
speech or presentation beforehand can help you feel more comfortable making eye contact.
As they say, much of effective communication relies on body language. Moving your gaze around
the room can help your audience feel more engaged, which in turn will make you feel more
confident.

5. Use the stage to your advantage

Before the presentation, know where you'll be speaking. Check that your PowerPoint presentation
works with the provided equipment. Make sure you know how the room will be set up. Ask about
time constraints, whether people will be eating during your talk, and what kind of microphone
you’ll be using.
When you’re on stage, own the space. Walk to different areas to make eye contact with other
people in the audience. Be aware of your body language. Let your arms hang loosely. Stand with
excellent posture, with your back straight.

6. Calm your nerves

It’s normal to still find yourself overcome with nerves at some point in your presentation, despite
your preparation. When this happens, take a deep breath. No one’s expecting you to be perfect.
Instead of thrusting your hands in your pockets or playing with your hair, think of ways to cope
with your nerves beforehand. You might make sure to exercise that morning or meditate for five
minutes before speaking.

7. Record yourself speaking

Co-workers and friends can help provide feedback, but you can also evaluate yourself while
speaking. When you speak in front of a group, set up your phone to record yourself and watch it
later. You may be surprised by your nervous habits or awkward phrasing. You might find new
ways to improve the readability of your PowerPoint slides.
 UNIT-2
READING

Reading is a complex communicative process of receiving and interpreting the written word.
Reading involves recognizing what is written and comprehending the matter (i.e. understanding
the main and subsidiary points and finding links between different parts of the written material).

Decoding in reading refers to the process of changing the coded message into information. It
involves understanding the written language, which requires the ability to recognise words
accurately, understand the definitions of the words being used, and the manner in which they are
used in varying contexts. To decode a written message, the reader should know the language in
which it is encoded.

Comprehension in reading refers to the identification of the central theme, main ideas,
supporting details and writing patterns. To comprehend a technical message, we need to think
critically and analytically about the written matter, so that we can find lexical meaning of words
and relationships between them, and recognize the meaning and function of sentence patterns
accurately, as well as their logical and thematic coherence.

Kinds of Reading

A kind of reading varies depending upon the overall purpose of reading. The reader read
different kinds of texts with different purposes and varying levels of reading comprehension.
Different types of reading depending upon the types of texts are given below -

(i) Reading Entertaining Messages - This is the most common form of reading and it is casual,
as reader is not serious about what he is reading For example, reading a joke, a short story or
some filmy gossip, the purpose is not to receive serious information but to be entertained.

(ii) Reading General Messages - General messages such as newspapers, magazine articles,
encyclopedias, and so on, are read to improve our general knowledge or awareness about various
areas of general interest. The main purpose of such reading is to broaden our outlook and widen
our intellectual understanding and appreciation of things around us. Although this kind of
reading is generally broad and extensive, the reader needs to focus on the theme, main idea and
supporting details of the message.

(iii) Reading Business Documents - Business documents like project reports, letters, memos, e-
mails, etc. need to be read with complete attention. The reader need to pay full attention to all
parts of such documents. This kind of reading is interactive and productive, facilitating proper
interaction and more effective reader-writer relationships. It requires conscious efforts on the
part of the reader and demands concentration, involvement and responsibility.
(iv) Reading Reference Materials - It involves focused reading to quickly identify a specific
listing, any entry or some relevant piece of information. The main purpose of reading or
scanning reference materials is to obtain specific information which can be used in various
academic and professional activities.

(v) Reading Scientific and Technical Texts - For reading scientific and technical texts, besides
understanding linguistic and semantic patterns, we also need to have discipline-specific
language. For comprehension of linguistic and semantic patterns the reader should have visual
skills, perceptual skills, vocabulary skills, skimming skills, critical reading skills and knowledge
of how linguistic symbols combine to convey meaning.

Benefits of Effective Reading

1. Mental Stimulation for Your Brain

When you read every day, you stimulate your mental activity. Numerous studies have been
conducted to understand the benefits of reading.
As per a study, one of the prime benefits of reading books is slowing down mental disorders such
as Alzheimer’s and Dementia. It happens since reading stimulates the brain and keeps it active,
which allows it to retain its power and capacity.
Every part of our body needs exercise to stay healthy, and the same goes for our brain. Reading
gives it regular exercise and keeps it healthy and sound.

2. Good Habit for Stress Reduction

Everyday concerns will keep bothering you unless you do something to divert your mind.
Reading gives you that mental space to occupy yourself with something more interesting.
When you read a great story, all your stress seems to slip away and relax you since you tend to
travel mentally in a different realm. Sometimes while reading, you come across valuable advice
or solutions to your problems.

3. Knowledge-Enhancement

There are numerous ways to learn more about life, from self-help books to reading fiction. Even
when you feel demotivated, you can read an inspirational biography to lift your mood. One of the
great benefits of reading books is that the knowledge you gain from them can never be taken
away from you.

4. Vocabulary Expansion

If you are not yet convinced on why reading books is important, this might interest you. When
you develop the habit of reading, you enhance your vocabulary. Reading any type of book can
improve your vocabulary to an impressive extent.
5. Improves Your Memory

Regular reading is a great exercise for your brain. If you read a fictional book, your brain is
forced to remember the names and nature of various characters. Going back to their history and
remembering events or plots is fun and improves your memory.

6. Stronger Analytical Thinking Skills

If you are still wondering what other benefits of reading regularly are, consider this! One of the
most amazing benefits of reading every day is that it can improve your analytical skills. Reading
mystery novels helps you develop skills that can assist you in problem-solving.

7. Improves Focus and Concentration

One of the worst things that technology has done is make us lazy. Almost everything is available
with ease. We hardly make an effort to focus on solving issues or concentrate on bringing about
any improvement.

8. Better Writing Skills

If you read more, you will naturally become good at writing skills. Since your vocabulary and
pronunciation improve by reading regularly, it eventually makes you a better writer.

9. Free Source of Entertainment

We do spend on movies and music, but why? It is for entertainment, isn’t it? Then why not
simply read books with the same purpose? You would be surprised to know that some of your
favorite movies or TV series were made after getting inspiration from some of the greatest
novels.

Causes of Reading Difficulties

1. Dyslexia and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

People with dyslexia or ADHD have difficulty focusing on tasks, including reading. If you can’t
focus, you won’t understand what you read. It’s more of an inability to stay still and focus long
enough to complete a story.

2. Difficult text

When you’re reading material with too many unfamiliar words, you’ll focus on decoding the
words instead of understanding. This slows down your reading speed and causes poor reading
comprehension. Many people will give up trying to read when this happens.
3. Disinterest and boredom

When people are disinterested or bored with what they are reading, they tend to pay no attention
to the text. It could be because the story does not relate to anything they know or care about.
Sometimes, you may find the material you’re reading boring because it is too simple.
Fun and exciting stories keep people with poor reading abilities engaged. And you’re
more likely to understand a story or material if it’s interesting.

4. Oral language deficit

People with oral language deficit will encounter challenges when reading. Oral reading fluency
is one of the major factors that affect a person’s understanding of a written text.

5. Limited vocabulary

People with limited vocabulary may face challenges comprehending what they have read. If you
don’t know the meaning of the words you’re reading, you’ll miss the meaning of the story. In
this case, many will give up rather than decode the unknown words.

6. Difficulty with logic and reasoning

People with poor logic and reasoning skills might find it harder to read. They will not be able to
develop the connections between and within sentences. This will prevent them from
understanding what the text is describing, leading to poor reading comprehension.

7. Poor visualization skills

If someone has poor visualization skills, they might not be able to build a visual scenario in their
head as they read. This will deter them from contextually understanding what’s going on,
especially if they are reading a story or a process.

8. Parents facing difficulties reading

If one or both of your parents had poor reading skills, chances are that you will too. That’s
because reading has a major genetic component to it, so you could say that bad reading
comprehension runs in families.

Reading Strategies or Skills

Depending upon the purpose of reading there can be different types of reading strategies.
However, four basic types of reading strategies or reading skills are discussed below -

(i) Scanning Skills - Scanning is used to find a particular piece of information, as quickly as
possible. In this type of reading we use our eyes to run over the text, looking for the specific
piece of information. It is an important rapid reading strategy, which provides better
comprehension while reading a scientific or technical text. We use scanning to look for the
meaning of a word in a dictionary, or looking for a telephone number in the telephone directory,
look for specific advertisements in a newspaper. This is the most effective way of getting
information from books or business reports by scanning the table of contents or indexes and turn
directly to the chapter or clause to arrive at the specific information.

(ii) Skimming Skills - Skimming is a more sophisticated strategy than scanning. It is a rapid
reading technique that prepares the reader for detailed reading. The main objective of skimming
is to understand the central idea and the main points of a text. The readers use this strategy when
there is a need of fast reading and quick analysis.
Skimming involves discovering the purpose and organization of a text. For example, the
most important objective of reading for academic and professional purposes is to recognize the
main ideas and supporting details but also to identify different writing patterns to develop these
ideas. For example, while reading the newspaper in the morning, we quickly try to get the
general news of the day and discover which articles we like to read in more detail.

(iii) Intensive Reading Skills - Intensive reading refers to the detailed reading that demands
better concentration and motivation. This strategy is used on shorter texts in order to extract
detailed information. Using scanning and skimming, reader can identify the part of the text
which requires intensive reading. Intensive reading is essential for academic and professional
reading. It requires text analysis for critical and evaluative understanding of a text. Text analysis
is the process of identifying relationships among different units of text, to distinguish between

(a) Relevant and irrelevant information.

(b) Facts and opinions.

(c) Explicit and implicit information.

(d) Examples and ideas.

(e) Drawing inferences and conclusions.

Intensive reading is required when we read a text book for understanding the concepts or various
theories. We also need to read every single detail, when going for an insurance claim or making
a sales/purchase contract.

(iv) Extensive Reading Skills - Extensive reading is used to obtain a general understanding of a
subject. In this type of reading, the reader does not need to understand each and every detail. It
includes reading of the longer texts for pleasure, and business reports to know about the general
trends. This type of reading is used to improve general knowledge of business procedures, or
latest marketing strategy. Reading a novel before going to bed, magazine articles, also require
extensive reading skills.

WRITING

An effective writing skill is the most important of four communication skills as a student or a
professional. Writing ability of a professional defines his success. A professional need to be
abreast of handling various patterns of writing. Organizations use various types of written
communication including business letters, reports, proposals, instructions, notices, handbooks
and manuals. These documents play a key role in evaluating the progress, performance and
market conditions of an organization. These documents also help the organizations get an
indication of the market demands and customer needs, besides understanding the organization's
internal atmosphere and employee attitudes in order to mend and amend the future planning.

Most of us think effective writing is about grammar, punctuation, and spelling. That’s not true.
Writing is about hitting your mark, whatever that may be. That is the single most important thing
when you put your words to use. Writing that hits its mark is effective.
But what is effective writing exactly? When it has the following characteristics:

1. Clear: Write in a way that people always understand what you’re saying. Clear writing
only has one interpretation. That’s what makes it effective.
2. Credible: You can’t make the reader believe you. Your reader only believes you if you
write credibly. Know what you’re talking about. If you ramble or are dishonest, a reader
will sense it immediately.
3. Persuasive: An effective writer inspires people with words. When you write
persuasively, it sparks a reaction within your reader. Again, you can’t make people do
anything. People are moved by effective writing themselves.

How to improve writing skills

Strong writing skills comes from practice and determination. Following are the ways to improve
writing skills -

(i) By keeping your writing all in the same place, you will be able to see how much you are
improving and keep it organized.

(ii) Writing every day in English will soon become natural and something you look forward to.
You will not see a significant improvement if you are not dedicated to becoming a better writer
in English.
(iii) Do not get stuck on figuring out what to write about. You can write about anything. You can
write about what you do things you hear or see news or make up a story.

(iv) Draft means a preliminary version of piece of writing. Sometimes, your best writing
becomes better after you take a break and work on a second or third draft. When you revise your
work you are often able to get your message across more clearly.

(v) Use online resources. GrammarCheck.com or GrammarBook.com to help your answer a

grammar question when it comes up. You could also switch the spell and grammar check or MS
Word, your iPad or Google Doc to check your spelling and grammar.

(vi) Do not write about the same thing every day or you will get bored. Try writing the same
story from different perspectives or different tenses.

(vii) Have a friend that knows English correct or edit your work. Having another person read
your work helps generate more ideas to better your writing.

(viii) You should try writing in different places or at different time of the day. Experiment in
finding the right environment for you to write.

Different forms of written communication

 Paragraphs.
 Essays.
 Reports.
 Letters.
 Articles.
 Notices.
 Agenda.
 Minutes.

Paragraph

A paragraph is a group of sentences, relating to one single idea. It is a cohesive arrangement of

sentences moving around one idea. In a paragraph there are sentences grouped closely under one
idea. The arrangement of sentences and there ranking generate progression in thought. A
dominant theme binds the sentences together in a paragraph. A text having a solid block-like
look with no paragraphs makes itself unapproachable for the reader. Also a text divided in parts
creates a picture of unity in variety, because it partly strengthens a dimension of the text and
unity because the text is not complete without a paragraph. A paragraph is a small unit, a link of
a bigger unit, a chain. It has its own individuality and its own existence.
Qualities of a Paragraph

Key features or qualities of a good paragraph are explained below -

(i) Unity - Unity in a paragraph stands for the togetherness of ideas. Each paragraph should deal
with a single topic, which is introduced by the introducers and supported by the supporting
sentences. Every sentence in a paragraph must bear on the topic and contributes something
worthwhile to its development. In this way, the thought is presented as a unit which can be or
easily understood by the reader.

(ii) Coherence - Maintaining coherence is very important in paragraph writing. As one word in a
sentence naturally leads to another, one sentence in a paragraph leads to another, similarly, in
cohesive paragraphs, ideas are linked, and one idea logically leads to the next. Coherence in
paragraphs may be achieved by using appropriate cohesive devices that may include convert
linkers such as pronouns and overt transitional expressions like sentence linkers and sequence
words and phrases.

(iii) Expansion and Emphasis - Besides maintaining coherence and unity, in a paragraph, it is
also essential that the idea that is introduced in a sentence is properly expanded and emphasized.
If the idea that is generated in a paragraph is not taken to its logical conclusion, it fails to click
with the reader. The absence of emphasis given to the central idea, also cause the paragraph to
fail to achieve its intended purpose. The central idea should be written in a convincing and
emphatic manner.

(iv) Logical Structure - A paragraph has a logical structure where the central theme contained
in the topic sentence is expanded. As a sentence cannot be meaningful without the correct
arrangement of words, a paragraph cannot be meaningful without the correct arrangement of
sentences. This organization of sentences in a paragraph is determined by the nature of
information and style of presentation.

Types of Paragraph Writing

It is essential to know the types of paragraph writing before you write about any given topic.
Therefore, check the below information to understand the various types of paragraph writing.

Majorly, there are four types of paragraph writing, i.e., narrative, descriptive, expository, and
persuasive.

 Descriptive: This kind of writing basically describes the topic and appeals to the five
senses.
 Narrative: These kinds of writing are basically a narration of a story or a situation that
includes a sequence.
  Expository: These kinds of writing are a definition of something. These paragraphs
require a lot of research.
 Persuasive: These kinds of writing aim to make the audience admit a writer’s point of
view. These are mostly used by the teachers to provide a strong argument.

Essay writing

The word essay means 'attempt' (to do something). An essay is usually considered to be 'a short
composition in prose', which may be written on any subject. An essay is a written composition in
which the author shares his/her knowledge about a certain topic, reveals to the reader his/her
perspective on the issue being discussed, and offer critics and/or comments on the situation.

Thus, essay writing is not merely an attempt to express oneself, but a carefully organized
composition, which communicates the writer's idea to the reader. Thus writing of an essay,
therefore, requires the author to display not only his/her knowledge of the subject but also the
maturity of vision, clarity of thought and felicity of expression. The author of an essay needs to
weave together the different parts of an idea into a thread of unity.

The basics of essay structure

There are two main things to keep in mind when working on your essay structure: making sure to
include the right information in each part, and deciding how you’ll organize the information
within the body.

Parts of an essay
The three parts that make up all essays are described in the table below.

Part Content

Introduction  Presents your topic

 Provides background
 Gives your thesis statement

Body  Core arguments and analysis

 Presents evidence (e.g. quotes)
 One main point per paragraph
 Each paragraph starts with a topic sentence
 All paragraphs relate to your thesis
 Part Content

Conclusion  Ties together your main points

 Shows why your argument matters

An essay can be divided into three distinct elements, which are discussed below -

(i) Introduction - An essay may begin with a relevant quotation followed by an introductory
paragraph. The introduction should focus attention on the subject of the essay, define it and place
it in the perspective of the background. The introduction should be brief and effective. For
making it effective use quotations, dictionary meanings, sayings to introduce the main idea, but
don't use jargons, clichés and bombastic beginnings.

(ii) Main Body - In this part of the essay the author compare and contrast, challenge and
question, reveal and establish, and hence bring into view the different nuances of the main idea.
The body of the essay consists of several paragraphs with each of those containing a topic, a set
of developers and a terminator. Each paragraph should have a sentence or two to link to the
preceding paragraph and another sentence to link to the succeeding paragraph.

(iii) Conclusion - Just like the introduction and main body of the essay, the conclusion of an
essay is also quite crucial. In fact, a poor conclusion can adversely affect the overall impact of an
essay. To come up with a good conclusion, the writer should sum up the points and the analysis
made in the preceding paragraphs and should arrive at a logical conclusion. An unrelated or
irrelevant ending makes an essay look ludicrous at times, hence the conclusion should naturally
emerge out of the discussion.

Reports

A report is a formal document that is structured and presented in an organized manner, with the
aim of conveying information, analyzing data, and providing recommendations. It is often used
to communicate findings and outcomes to a specific audience, such as stakeholders, or managers.
Reports can vary in length and format, but they usually contain a clear introduction, body, and
conclusion.
Report writing refers to the process of creating a document that represents information in a
clear and concise manner. Reports can be written for various purposes, such as providing updates
on a project, analyzing data or presenting findings, or making recommendations.
Effective report writing requires careful planning, research, analysis, and organization of
information. A well-structured report should be accurate, and objective, and contain a clear
introduction, body, and conclusion. It should also be written in a professional and accessible
style, with appropriate use of headings, subheadings, tables, graphs, and other visual aids.
Overall, report writing is an important skill for professionals in many fields, as it helps to
communicate information and insights in a clear and concise manner.

Types of Reports

A report can be classified in various ways:

 On the basis of communication media, reports can be oral or written.

Oral Reports: An oral report is a face-to-face communication of an impression or an

observation. It is comparatively informal and time saving. It is simple and easy to present. Oral
reports are useful in presenting brief information related to routine activities. But the receiver has
to listen to every word of it. It tends to be vague and provides no record for future reference.

Written Reports: A written report is very formal in nature. It is relatively more accurate and
precise. It can be used for future reference and referred to again and again. It is a permanent
record and can stand for authenticity in future. It can move through any communication without
any change in the content.

 On the basis of the format and procedure adopted, reports may be formal or informal.

Informal Reports: An informal report is usually in the form of person-to-person

communication. It may range from a few lines to several pages of detailed information.
Generally it is short and do not need elaborate description and discussion. It is usually written to
provide introductory information about a routine affair. An informal report is often written in the
form of a letter or a memorandum.

Formal Reports: A formal report is presented in a prescribed form. It is prepared in accordance

with an established procedure and is submitted to a prescribed authority. A formal report is
usually the result of a thorough investigation of a problem, condition, or situation. Such reports
are normally lengthy and need elaborate description and discussion Formal reports could be
informational, analytical, routine, or special. The project reports, technical reports, annual reports
of the company are some of the examples of formal reports. These reports can be informational,
analytical, or routine.

 Formal reports can be statutory or non-statutory.

Statutory Reports: A report prepared and presented according to the form and procedure laid
down by law is called a statutory report. Report submitted at the statutory meeting of
shareholders, Director's report to the Annual General Meeting. Annual Return, and Auditor's
Report is statutory reports.

Non-Statutory Reports: Formal reports which are not required under any law but which are
prepared to help the management in framing policies or taking other important decisions are
called non-statutory reports.

 On the basis of frequency of issue, a report can be periodic or special.

Periodic or routine reports: Theses reports are prepared and presented at regular, prescribed
interval in the usual routine of business. They may be submitted annually, semi-annually,
quarterly, monthly, fortnightly, weekly or even daily. Generally such reports contain a mere
statement of facts, in detail or in summarized form, without an opinion or recommendation.

Special Reports: These reports are related to a single occasion or situation. A report on the
desirability of opening a new branch or on the dissatisfaction among staff in a particular branch
is special reports. Special reports deal with non-recurrent problems.

On the basis of function, a report can be informative or interpretative.

Informative Reports: Informative reports are informational reports which contain only the data
collected or the facts observed in an organized form. It presents the situation as it is and not as it
should be. It does not contain any conclusions or recommendations. It is useful because it
presents relevant data put together in a form in which it is require by the management to take
decision.

Interpretive Reports: An interpretive report like an informational report which contains facts
but it also includes an evaluation or interpretation or analysis of data and the reporter's
conclusions. It may also have recommendations for action. It may be described as analytical or
investigative report.

Letters

Definition of a Formal Letter

Formal Letters, also called Business Letters or Professional Letters, are letters that are written in
a strict and specific format. Formal letters are naturally much more formal in style than
informal/friendly letters. Formal letters can be written for a number of reasons such as,

 to express your concerns while working in a professional setup

 to provide official information across your workspace
  to order goods, to apply for employment, etc.
 to the Editor of a newspaper addressing the problems faced by various groups of people
in different areas, etc.

Structure of a Formal Letter

In order to be able to write a formal letter, you have to first understand the reason behind the
letter. As far as formal letters are concerned, the structure of the letter changes depending on the
type of letter. There are certain rules to be followed to be able to draft a formal letter. Every
sentence should be well thought out and laid down in such a way that the message you want to
convey should be precise and clear to the reader.

Types of Formal Letters

There are different types of formal letters, as discussed, and they can generally be labelled under
the following terms:

 Business Letters
 Letters of Application
 Letters to Newspapers
Business Letters
Business letters should be terse, clear and to the point. There is no room for any kind of stories in
a business letter. Before you start to write a business letter, there are a few things you should
keep in mind.

 Use simple, everyday language to convey the message clearly instead of using
flamboyant and overemphatic vocabulary.
 Never use jargon that is commonly used in business when you write a business letter.
 Avoid using abbreviations as much as possible.
 The modes of address vary according to the type of letter and the receiver.
 Clear and exact descriptions of the articles necessary with the expected quality and
quantity should be listed with utmost care when you write a letter to order goods.
 When replying to a business letter, always quote the date of the letter you are responding
to and its reference numbers (if any).
Formal/Business letters include letters from an employer to the employees and vice versa, letters
to order and replace goods, letters of serious concern to an officer of higher rank, letters of
complaint, etc.
Letters of Application
Letters of Application usually consist of letters applying for employment. Before and after you
write a letter of application, make sure you check for the following:

 Always start with a short introduction stating whether the applicant is writing in response
to a reference from an advertisement found online or in the newspaper.
 State the age, education and experience of the applicant.
 Provide the employer with a genuine expression of the applicant’s earnestness in taking
up the job in the respective company.
 Also, furnish references so that the employer can gather an idea of the kind of employee
you would be.
Letters of Application should follow the format of formal/business letters.

Letters to Newspapers
Always address these letters to ‘The Editor’ and end with ‘Yours faithfully’. Letters to the Editor
are letters that express concerns that should be addressed to the higher authorities. These letters
should be professional and authentic. No newspaper would publish anonymous letters, so make
sure you are writing the letter for a cause and provide your name and address correctly.

Structure a Formal Letter – Parts of a Formal Letter

When writing a formal letter, always be respectful and conscious of your language, no matter
what the subject of the letter might be. To write a formal letter, there are some points to be
remembered.

1. Always start with the sender’s address

2. This is followed by the date.
3. The receiver’s address comes next. The receiver can be the name of the firm or the one
who represents the firm.
4. The subject of the letter is very important. It is a statement of the purpose of the letter. It
should be written in a single line.
5. The salutation can be Dear Sir/Ma’am. If it is a person you know well, you can address
them by their name, ‘Dear Shrinath’.
6. The body of the letter can be written in 3 paragraphs.
 The first paragraph should be aimed at introducing yourself and stating the
purpose of your letter.
 The second paragraph should furnish all the information about the matter.
The third paragraph can be a concluding paragraph where you lay out your expectations
regarding the matter.

To close the letter, you can use a complimentary closing like ‘Yours faithfully’, ‘Yours
sincerely’ etc.
Unlike informal letters, the signature should include your name (in block letters) and designation
below your signature.

Write a letter of application for the post of Software Engineer at HCL, Bangalore.

6th February 2024

HCL Technology 7th Floor,

Mega Towers, C.B. Road,
Bangalore - 626003

Dear Sir,
This is in response to your advertisement dated 28th January, 2024 in 'The Economic
Times' for the post of Software Engineer. I would like to apply for the above mentioned post.
I have done my BIT and have been working with XYZ Pvt. Ltd. for the last 2 years. I
work in C/C++/Java/PHP in the areas of Telecom, Enterprise Applications and 3D-Gaming in
my present company. I have specialized in Enterprise Application and am chief- in-charge.

I am enclosing my resume. I hope you will grant me an interview soon.

Thanking you,

Encl: Resume

Yours sincerely
Ashish Jain

Write an application for the post of Assistant Professor in an eminent institute with your
resume.

Plot No. 98, Ratan Colony,

Gwalior 474001
6 February, 2024
To,
The Principal,
RGPV University, Bhopal

Subject - Application for the post of an Assistant Professor.

Dear Sir,

This is with reference to the vacancy in your university for the post of an Assistant Professor. I
possess the requisite qualifications and experience for this job. I should feel grateful if you would
provide me an opportunity for this post.

I have done Engineering in Mechanical Engineering from MPCT College and M.Tech from
MITS College, Gwalior. Currently I am doing my Ph.d. I have six years experience of teaching
in various institutes, this makes me feel confident to qualify for the post of an Assistant Professor
in your institute.

I would like to work with your institute because I feel that it will offer me greater scope for my
career. I am enclosing my detailed resume and certificates. I hope you will grant me an interview
soon.

Encl: Resume

Certificates

Yours sincerely
Priya Sharma

Notices

Notices are written information about the day, date, time and venue of a meeting. Generally these
are sent a few days before the meeting. If participants need to come from different cities to attend
the meeting, longer notice is required. In case of a general body meeting, a notice is circulated to
all the employees whereas in case of board of directors meeting, the intimation is sent to all the
directors. A notice must include -

(a) Name of the body/group which is to meet.

(b) Day, date and time of the meeting.

(c) Place of the meeting, i.e. the exact address and the specific room/hall.

(d) Agenda of the meeting.

The notice may be accompanied by the minutes of the previous meeting. There may also be
notes and background papers related to different items on the agenda.

Agenda

An agenda, also called a docket or a schedule, is a list of activities in the order they are to be
taken up, from the beginning till the adjournment. An agenda helps in preparing for a meeting
by providing a list of items and a clear set of topics, objectives, and time frames that are needed
to be discussed upon.

Format of an Agenda

An Agenda normally includes the following elements −

 Meeting Agenda Title − at the top; preferably center-aligned

 Meeting Information − Description of the purpose
 Objective − description of Agenda
 Date − for maintaining records of correspondence
 Location − the place of meeting
 Time − the actual time of commencement of the meeting
 Meeting Type − brainstorming or Discussion or Assessment
 Time of Arrival − time to begin the meeting
 Time of Adjournment − time the meeting ends
 Attendees − Number of people present, with their names

Preparing an agenda

Following points need to be considered for preparing an agenda

(i) Prepare a preliminary meeting agenda, send it to all members and solicit if any further topics
need to be included.

(ii) Include only those additional topics which assist in achieving the meeting objective.

(iii) If special guests are attending the meeting, find out whether they have any issues that can be
combined because they are related, similar, or even the same in terms of means or ends. If so,
arrange them under one agenda item.
(iv) Arrange the topics in the order of their importance, the most important one coming at top.

(v) Generally, the first item on every agenda is confirmation of the minutes of the previous
meeting and the last any other matter with the permission of the Chairman.

(vi) In case there are only a few points to be discussed, the agenda can be written on the notice
itself.

(vii) Check the agenda for errors.

(viii) Send the agenda along with the notice or e-mail it to all attendences. This should be done
as near to the actual meeting as possible.

Minutes

Also known as protocol or note, minutes are the live written record of a meeting. They include
the list of attendees, issues raised, related responses, and final decisions taken to address the
issues. Their purpose is to record what actions have been assigned to whom, along with the
achievements and the deadlines.

Format of Minutes of Meeting

A minutes of meeting normally includes the following elements −

 Name of the company − to the top-left of the page.

 Date − to the top-right of the page.
 Topic − after two return keys; Center-aligned.
 Attendees − Name and designation (2 columns of a table).
 Absentees − name, roles, reasons for absenteeism. (3 columns)
 Agenda at hand − topic to be discussed.
 Issues raised − along with the names of the speakers.
 Suggestions − made along with the names of the speakers.
 Decision − the outcome of the meeting.
 Task List − task allotted and the respective allottee.
 Future Meetings − the date and topic of the next meeting.
 UNIT- 3

COMMUNICATION
Communication is a process that involves sending and receiving of messages through a verbal
and non-verbal method. The sender sends a message, the receiver receives a message and sends
it back with the feedback to the sender again.

The methods of communication involve oral and speech communication, written and graphical
representations. Additionally, it includes the cultural sphere, a tool utilized to communicate,
location, etc. Though it looks simple, communication is generally a very complicated subject.

In other words, communication is a two-way means of communicating information in the form

of thoughts, opinions, and ideas between two or more individuals with the purpose of building an
understanding.

Communication Process
The communication is a process that starts with the development of thoughts by a sender who
conveys the message using a various channel to the receiver, who then sends him a message as
feedback. There are seven main components of the communication process:

 Sender – Here, the sender conceptualizes the idea or the conversation he wants to convey
it to the recipient.
 Encoding – Now the sender starts the encoding process where he utilizes words or non-
verbal means to translate the thought into a message.
 Message – After encoding, the sender receives the message that he wants to send.
 Communication Channel – The sender then decides through which medium or channel
he/she wants to send the message to the recipient. They must choose the channel to have
an effective and correct interpretation of a message to the recipient.
 Receiver – The receiver receives the message and tries to comprehend in the best
possible way.
 Decoding – In this step, the receiver translates the sender’s information and tries to
perceive it most suitably.
 Feedback – It is the last step of the communication process that assures the recipient, has
received the information and understood correctly as the sender designed it.

Types of Communication
The main categories of communication are
 1. Verbal Communication.

2. Non Verbal Communication.

1. Verbal Communication: - It is a method that uses speech in the form of speaking to

convey a message or information. It is the most popular and effective mode of
communication, usually practiced during video conferences, phone calls, presentations, one-
on-one conversations, and meetings. It supports both nonverbal and written communication.

Types of Verbal Communication

a) Written communication
b) Oral communication
c) Visual communication
d) Audio-visual communication
e) Computer based communication.

a) Written communication

Communication through words may be written or oral. Written communication implies

transmission of message in black and white. Everything that is transmitted in the written form
falls in the area of written communication.

It includes letters, circulars, memos, orders, telegrams, reports, minutes, forms, questionnaires,
manuals, pictures, and graph etc.

Merits of written communication:

i. Permanent record. Written communication has the advantage of being a permanent

record of the organization for future reference. It can prove very useful and serve as a
legal document as and when communicated matters, communication. The old policies,
decisions and orders can serve matters, procedural instructions and confidential orders are
precedents for the fresh decisions. throu
ii. Accurate and precise. Written communication is normally the result of serious thinking
and planning which results in less number of errors. Since written communication is open
to verification, and its authenticity can be easily challenged the communicator has to be
accurate and factual.
iii. Legal document. Written communication is acceptable as a legal document because of
which the minutes of the meetings, conferences or the decisions of all the oral discussions
are jotted down in pen and pencil. Any message transmitted orally, is later confirmed in
writing.
 iv. Wider access. Written communication enjoys wide access because of its frequency. The
distance between the sender and the receiver of the communication is not a problem due
to written communication sent through post. It is the only means used for distant places
even beyond telephonic range.
v. Responsibilities are assigned. Written communication is preserved for future reference
it becomes easy to assign responsibilities. In case a mistake is committed as a result of
oral communication, it is very difficult to ascertain whether the mistake is committed at
the sender's end or the receiver's end.
vi. Composing in advance. Written communication can be composed in advance long
before it has to be delivered. The sender can ponder over the words and their effect on the
receiver, and accordingly can change his words.
vii. Referred to again and again. Written messages can be read again and again. Therefore,
the message is likely to be understood better. There is little chance of misunderstanding
any part of message.
viii. Mechanical efficiency. Message can be written and conveniently transcribed,
transmitted, filed and retrieved. Copies in any numbers are also easy to make and
distribute at relatively low cost.
ix. Lengthy message. Written communication is very suitable for transmitting lengthy
messages. Words can be supplemented with charts, diagrams, etc.
x. Convenience. The personal presence of neither the sender nor the receiver of message at
a certain place at the same time is required for communication. The writer can write at a
time that suits him. The reader too can read and reread at his own convenience.

Demerits of written communication:

i. It is expensive. Written communication is a costly process. Writing letters are expensive

not because of the postage, but because a number of people are involved in sending it
from the organization.
ii. It is time consuming. One of the major shortcomings of written communication is that it
is very time consuming. The preparing and sending of the message itself may take few
days, so the response will again be delayed. The time consumed in communication
process may decrease the importance of communication.
iii. Immediate feedback is not possible. In written communication, the feedback takes long
time. When the receiver receives the message, he may take his own time in responding
back, as it is not a face to face communication. The communication which is not done on
time is no communication at all.
iv. It is very rigid. It is very rigid and does not provide any scope for making alterations or
changes in any inaccuracies that might have crept in.
v. Impersonal. Written messages tend to be formal and there is lack of personal touch.
Therefore, the receiver is less receptive.
 b) Oral communication

Oral communication implies the conveying of the message through spoken words. It is a face-to-
face communication between individuals and includes communication through telephone,
intercom, and public speech etc. In every organization, a great deal of information is exchanged
orally and it is generally preferred to written communication. The important feature of oral
communication is that the real meaning is conveyed by manner or tone of the voice or the facial
expressions of the communicator and the communicatee. Face to face communication, telephonic
conversation, interviews, meetings, lectures, conferences etc. are the forms of oral
communication.

Merits of Oral communication:

i. It is economical. Oral communication is economical as compared to written

communication especially if it is within the organization.
ii. It saves time. Oral communication is less time consuming. In number of cases where
action is required to be taken immediately, it is best to transmit the message orally which
takes less time.
iii. Immediate feedback. The biggest advantage of oral communication is that it provides
immediate feedback to both the sender and the receiver. Each can ask the other for
classification and elaboration on the spot. One can mould and adjust the communication to
make it effective.
iv. It gives the chance for clarification. Oral communication being face to face
communication gives the opportunity of clarifications. In such cases misunderstandings or
doubts can be removed.
v. It has personal touch. The informal plane on which the oral communication is mostly
carried out helps to promote friendly relations between the parties communicating with
each other which lead to greater understanding.
vi. Communication with large public. Oral communication is extremely useful while
communicating with groups or large mass, assemblies, meetings etc
vii. It is flexible. Oral communication is flexible in nature. Messages can be changed to suit the
response of the receiver. Oral communication provides an opportunity to the speaker to
correct himself and make himself clear by changing his voice, pitch, tone, etc.

Demerits of Oral communication:

1. No record. Since there is no documentary record of the oral communication, it cannot become
legal evidence. It can be used for future or legal reference, if it is tape-recorded. But it is not
possible in every case.
2. Distance. Distance serves as the biggest disadvantage of oral communication. If the sender
and the receiver of the message are far away from each other and mechanical devices are not
available, oral communication cannot be possible.

3. Lengthy messages. Oral communication is not suitable for transmitting lengthy messages. If
the message is lengthy the chances of its misunderstanding, delusion and forgetting are very
high. Lengthy messages usually fail to retain listener's attention; as a result communication
failure occurs.

4. Distortions. In oral communication, misunderstandings and misinterpretations of the message

usually occur because of the distorted meanings by the receiver. The main theme of the message
is lost as a result of these distortions.

5. Cannot be retained for long. Oral messages cannot be retained for a long time. In about a
month's time not more than twenty percent of the original message may have been retained.
Since these messages are nowhere to be found in the record books, one cannot refer back to them
in near future.

6. Imprecise. People usually take less care when speaking than when writing. Therefore, spoken
words tend to be less precise than the written words. Often the exact point speaker is trying to
make is lost in a mass of words.

7. Lack of responsibility. Oral messages are not recorded. Therefore, it becomes difficult to
hold persons responsible for mistakes, inaccuracy, and untruth in oral communication.

c) Visual communication

Many times we see signs and symbols marked around the city communicating some or the other
message. In buses, trains, letters are shown through pictures winch fulfills the purpose because
the idea is clear to everyone. Facial expressions and gestures, printed pictures, posters, graphs
fall under visual communication. Communication through such visuals is very effective because
it is sure and instantaneous.

d) Audio-visual communication

The communication that makes use of telecasts, short films, documentaries, and video tapes fall
under audio-visual communication. It is the combination of sight and sound, and a very powerful
medium of communication. Words are imprecise and imperfect conveyors of meaning especially
in communicating voluminous and confusing information. The statistical data cannot be
understood through words only, for which graphs and pictures are must. Audio-visual
communication is very effective for mass publicity, mass propaganda and mass education. Large
business houses frequently make use of this technique to educate their workers and to popularize
their products.

e) Computer based communication

The business communication today largely depends on computer related communication.

Computer technology has dramatically changed the whole scenario of business world. It has very
effectively eliminated the barriers of time and space. The fax, e-mail, voice mail, cellular phones,
telephone answering machines, video conferencing etc. are some of the computer based media of
communication. Most often more than one medium may have to be simultaneously employed to
make the communication effective fact-to-face communication combines the oral form with
visuals. Graph and posters often combine the visual with the written form. A manager giving
written instructions may also take pains to explain them to a subordinate, is simultaneously using
the oral and the written form of communication.

2. Nonverbal Communication– It is basically a practice of gestures, facial expressions, and

body language to send information. It can be implemented intentionally and unintentionally
when communicating. For instance, a person can smile unintentionally when they hear an
interesting piece of information or a pleasant idea.

Types of Nonverbal Communication

1. Facial Expressions

Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication. Consider
how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. The look on a person's face is
often the first thing we see, even before we hear what they have to say.

While nonverbal communication and behavior can vary dramatically between cultures, the facial
expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, and fear are similar throughout the world.

2. Gestures

Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without
words. Common gestures include waving, pointing, and giving a "thumbs up" sign. Other
gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.

For example, in the U.S., putting the index and middle finger in the shape of a "V" with your
palm facing out is often considered to be a sign of peace or victory. Yet, in Britain, Australia,
and other parts of the world, this gesture can be considered an insult.
3. Paralinguistics

Paralinguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This form of
nonverbal communication includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch.

For example, consider the powerful effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a
sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might interpret a statement as approval
and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone can convey disapproval and a lack of
interest.

4. Body Language and Posture

Posture and movement can also provide a great deal of information. Research on body language
has grown significantly since the 1970s, with popular media focusing on the over-interpretation
of defensive postures such as arm-crossing and leg-crossing, especially after the publication of
Julius Fast's book Body Language.

While these nonverbal communications can indicate feelings and attitudes, body language is
often subtle and less definitive than previously believed.

5. Proxemics

People often refer to their need for "personal space." This is known as proxemics and is another
important type of nonverbal communication. 7

The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us are
influenced by several factors. Among them are social norms, cultural expectations, situational
factors, personality characteristics, and level of familiarity.

The amount of personal space needed when having a casual conversation with another person
can vary between 18 inches and four feet. The personal distance needed when speaking to a
crowd of people is usually around 10 to 12 feet.

6. Eye Gaze

The eyes play a role in nonverbal communication, with such things as looking, staring, and
blinking being important cues. For example, when you encounter people or things that you like,
your rate of blinking increases and your pupils dilate.
7. Appearance

Our choice of clothing, hairstyle, and other appearance factors are also considered a means of
nonverbal communication.10 Research on color psychology has demonstrated that different
colors can evoke different moods. Appearance can also alter physiological reactions, judgments,
and interpretations.

MODES/CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Horizontal communication
Horizontal communication is a type of communication that occurs between individuals or groups
who hold similar positions within the organizational structure. Instead of following the
traditional top-down or bottom-up communication patterns, it allows for direct interactions and
information sharing among employees who are on the same level in the hierarchy.
For example, employees from different departments, teams, or functional areas at similar
job levels can communicate horizontally.

Features of horizontal communication

 Lateral Communication Flow: Horizontal communication involves communication that

moves laterally across the organization, rather than vertically up or down the hierarchical
structure. It enables employees at the same level to collaborate, share knowledge, coordinate
tasks, and address common challenges.
 Informal Nature: While some horizontal communication may occur through formal channels
like email or scheduled meetings, it often takes place informally through casual
conversations, instant messaging, or water-cooler discussions.
 Reducing Hierarchical Barriers: Horizontal flow of communication helps to break down
rigid hierarchical barriers within organizations. It fosters a more inclusive and open
communication culture, where ideas can flow freely across different departments or divisions.
 Faster Information Flow: Compared to vertical communication which may need to go
through multiple levels of management, horizontal communication allows information to
spread more quickly across the organization.
 Conflict Resolution: It provides a platform for conflict resolution and addressing coworker
issues effectively. Open communication can help in understanding different perspectives and
finding mutually beneficial solutions.
2. Vertical Communication

As the name suggests, vertical communication follows a linear system where information flows
from one person to the next based on their titles. This type of communication is mostly reserved
for sensitive information or if an organization follows a hierarchical structure.

Types of Vertical Communication

Vertical communication can be either downward or upward—depending on the type of

information. This type of communication is mostly in a written format—emails, reports or
memos—to keep track of the information. However, spoken vertical communication is also a
significant aspect because it’s a more direct form of conveying ideas or messages.
Here Are The Two Types Of Vertical Communication:
 Downward Communication
When information flows from senior management to associates, it’s called downward
communication. Here, the management usually sends an email or informs the next person-in-
charge. The information can be of a critical nature—which is another reason why it’s not directly
shared with employees. (heartfulness.org)
 Upward Communication
When information flows from associates to senior management, it’s upward communication.
This is when employees have to update their managers about their work status, share findings or
research and inform them of something important.

Difference between Horizontal & Vertical Communication

Basis for Vertical Communication Horizontal Communication

Comparison

Meaning Vertical communication flows Horizontal communication refers to

between superiors to subordinates or communication between employees of the
vice versa. same rank or managerial status.

Direction Upward or downward movement Lateral movement

Flow Between management and employees Between employees of the same rank or job
or subordinates and superiors position

Nature Authoritative and directive Informal and casual

Purpose To report information and give Building friendly relationships with co-
directives workers

Forms Company meetings, circulars, Casual conversation, memos

instructions

Barriers Employee dissent, improper Rumors, Gossip chain communication

communication skills

3. Diagonal Communication

Diagonal communication, also known as crosswise communication, is a type of business

communication that occurs within an organization between individuals who are not in a direct
hierarchical relationship with each other but belong to different departments or teams. In other
words, it involves communication that cuts across different levels and departments, forming a
diagonal flow in the organizational structure.
Typically, communication in an organization flows vertically (upward and downward)
through the formal chain of command and horizontally between individuals or units at the same
level. Diagonal communication breaks away from this traditional pattern by allowing individuals
from different departments or levels to communicate directly with each other.
Characteristics of diagonal communication

A diagonal communication network has the following characteristics:

1/ Cross-functional Exchange: Diagonal communication enables communication between

employees or teams from different departments or functional areas. For instance, it might involve
interaction between marketing and finance, or between production and human resources.

2/ Non-hierarchical flow: Unlike vertical communication, which follows the formal chain of
command (upward or downward), diagonal communication disregards the hierarchical structure
to some extent. It allows employees at different levels to communicate directly without going
through formal channels.

3/ Informal nature: Diagonal communication often takes place informally, which means it may
not adhere to strict protocols or formalities. It can occur through unplanned conversations,
emails, instant messaging, or even during social gatherings.

4/ Middle Management Facilitation: Middle managers often play a vital role in facilitating
diagonal communication, as they have connections with various departments and can bridge the
gap between different levels of the organization.

5/ Customer-Centric Focus: Diagonal communication in an organization enables different

departments, such as marketing, sales, and customer service, to collaborate more effectively to
serve customers’ needs. Adopting this customer-centric approach can result in higher customer
satisfaction and stronger loyalty.

4. Grapevine

Grapevine is an informal channel of communication that operates in every organization. It does

not follow any certain, definite or predetermined rules or direction but spreads like the grapevine
in any and every direction and fast. This informal communication network includes tea time
gossip, casual gatherings, lunch time meetings, and so on. These channels may not be very
reliable as they may be company rumours or just gossip. These channels are more active in
organizations that are not transparent. Any group of people working together are sure to be
interested in one another and talk about appointments, promotions, retrenchments and even
personal and family problems. Information on these matters is supposed to be secret but many
people derive great pleasure from gathering such secret information and transmitting it to others.
Rumors and gossip are especially activated in certain situations such as insecurity of service,
uncertainty over promotion, special increments to a particular employee, certain changes or
transfers in the organization etc. The grapevine is not set with the lines of organizational
hierarchy. It can work horizontally, vertically or even diagonally.

Merits of Grapevine

Grapevine though being less reliable channel of communication has following merits -

(i) A Safety Valve - Grapevine acts like a big safety valve since it allows the employees an
outlet for their pent-up emotions. Apprehensions experienced by workers on matters like
promotion, retrenchment and other career fears are to a large extent alleviated by workers'
sharing them with their colleagues. It provides emotional relief.

(ii) Speedy and Quick- This is the fastest way of communication and information spreads like
wildfire.

(iii) Inexpensive - This is an inexpensive way of transmitting information since it is oral and
requires nothing and reaches maximum number of people.

(iv) Feedback- The grapevine provides feedback to the management. It enables them to know
what the subordinates think about them and the organization. It acts as the barometer of public
opinion and gives a clear idea of the existing ideas, opinions and interests in the organization.

(v) Organizational Benefit - The grapevine cuts across hierarchical boundaries and crosses
layers of organization. It is multidirectional and therefore, if used properly and intelligently by
managers can be used to deal with problems that need cutting across departmental barriers. A
properly cultivated grapevine can work to the advantage of the organization.

Demerits of Grapevine

Grapevine communication has following demerits-

(i) Distortion - This is the foremost demerit of the grapevine. It respects nobody and can ascrible
the worst motives to the best of people. It can spread baseless and distorted facts which are
malicious and hurting.

(ii) Damaging Swiftness - The grapevine is the quickest way of spreading information and as
such can cause a lot of damage in a short period of time. A rumor may start and spread and cause
damage before any corrective step can be taken.

(iii) Incomplete Information - Since this is an informal method of communication information

circulated is often incomplete which leads to further misinterpretations.

(iv) Negativity and Resentment - The grapevine often creates Sentiment and negativity
especially among the persons who are targets of gossip. The atmosphere can become vicious and
people can began to spread truths just to get even. This atmosphere of back-biting can in fact
cause damage to the organization.

BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION

Effective communication is crucial in any professional setting.

Whether you’re participating in a meeting, conversing with your colleagues, or attending a

presentation, navigating through communication barriers can be challenging. These barriers often
obstruct the smooth flow of information, leading to misunderstandings that waste valuable time
and resources.

1. Physical Barriers

Physical barriers to communication represent the various environmental and natural conditions that
act as barriers between the senders and receivers of information.

 Time and distance

The barriers related to time and distance typically affect remote teams whose members work
from home.

Remote teammates do not work in the same office or even at the same time. Instead, they may
operate on a different continent and time zone. This makes real-time communication difficult and
in-person communication inconvenient or near impossible — unless one teammate is willing to
accommodate the other, work at night, or fly across the globe regularly.

 Personal space

In verbal, face-to-face communication, personal space plays a crucial role.

Namely, the distance that applies only to in-person communication may act as a facilitator to
good communication or as a barrier to effective communication — depending on whether it’s
adequately interpreted and arranged.

 Workplace design

Workplace design has a crucial influence on communication effectiveness in the workplace.

For example, the seating arrangements can facilitate effective communication — when team
members who need to communicate and collaborate daily are seated at connected desks.

But, the seating arrangement can also become a barrier to communication, primarily when it isn’t
addressed promptly.

 Work environment

The chief element of a work environment that may hinder effective communication is comfort —
or, more precisely, the potential lack of it.

Namely, if the company or home office is too hot or cold, people may not be able to fully focus
on the information being communicated in business situations. The same applies if the desks and
chairs are too low or high or the office lighting is too bright or dim.

 Background noise

Noise is a common barrier to communication in the workplace. Background noise can stem from
several reasons, including:

 Colleagues talking nearby (often experienced by people who work in an office),

 Family members, roommates, or partners talking nearby (often experienced by people

who work from home),

 Copy machines, kitchen noise, and other inside noises, and

 Outside noises from thunderstorms, traffic, or lawn equipment.

While some people can tune out and ignore the above distractions, most struggle to maintain
their cognitive performance when exposed to loud intermittent noises.

2. Psychological Barriers

Communication is the interaction between individuals. As such, it is influenced by people's satire

their mental makeup social standing and their psychological setup. Socio-psychological barnen
can arise due to -

(i) Status Barriers - Barriers can arise due to a person's position or social rank. A 'boss' who is
autocratic will find it difficult to accept suggestion from his subordinates. Subordinates will also
find it difficult to communicate unfavorable but true information to him. Status here will create a
gap between the sender and the receiver. Social distance between workers and manager
employees and employer and superior executives and juniors in most cases lead to a
communication gap and becomes a major barrier. In this way, many good ideas, innovative
suggestions as well as accurate information is disregarded and gap in communication ensures.

(ii) Group Identification - If a person identifies himself too strongly with a group, then not only
are his ideas and attitude influenced by those of the group but his receptivity to communication is
also influenced by it. For example, a bank or railway employee may understand the economic,
political and social damage that may be caused by his strike but suggestions about not joining t
the strike will not be accepted by him because the ideas of his group are more important for him.
Because of this group identification, communication can be rejected and not accepted and this
constitutes a socio-psychological barrier.

(iii) Self-interest - This factor is a major barrier to communication. One tends to see and hear
everything in the light of one's opinions, ideas and views. One's self interest leads one to accept
what is suitable and reject or forget what goes against one's interest. This self centered approach
forms a frame of reference which colors and governs every message received or sent.

(iv) Closed Mind - Communication is poorly received when one's mind is closed and mindset is
narrow. A person may consider himself 'a know all' and this will render him unable to receive
any new and contrary ideas. One's deep rooted prejudices and fear can also lead one to reject
certain new ideas and communication. An executive with a superior attitude will rudely and
summarily dismiss any and all ideas put forward by his junior just because he thinks he knows
best. Thus, a person's closed mind can create a barrier to communication.

(v) Poor Communication Skills - Communication is an art and has to be acquired by many
people. It comes naturally to some people whereas others have to hone and polish their
communication skills. Skills in speaking and writing are essential for encoding idea properly. A
person who lacks these skills will be unable to communicate his ideas effectively and this
becomes a barrier to communication.

(vi) Physical Health and Well-being - One's physical condition can also affect ones' efficiency
as a sender as well as a receiver. A physically ill person will be unable to communicate properly
because the mind is not sufficiently alert and he may lack sufficient energy to think clearly.
Perception is low when the state of health is poor and this can create a barrier in communication.

(vii) Emotional Well-being - A person's emotions and feelings also play a role in governing
one's level of receptivity and transmission. A person who is disturbed or nervous or elicited or
angry will not be able to communicate properly and will end up miscommunication or sending
blurred message. One" excited or nervous state of mind will prevent one from composing the
message clearly. His unclear will make him blind to reason and logic and he will be unable to
send or receive information properly. Thus, one's emotional well- being is important for effective
communication and negative emotions constitute a barrier to communication.

(viii) Inattentiveness and Poor Listening - A major barrier to communication is the listener's
inattentiveness and lack of attention. This can be due to the receiver's tiredness, anxiety, worries
or because of the boring style of the sender. An orator who uses difficult words and high flown
language while addressing a group of workers is sure to lose their attention and this leads to poor
reception of communication.

3. Language or Semantic Barriers

The word 'semantic' is the branch of linguistics concerned with the meaning of words. Language
is a very powerful tool of communication but it is a tricky tool that needs careful and correct
handling. Semantic barriers to communication arise due to the following factors-

(i) Interpretation of Words - Most of the communication is carried out through words, whether
spoken or written. But words are capable of communicating a variety of meanings. It is quite
possible that the receiver of a message does not assign the same meaning to the word that the
transmitter had intended. This may lead to miscommunication. For instance, the word 'run' has
71 meanings as a verb, another 35 as a noun and 4 more as an adjective. This fact is revealed by
'Murphy and Peck' in their book, "Effective Business Communication'. If the word 'run' is used in
a message, the receiver may interpret it in any of the 110 meanings, but if the communication is
to be perfect, the sender must assign to it the same meaning that existed in his mind when he
used it.

(ii) Bypassed Instructions - Bypassing takes place when the communication and the recipient
conclude different meanings from the same word or use different words for the same meaning.
Murphy and Peck in their of t book 'Effective Business Communication' give the following
example of how bypassed words can create a blunder.

An office manager handed to a new assistant one letter with the instruction, "Take it to our
stockroom and burn it". He meant as in the company's jargon, to make a copy on a company
machine which operated by heat process. As the letter was extremely important, she wanted an
extra copy. However, the puzzled new employee, afraid to ask questions, burned the letter with a
lighted match and thus destroyed the only existing copy.

4. Organizational barriers

Organizational barriers in the communication arise due to faulty organizational structure, due to
faulty rules and policies or due to lack of communication facilities at the organizational level.
Some important organizational barriers are –
(i) Complicated Organizational Structure - More the number of The levels of management,
large span of control, confusing relation between line and staff organization, etc. creates distance
between the sender and the receiver of the message. This delays the communication of the
message and even distorts the message.

(ii) Organizational Policies and Rules - Strong disciplinary policies and rules can effect
communication. If there is a policy of written n, communication then immediate work is delayed
due to this policy. Workers tend to hesitate in providing feedback in case of strict policies and
rules.

(iii) Status Relationship - Status or position acts as a strong barrier to communication in a

formal organization. An executive in superior position sometimes does not give attention to the
thoughts of his subordinates. The subordinates also become reluctant to communicate anything
which their superior does not like. This acts as a major communication barrier.

(iv) Lack of Communication Devices and Other Material - Lack of d communication devices
in the organization like telephone, computer, etc. and material like stationary item acts as a big
barrier to organizational communication.

5. Cultural Barriers

Cultural barriers arise from different practices in business communication. English is an

international business language but the people of all English using countries do not follow the
same practice in business communication. For example, the Chinese sign their last names first on
a business document. In India there are instances when an officer, who has called a meeting or
invited a colleague to his chamber for formal discussion of an issue attends telephone calls,
causing disruption in the proceedings. In USA and UK such behavior would be frowned upon. In
these countries the business companies are goal-oriented and go by facts and logic and not by
emotions. For them performance is paramount. They also expect their employees to keep
professional life and family life separate. But in Japan this is not the case. Japanese companies
are people oriented like Indian companies. They expect their officers to achieve targets by
putting in extra hours of work, as is the case with Indian companies. On the other hand, the
British and American companies too want the work to be completed in time, without extra hours
of work. They expect their employees to organise their time judiciously in order to yield the
desired results. To deal with people of a foreign culture it is necessary to know their social
etiquette and customs as well.
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS AND INTRAPERSONAL SKILLS

Interpersonal skills

Interpersonal refers to the interactions and relationships between individuals. It involves

communication and socializing with others, both verbally and non-verbally. This can include
various forms of communication such as speaking, body language, and gestures. Interpersonal
skills are important in many aspects of life, including personal relationships, business, and social
situations.

Intrapersonal skills

Intrapersonal refers to the internal processes and experiences that occur within an individual.
This can include thoughts, emotions, and self-reflection. Intrapersonal skills involve
understanding one’s own feelings, motivations, and beliefs. This self-awareness can lead to
personal growth and development. Intrapersonal skills are important for individuals in order to
understand themselves and their own needs, as well as to communicate effectively with others.

Key Differences between Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Communication

The difference between intrapersonal and interpersonal communication, can be drawn clearly on
the following grounds:

1. The communication that we have with ourselves, i.e. the communication that occurs in
our mind, is known as intrapersonal communication. The communication between two or
more person, through verbal or non-verbal messages, is called interpersonal
communication.
2. The intrapersonal communication is the communication with oneself, and so only one
person is involved in it. On the contrary, interpersonal communication is always between
two or more persons.
3. Intrapersonal communication occurs continuously because it is the human tendency to
think, analyse and interpret things. Conversely, Interpersonal Communication occurs
regularly on a personal and professional level.
4. In intrapersonal communication, only an individual’s internal senses are involved. As
against this, interpersonal communication requires media, i.e. to pass on the message to
the other party.
5. In intrapersonal communication, is based on the thinking and analysis while interpersonal
communication is concerned with the exchange of ideas, information, opinions, feelings
and so on.
Comparison Chart

BASIS INTRAPERSONAL INTERPERSONAL

FOR COMPARISON COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION
Meaning Intrapersonal Communication is one that Interpersonal Communication is the
we have with ourselves, i.e. the communication between two or more
communication that occurs in our mind. person, through verbal or non-verbal
messages.
Persons Involved One At least two
Occurrence Continuous due to human nature. Regular, due to social needs.
Media Only a person's internal senses are Supported by a verbal and non-verbal
involved. media.
Concerned with Thinking and Analysis Exchanging and sharing of ideas or
information

NEGOTIATION SKILLS

Negotiation is the act or process of conferring or discussing to reach agreement in matters of

business or state. In simple words, it is a kind of bargain with others for a treaty or contract for
expansion of business, maximization of profit salary increment, etc. Negotiation is a process of s
convincing two parties, in which one wants to convince and the other has to n be convinced. The
word negotiation has been derived from French word ‘negociacion' which means 'business,
trade'.

Negotiation is one of the most crucial aspects of communication. It is a of part of everyday life,
but in business, it is absolutely vital for success. We bargain in our daily life to lower the cost we
have to pay for buying anything. l In HR interviews, candidates have to negotiate for a better
salary. In case of businesses, good negotiation skill is paramount, as lacking it may affect the d
health and wealth of a company by crippling its growth, resulting in losing key customers or
financial losses in business deals. The negotiation takes place every day, however, it is not easy
to perform this task without skill, efficiency and persuasion.

Before going for a negotiation, we have to analyze what is involved (money, sales, time,
conditions, discounts, etc.), what your opposition is trying to achieve by negotiation, what could
be the extreme solution. The negotiation should be started when both the sides realize that they
cannot get what they want through a power struggle and that they have reached a hurting
stalemate. The negotiation can be started, if the parties believe that their ideal solution is not
available and making a settlement is their best option available. In addition, each side must
believe that the other side is willing to compromise.
Types of Negotiation Styles

1. Accommodating (Lose – Win): Accommodating negotiators prioritize maintaining the

relationship between the negotiating parties. Those who exhibit the accommodating style seek to
satisfy the other party's needs while minimizing the level of conflict involved in the negotiation.

2. Avoiding (Lose – Lose): Negotiators with an avoiding style prefer to remain objective and
avoid creating tension. They’ll often defer responsibility to a counterpart in an attempt to remain
neutral. They do not actively pursue their own interests or the interests of the other party.

3. Collaborating (Win – Win): The collaborative negotiation style is a joint problem-solving

technique. It aims to create a win-win scenario. Collaborative negotiators are great at finding
innovative solutions to complex problems. By working together with the other party, those
exhibiting the collaborating style aim to find creative solutions that satisfy the needs of all parties
involved.

4. Competing (Win – Lose): Competitive negotiators are results-oriented and focused on getting
their own way. They do not focus on the relationship with the other party or maintaining a good
rapport. Those with a competitive negotiation style are usually less willing to compromise and,
in extreme cases, can be aggressive.

5. Compromising (Win, Lose – Win, Lose): The compromising style aims to find a middle
ground that is mutually beneficial to all parties. However, it is different from the collaborative
style in that it does not aim for a win-win scenario. Instead, compromising negotiators seek a
solution in which both parties sacrifice part of what they want for resolution. Think of haggling
for a lower price at a flea market—the buyer offers the seller a lower price, hoping they’ll meet
somewhere in the middle. In this situation, neither party gets everything they want, but they walk
away with their need or desire partially fulfilled.

ETIQUETTES

Etiquette refers to conventional rules of social behavior, or professional conduct. Though these
rules are unwritten, they act as norms to be observed by all professionals, who work as a team in
a particular company or department. They help individuals identify what sort of behavior is
appropriate or inappropriate in a business environment. Professional etiquette affects business
deals. A potential customer or investor who visits the organization, assess the status of the
company not just from its balance sheets and inventory books, but also from the manner in which
they are received, addressed, taken around and briefed in the boardroom. In business, as in life,
etiquette is a self-rewarding trait. Successful professionals know how to conduct themselves at
company meetings, parties and dinners. They behave as per their company's culture and
etiquette. Further, rules of business etiquette mean more than the rules of just being nice. It is
fundamental for successfully conducting the business. Ignoring these norms can make a
professional labelled as 'unfriendly' or 'inflexible'. This may disrupt the smooth working of the
team by causing misunderstanding and tension among fellow workers.

Importance of Etiquettes

(i) Proper etiquette boosts self-esteem and confidence.

(ii) Using proper etiquette for communication ensures a clear and better level of communication
as it breaks unnecessary communication.

(iii) Proper etiquette helps people feel more comfortable and at ease because it shows that you
value and respect others. Etiquette also promotes kindness, consideration and humility.

(iv) Demonstrating etiquette helps you develop critical life skills such as compassion, kindness,
patience, respect, self-control, focus, decision- making and even problem solving skills.

(v) Etiquette helps you to open doors to new opportunities and enhances your status in the
workplace.

(vi) Proper etiquette creates strong and long lasting first impressions.

(vii) Showing good etiquette also inspires others. Thus, helps to create a more kind and gentle
world.

Etiquette to be followed while using the mobile phone

Mobile phone is a necessity in today's technological world, but it can be a disturbing element
also, if not used properly. It tends to distract the person using it as well as others who are around.
Mobile etiquette (or mobiquette) refers to the certain guidelines, which everyone must follow
while using the mobile at workplace.

(i) Keep your cell phone in the silent or vibration mode, at workplaces, cinemas, in seminars, etc.
As loud ringtones can disturb others around.

(ii) Don't circulate your official number amongst all your friends and relatives. Keep a separate
phone for personal use.

(iii) Do not activate film songs or jokes as caller tunes for mobiles meant for official use. This
leaves a bad impression on clients and external parties who might call you.
(iv) Never shout on the phone. Always be soft and polite. Avoid using abusive or foul language.

(v) Be careful with your mobile. Never leave it at here and there. It would waste yours and others
time also.

(vi) Try not to carry mobile phone to restrooms.

(vii) On receiving a call, start your conversation with a warm 'hello'. It’s your voice and verbal
communication which creates a picture of you in other's mind.

(viii) Do not talk for long duration. Be crisp and precise.

(ix) Do not call someone early morning or late night, unless it is an emergency.

(x) If someone is not picking your call, do not call him again and again, he might be busy in
something important.

(xi) Do not click picture of others without their permission.

(xii) Switch off your mobile while attending important meetings or presentations. In case of an
emergency, move out of the place to make a call.
 UNIT-4

GROUP DISCUSSION

When a group of people gather, they usually start discussion on a topic which can be related to
social, economic or political issues. The discussion might be formal or informal. A group of
students sitting in a mess to have their meal indulge into a discussion of informal type. In such a
discussion there will be no attention paid to the language being used or the gestures made. On the
other hand, formal discussions may take place at an office, at a meeting place, at a conference
hall, or at a recruitment centre. Thus group discussion (GD) is a form of communication in which
a group of people exchange their opinion on the given issue, topic or problem. While exchanging
differing views on an issue, we get a clear picture of the problem and make a better
understanding to deal with the problem. This is the basic purpose of a group discussion.

In the term group discussion, the word discuss means 'to talk about a subject in detail'. Thus,
group discussion refers to a communicative situation in which participants are allowed to express
their views and opinions to other participants on a particular topic, issue or problem.

Types of GD

(i) Factual Topics

Factual topics are about practical things, which an ordinary person is aware of in his day-to-day
life. Typically these are about socioeconomic topics. A factual topic for discussion gives a
candidate a chance to prove that he is aware of and sensitive to his environment.

E.g. The education policy of India,

The status of the aged in India

(ii) Controversial Topics

Controversial topics are the ones that are argumentative in nature. They are meant to generate
controversy. The idea behind giving a topic like this is to see how much maturity the candidate is
displaying by keeping his temper in check, by rationally and logically arguing his point of view
without getting personal and emotional.

E.g. Reservations should be removed.

Women make better managers, etc.

(iii) Abstract Topics

Abstract topics are about intangible things. These topics test your lateral thinking and creativity.
E.g. A is an alphabet, Children are the number 10, etc.

(iv) Case-based GD

Information about the situation will be given to you and you would be asked as a group to
resolve the situation. In the case study there are no incorrect answers or perfect solutions. The
objective in the case study is to get you to think about the situation from various angles.

Do’s in Group Discussion

1. Be as natural as possible. Do not try and be someone you are not. Be yourself.

2. A group discussion is your chance to be more vocal. The evaluator wants to hear you speak.

3. Take time to organize your thoughts. Think of what you are going to say.

4. Seek clarification if you have any doubts regarding the subject. 5. Don't start speaking until
you have clearly understood and analyzed the subject.

6. Work out various strategies to help you make an entry.

7. Opening the discussion is not the only way of gaining attention and recognition.

8. Your body language says a lot about you your gestures and mannerisms are more likely to
reflect your attitude than what you say.

9. Language skills are important only to the effect as to how you get your points across clearly
and fluently.

10. Be assertive not dominating, try to maintain a balanced tone in your discussion and analysis.

11. Don't lose your cool if anyone says anything you object to. The key is to stay objective: Don't
take the discussion personally.

12. Always be polite: Try to avoid using extreme phrases like: I strongly object or 'I disagree.
Instead try phrases like: 'I would like to share my views on...' or 'One difference between your
point and mine." or "I beg to differ with you".

13. Brush up on your leadership skills; motivate the other members of the team to speak.

14. If you have a group of like-minded friends, you can have a mock group discussion where you
can learn from each other through giving and receiving feedback.
15. Apart from the above points, the panel will also judge team members for their alertness and
presence of mind, problem-solving abilities, ability to work as a team without alienating certain
members, and creativity.

Don’ts in Group Discussion

(i) Don't be in hurry.

(ii) Don't dominate/monopolize the discussion.

(iii) Don't make any personal remarks on any group member.

(iv) Don't look stubborn/snobbish.

(v) Don't speak continuously for a long time.

(vi) Don't indulge in debate and altercation.

(vii) Don't jump to conclusions.

(viii) Neither recline in your chair nor lean forward.

(ix) Don't get emotional.

(x) Don't ignore any member of the group.

TEAM BUILDING AND TEAM WORK

A team may be defined as a group of interdependent individuals who interact and coordinate
their work to accomplish a common objective or purpose. This definition has three components.
First, a group (two or more) of individuals. Second, people in a team have regular interaction.
People who do not interact, such as people standing in a line at a bank, do not compose a team.
Third, people in a team share a common objective, such as find solution of a problem, develop a
new plan or product, etc. Thus, critical pre-requisites for building effective teams are interaction,
mutual influence, inter dependence and a well defined common goal.

Forming a team of some highly qualified and hard working individuals cannot ensure
success. For building a good team, the first step is to identify each player's style. The team
members should complement each other's strengths and weaknesses. One can always accomplish
more as a team than as an individual, but for that team members have to synchronize themselves
with each other. Teams can contribute a great deal to modern organizational life. Positively
working teams encourage flexibility, involvement and efficiency. Now most of the organizations
employ teams to manage projects and run the company effectively. Some important inputs to
design an effective team are-
(i) Size of the team.

(ii) Team goals.

(iii) Composition of members skills, talents and knowledge.

(iv) Roles - task-oriented, relationship-oriented, self-oriented.

(v) Characteristics - personalities, skills and abilities.

(vi) Diversity - Heterogeneous or homogeneous.

Types of teams

There are six basic types of teams as given below

(i) Functional Teams - A functional team comprises of a group of people engaged in performing
a particular function in the organization. A function team composed of a manager and his or her
subordinates in an organization's formal chain of command is also known as a vertical team.

(ii) Cross-functional Teams - A cross-functional team is a group of employees from different

departments to deal with a specific activity that is occasionally temporary in nature. If members
of a cross-function team are of same hierarchical level but from different areas of expertise, then
such a team is known as a horizontal team.

(iii) Special-purpose Teams - Special-purpose teams or problem- solving teams are meant for
solving work related problem pertaining to all aspects of group working. Such teams focus on a
specific purpose and expect to disband once the specific purpose is fulfilled.

(iv) Self-managed Teams - Self-managed teams focus on doing well-defined day-to-day work
as a coherent group. In a self-managed team, members may develop themselves to perform
different jobs required to be undertaken for the completion of the task. These teams undertake a
variety of managerial tasks such as scheduling, work rotation, ordering materials, deciding on
team leadership, setting team goals, budgeting, etc.

(v) Virtual Teams - A virtual team is made up of geographically or organizationally dispersed

members who are linked primarily through advanced information and telecommunication
technologies. These teams are the most effective to deal situations wherein team members need
to work across distances, time zones and increasingly across organizational boundaries.

(vi) Advisory Teams - Such teams are formed to provide suggestions for improvement. They are
usually set up for overseeing team operations and extend guidance and support related to team
projects or goals.
How do you handle a situation, when there was a problem with members of your team not
doing their fair share of work?

In a team, everyone have to do his share of work, otherwise performance of the whole team gets
affected. To handle a team member which is not doing his fair share of work, the first step is to
find the root cause of the problem. Some possible reasons for a sudden decline in a member's
output may be -

(i) Lack of understanding of his role in the team.

(ii) Workplace problems such as non-conducive environment or harassment.

(iii) Problems in their personal life.

(iv) Financial or physical issues.

A good team leader should find the fundamental reasons for under- performance of a team
member. This can be done by talking to the member. While going for such a conversation, it is
crucial to adopt the right tone. Being aggressive or accusatory will make that member feel like he
is being attacked, which could worsen the situation. Instead of asking him bluntly, "We have
noticed a decline in your performance, can you explain that?", we could start the conversation by
asking how he is feeling and if there is anything on his mind, he want to share. This could
naturally lead to a talk about underlying issues that might be hindering their performance levels
at work.

After finding why a team member not doing his/her shares of work, the next step is to develop
positive, lasting solutions of that problem.

If a member is struggling to do his work because of a distracting, disruptive or even toxic work
environment, then the team leader needs to find an effective way to manage this problem so that
the team members can happily get on with their jobs.

Similarly, if a member's productivity is suffering because of stress, anxiety or mental health

issues then problem can be solved by -

(i) Training team members how to cope up with stress and maintain good mental health.

(ii) Providing financial or emotional support.

(iii) Coming up with a plan, if they need a break and make a gradual transition back to work.
BE A MANAGER OR LEADER

Leadership represents the abstract quality in a man. Leadership is all about influencing people to
act, behave and perform as desired by the leader. Leadership occurs among people, involves the
use of influence and is used to attain goals. Influence means that the relationship among people
is not passive. Thus, leadership is the ability of influencing other's behavior and combining their
efforts for the attainment of common purpose. It is considered as an important ingredient of
management. The success of any organization is dependent upon the quality of its leadership.

Comparison between a manager and a leader

It is seldom possible to segregate the behavioral functions of manager and leader. It is because
every act of influence on a matter of organizational relevance is in some degree an act of
leadership.

A manager organizes, directs and controls various activities of the organization directed towards
specific goals. A leader, on the other hand, inspires confidence and trust in his subordinates, gets
maximum cooperation from them and guides their activities in organized effort.

The formal position and status enjoyed by a manager does not necessarily ensure his dominance
as a leader. In fact in an organization an informal leader may exercise greater influence than the
manager. The management may use command and authority while leadership uses personal traits
and courage. A clear distinction between management and leadership is in "bringing others to
do" and "bringing others to want to do".

One another important distinction between the leader and the manager is that the leader knows
what must be done and the manager knows how to do things well. In other words, leaders do the
right thing and managers do things right.

A primary distinction between management and leadership is that management promotes

stability, order and problem solving within the existing organizational structure and systems.
Leadership promotes vision, creativity, and change.

Qualities of a leader and a manager are given in table 4.1. These qualities frequently overlap
within a single individual. A person might have more of one set of qualities than the other but
ideally a manager develops a balance of both manager and leader qualities.

The better businesses value both management and the exercise of leadership. Good management
is needed to help the organization meet current commitments, while good leadership is needed to
move the organization into the future.
DECISION MAKING

A decision is the conclusion of a process by which one chooses between two or more available
alternative courses of action for the purpose of attaining a goal (s). The word decision has been
derived from the Latin word "decidere", which means 'a cutting away or a cutting off or in a
practical sense'. Hence, a decision involves a cut of alternatives between those that are desirable
and those that are not desirable. The decision is a kind of choice of a desirable alternative.
According to Lopez, "a decision represents a judgement; a final resolution of a conflict of needs,
means or goals; and a commitment to action made in face of uncertainty, complexity and even
irrationally."

A decision represents a course of behaviour chosen from a number of possible alternatives. A

decision is a course of action or inaction chosen to satisfy the requirements of a solution (i.e.,
problem). Decision can also be conceived as a conclusion that a manager has reached so as to
know what he (or others) should do in future (or later on).

Main characteristics of decisions are given as follows -

(i) It is the choice of the best course among the available alternatives.

(ii) It is the end process proceeded by deliberation and reasonings.

(iii) It is associated with commitment.

(iv) It is rational.

(v) These relate the means to the end.

(vi) Evaluation process exists in every course of decision making.

(vii) These can be negative and may just be not to decide.

CREATIVITY

Creativity is the generation of novel ideas that might meet perceived needs or respond to
opportunities for the organization. Creative thought is a mental process involving creative
problem solving and the discovery of new ideas or concepts, or new associations of the existing
ideas or concepts. Creativity is the essential first step in innovation, which is vital for
professional success of an individual. Creative people often are known for originality, open-
mindedness, curiosity, a focused approach to problem solving, persistence, and receptivity to
new ideas.

One of the important aspects of effective communication is efficient speaking skills. Group
discussion helps students and professionals to open up and share their ideas. The interaction in a
group presents an opportunity for creative learning. It has been found that by involving
participants in a sharing group may enhance the creativity aspect. Individual's connections within
a group discussion can enhance the quality of information received since the interactions among
groups may also be embedded in larger social networks. Group discussion promotes a
cooperative culture which helps participants to gain experience and skills to cope with
complicated problems and to conduct successful creative transfer procedures.

Importance of creativity and critical thinking in our life

As a professional we are increasingly faced with complex problems like global warming,
pollution, financial crises or new epidemics. We need good thinking and creative ideas to
coordinate efforts to solve these problems. We have a huge amount of information available, but
in this fast changing world, what we learn today might easily become obsolete tomorrow. To be
successful in this environment, we need good thinking skills that can help us make reliable
decisions and acquire new knowledge quickly.

The good thinking skills has two basic components-creativity and critical thinking. Creativity is a
matter of coming up with new and useful ideas, generating alternative possibilities. Critical
thinking is thinking clearly and rationally. It involves thinking precisely and systematically, and
following the rules of logic and scientific reasoning, among other things.

Creative and critical thinking skills are perhaps the most fundamental skills involved in making
judgements and solving problems.

The ability to think critically about a matter, to analyze a question, situation or problem down to
its most basic parts help us evaluate the accuracy and truthfulness of statements, claims, and
information we read or hear. In academic settings critical thinking is of much importance, where
we have to evaluate information and analyze a myriad of issues. As a student, a learner or as a
professional we have to consider information in an analytical, critical manner. We need to ask
questions like, what is the source of this information. Is that source reliable? Are there multiple
perspectives to consider an issue? Does quality research substantiate information or opinion?
Through this purposeful, frequent, intentional questioning we can sharpen our critical thinking
skills.

While critical thinking analyzes information and roots out the true nature and facets of problems,
it is creative thinking that helps to solve these problems. Creative thinking helps us invent new
solutions to existing problems that do not rely on past or current solutions.

We need to use both creativity and critical thinking in our everyday life. For example, consider
an assignment where we need to compare two different authors on the same topic and select and
defend one as better. Now add to this scenario that your professor clearly prefers one author over
the other. You will need critical thinking to identify. Similarities and differences between these
authors and evaluating their merits. But to challenge your professor's opinion and invent new
perspectives on the authors, we will need creative thinking.

TIME AS A RESOURCE:

It is rightly said ―Time and Tide wait for none‖. An individual should understand the
value of time for him to succeed in all aspects of life. People who waste time are the ones
who fail to create an identity of their own.
All of us have the same number of hours in our lives to spend but seldom do we think
about the importance of time management and time as a resource, which is very precious
and must be spent with care. Living in an amazing time where we are blessed with an
abundance of information, connections, and the internet, which is just a click away. But
what we still do not have in abundance is time, which is the most valuable thing one
possesses on earth. Time is something that determines both your present and future. If
you want to achieve your goals and live your dreams, managing time is the most
important thing that one must learn and practice sincerely
It is well said that time is a non-renewable resource. Once it is gone, you cannot bring it back.

Types of Time Wasters:

(A) Self-generated Time Wasters: Haynes lists three in the self-generated category:
disorganization, procrastination, and the inability to say no.

1. Disorganization

This is a big offender in wasting our time and most time management experts waste little
time in jumping on disorganization with both feet. Many who offer training workshops in
time management, as a prescription to overcoming this personal offence to killing time,
advise us to keep a time log of every big and little thing we do for 24 hours.

2. Procrastination

Harold Taylor has described procrastination, another self-generated time wasting favorite,
as
―giving up what you want most for what you want now.‖ She says people
procrastinate formany different reasons:

• Fear of success: if we succeed, people will demand more of us so why succeed.

• Fear of failure, which frankly makes more sense to me than the ―success‖ rationale.
• Loss of interest in our goal. Maybe our interests or priorities have changed.
 • Lack of a deadline: (There‘s an old saying, ―If I had eight hours to cut down a tree,
I‘d spendsix hours sharpening my axe.‖ Sound familiar?)
• Too many agendas and over-commitment: These can put us into a state of inaction as
we fretthat we won‘t be able to get everything done.
• Perfectionism: we don‘t want to start something until we can do it ―right‖ which
brings us back to the fear of failing.

3. Inability to say no

It is the final self-generated time waster that Marion Haynes describes. I suspect it is one
we can all relate to-and agree with. For whatever reason, and there are many, most of us
find it hard to say ―no‖. We end up doing things we don‘t want to do, don‘t have time to
do, sometimes don‘t even have the personal or physical resources to do. Jules Renard,
whoever he is, made this astute observation (the one in the little box) about the ability to
say no.

(B) Environmental Time Wasters

Haynes and others are largely in agreement that there are a host of time wasters that are
often beyond our control but can nevertheless be managed. Haynes calls these
environmental time wasters. They include:
• Visitors.
• Telephone calls.
• Mail.
• Waiting for appointments, for meetings to begin, for someone else to complete
something, airplanes, trolleys, the bathroom if your three grandkids are living with you,
the list is endless.
• Meetings all those awful meetings, not only the ones we call but also those that other
people organize, which I am convinced are all designed largely to waste each other‘s
time.
• Crisis. (It is only partly true that crises can‘t be avoided) For example, some of us hate
Mondays because they are always crisis prone. That‘s because we procrastinate, not
doing what should have been done the week before, and the week before, and the week
before. After about three weeks of procrastinating we find we have a crisis on our hands.

TECHNIQUES FOR BETTER TIME MANAGEMENT

1. Effective Planning
 2. Setting goals and objectives
3. Setting deadlines
4. Delegation of responsibilities
5. Prioritizing activities as per their importance
6. Spending the right time on the right activity

1. Effective Planning

Plan your day well in advance. Prepare a To Do List or a ―TASK PLAN. Note down the
important activities that need to be done in a single day against the time that should be
allocated to each activity. High Priority work should come on top followed by those
which do not need much of your importance at the moment. Complete pending tasks one
by one. Do not begin fresh work unless you have finished your previous task. Tick the
ones you have already completed. Ensure you finish the tasks within the stipulated time
frame.

2. Setting Goals and Objectives

Working without goals and targets in an organization would be similar to a situation

where the captain of the ship loses his way in the sea. Yes, you would be lost. Set targets
for yourself and make sure they are realistic ones and achievable.

3. Setting Deadlines
Set deadlines for yourself and strive hard to complete tasks ahead of the deadlines. Do
not wait for your superiors to ask you every time. Learn to take ownership of work. One
person who can best set the deadlines is you yourself. Ask yourself how much time needs
to be devoted to a particular task and for how many days. Use a planner to mark the
important dates against the set deadlines.

4. Delegation of Responsibilities

Learn to say ―NO at workplace. Don‘t do everything on your own. There are other
people as well. One should not accept something which he knows is difficult for him.
The roles and responsibilities must be delegated as per interest and specialization of
employees for them to
finish tasks within deadlines. A person who does not have knowledge about something
needs more time than someone who knows the work well.
5. Prioritizing Tasks

Prioritize the tasks as per their importance and urgency. Know the difference between
important and urgent work. Identify which tasks should be done within a day, which all
should be done within a month and so on. Tasks which are most important should be
done earlier.

6. Spending the right time on right activity

Develop the habit of doing the right thing at the right time. Work done at the wrong
time is not of much use. Don‘t waste a complete day on something which can be done in
an hour or so. Also keep some time separate for your personal calls or checking updates
on Facebook or Twitter. After all human being is not a machine.

INTRODUCTION TO STRESS

Stress is a part of day-to-day living. It is a common human phenomenon and part of life.
As college students you may experience stress meeting academic demands, adjusting to a
new living environment, or developing friendships. The stress you experience is not
necessarily harmful. Mild forms of stress can act as a motivator and energizer. However,
if your stress level is too high, medical and social problems can result. Everyone in his or
her job, at some time experiences pressure. Too much pressure over a sustained period
can however result in stress, that is, unless it is managed properly. Stress has been called
the ‗invisible disease and can affect you, your employer, your colleagues and those
closest to you. It is important therefore that you understand what it is and how you can
manage your working life in order to minimize its occurrence. Definition Hans Selye was
one of the founding fathers of stress research. His view in 1956 was that ―stress is not
necessarily something bad – it all depends on how you take it. The stress of exhilarating,
creative, successful work is beneficial; while that of failure, humiliation or infection is
detrimental. Selye believed that the biochemical effects of stress would be experienced
irrespective of whether the situation was positive or negative. Since then, a great deal of
further research has been conducted, and ideas have moved on. Stress is now viewed as a
"bad thing", with a range of harmful biochemical and long-term effects.
These effects have rarely been observed in positive situations. The most commonly
accepted definition of stress (mainly attributed to Richard S Lazarus) is that stress is a
condition or feeling experienced when a person perceives that ―demands exceed the
personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize. In short, it's what we feel
when we think we've lost control of events. Stress is the ―wear and tear, our minds and
bodies experience as we attempt to cope with our continually changing environment. We
can say, S = P > R Stress occurs when the pressure is greater than the resource. How can
we know that one is under stress?
CAUSES OF STRESS

Whether it be a divorce, a child leaving home, a move to a new town, a career change,
graduating from college, or a diagnosis of cancer, the faster or more dramatic the change,
the greater the strain. Furthermore, the more major life changes you‘re dealing with at
any one time, the more stress you‘ll feel. While major life changes are stressful, they are
also relative rarities. After all, it‘s not every day that you file for divorce or have a baby.
However, you may battle traffic, argue with your family members, or worry about your
finances on a daily basis. Because these small upsets occur so regularly, they end up
affecting us the most. Daily causes of stress include:

• Environmental stressors

Your physical surroundings can set off the stress response. Examples of environmental
stressors include an unsafe neighborhood, pollution, noise (sirens keeping you up at
night, a barking dog next door), and uncomfortable living conditions. For people living in
crime-ridden areas or war- torn regions, the stress may be unrelenting.

• Family and relationship stressors

Problems with friends, romantic partners, and family members are common daily
stressors. Marital disagreements, dysfunctional relationships, rebellious teens, or caring
for a chronically- ill family member or a child with special needs can all send stress
levels skyrocketing.

• Work stressors

In our career-driven society, work can be an ever-present source of stress. Work stress is
caused by things such as job dissatisfaction, an exhausting workload, insufficient pay,
office politics, and conflicts with your boss or co-workers.

• Social stressors

Your social situation can cause stress. For example, poverty, financial pressures, racial
and sexual discrimination or harassment, unemployment, isolation, and a lack of social
support all take a toll on daily quality of life. Internal Causes of Stress Not all stress is
caused by external pressures and demands.
Your stress can also be self generated. Internal causes of stress include:

• Uncertainty or worries
• Pessimistic attitude
• Self-criticism
• Unrealistic expectations or beliefs
• Perfectionism
• Low self-esteem
• Excessive or unexpressed anger
• Lack of assertiveness

MANAGING STRESS

One can learn to manage stress. The first step understands yourself better—how you react
in different situations, what causes you stress, and how you behave when you feel
stressed. Once you‘ve done that Make a To-Do list. Decide what is really important to
get done today, and what can wait. This helps you to know that you are working on your
most immediate priorities, and you don‘t have the stress of trying to remember what you
should be doing. Practice facing stressful moments. Think about the event or situation
you expect to face and rehearse your reactions. Find ways to practice dealing with the
challenge. If you know that speaking in front of a group frightens you, practice doing it,
perhaps with a trusted friend or fellow student.

Here are some strategies for dealing with stress:

• Schedule time for vacation, breaks in your routine, hobbies, and fun activities.
• Try to arrange for uninterrupted time to accomplish tasks that need your
concentration. Arrange some leisure time during which you can do things that you really
enjoy.
• Avoid scheduling too many appointments, meetings, and classes back-to-back. Allow
breaks to catch your breath. Take a few slow, deep breaths whenever you feel stressed.
Breathe from the abdomen and, as you exhale, silently say to yourself, ―I feel calm.‖
• Become an expert at managing your time. Read books, view videos, and attend
seminars on time management. Once you cut down on time wasters, you‘ll find more
time to recharge yourself.
• Learn to say ―no. Setting limits can minimize stress. Spend time on your main
responsibilities and priorities rather than allowing other people‘s priorities or needs to
dictate how you spend your time.
• Exercise regularly to reduce muscle tension and promote a sense of well-being.
• Tap into your support network. Family, friends, and social groups can help when
dealing withstressful events.
 UNIT-5
INTERVIEW

The term interview has its origin from the word 'intrevue', which means sight between
two people. The word interview can be defined as a planned conversation with a
predetermined purpose that involves question sessions. Thus, an interview is a
communication between two or more people (interviewer or interviewee), where
questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information or assess the knowledge of
interviewee.

Interviews consist of a significant facet of social and business communication. They take
place between individuals, or individuals and organizations, and are always goal
oriented. In an interview, each participant gets an immediate feedback and can make
suitable adjustment and modification in the style and manner of speaking. The purpose of
an interview is to find out the views, attitudes and ideas of the person who is being
interviewed. But while an interview is in progress how well the interviewee is being
probed depends on the skill and the ability of the interviewer also. An interview is a test
of both of the communicants or parties engaged in the interview. Intelligence,
knowledge, some aspects of personality and character are revealed in an interview. Both
must, therefore be well prepared.

Types of Interviews

Interviews have become an integral part of our social and business life. From the
playgroup, where parents seek admission for the child to, job interviews, promotion
interviews, matrimonial interviews, visa interviews, there are indeed a plethora of
interviews which take place in one's life. These interviews may be public or private,
formal or informal, social or business, face to face or telephonic, and career related or
otherwise. Some common types of interviews are discussed below

(i) Job/Selection Interview - Such an interview is conducted by an organization or

institution, to employ persons for specified posts. This is the most common type of
interview. In such an interview, the employer tries to assess whether the candidate is
suitable for the position vacant, and the candidate tries to prove that he/she possesses the
desired skills and knowledge. A job interview may be a 'walk in interview', wherein the
candidates are called at a very short notice, usually through an advertisement. It may be
properly planned interview conducted after due scrutiny of applications, or merely
telephonic interview, wherein, the candidates are assessed on the basis of their answers/
conduct over the telephone call.
(ii) Promotion Interview - Such interviews are conducted by organizations for their own
eligible employees to give them an opportunity to move up in the organization hierarchy.
The interview panel, for promotion interviews, would normally comprise of executives
from the organization itself. These are relatively less formal as compared to selection
interviews. However, candidates do not take such interviews casually and should show
the desired seriousness. The candidates should also not exhibit any undue familiarity
with the interviewers. As answers given by the candidate can be verified from his/ her
past performance, thus he/she has to ensure factual correctness and be sincere and
truthful while replying to the questions.

(iii) Exit Interview - Exit interviews are conducted by the organizations for those
employees who are resigning or retiring. The objective of these interviews is to know the
cause of leaving and obtain the feedback from the outgoing employees, so as to bring
about improvements.
The exit interview is conducted by a senior officer, executive or branch head in a cordial
manner with a positive approach.

(iv) Reprimand Interview - Such an interview is conducted to express rebuke or

disapproval. Reprimand interview is usually conducted in private, where the erring or
misbehaving employee is called by the supervisor of the person in authority to mend or
improve his/her behavior. The objective here is to draw attention to the wrong doing and
instruct the person concerned to correct oneself. A reprimand interview is conducted in
dealing with absentees, insubordination, inter-personal problems, poor performance and
other such deficiencies.

(v) Grievance Interview - A grievance interview relates to a face-to- face talk, where
the aggrieved person gets an opportunity to meet a person in authority to share the
distress and seek remedial action. A grievance interview provides an opportunity to the
aggrieved person to hear. In such an interview, the interviewer should exhibit good
listening skills and placating skills to diminish hurt feelings, clear misconceptions and
gather all relevant facts.

(vi) Stress Interview - A stress interview is conducted for assessing the ability of the
candidate to face high levels of strain or mental pressure. Certain types of jobs require
the person concerned to possess relatively greater emotional and mental strength to deal
effectively with people and situations. For example, security forces dealing with border
events, police personnel in responding to violent mobs and arson, etc., are examples of
situations where even under extreme provocation, need to keep cool, and not buckle
under pressure.

(vii) Orientation Interview - Orientation interviews are used to acquaint new employees
with their jobs and with the duties involved. This type of interview is unique in that the
interviewer's primary role is that of information-giver. The interviewer tells the new
 employee about the job and the company. Organizational policies and procedures may be
discussed, as well as other pertinent topics for the purpose of orienting a new worker to
the work environment.

Initial opinions, attitudes and expectations are formed, at least in part, as a result of
orientation interviews. These orientation interviews are significant in that although they
are not essential on the part of the company to have but they go a long way in creating a
positive mindset in the new candidate. They enable a personal link and rapport to be
established between the candidate and the company.

(viii) Appraisal Interview - Such an interview is conducted for appraising the

performance of the employees. The feedback of this interview is provided to the
management as well as to the employee himself, so that he may know what is expected
from and how he can improve his performance.

(ix) Admission Interview - This is conducted by the authorities of a school, college, or

professional institutes. The purpose of this interview is to assess the candidate's
eligibility for admission into a particular course of study or a professional body or
association. This type of interviews usually follows a written exam and group discussion.

(x) Consumer Interview - This type of interview is conducted by organizations,

marketing and advertising agencies to seek responses on products and preferences from
consumers and prospects.

Essential features of an interview

Depending upon the purpose of the interview, their features may differ. However, some
essential features which are common in all types of interviews are -

(i) There should be a definite purpose, and it should be known both to the interviewers and
the interviewee.

(ii) Both the parties need to prepare for the communication.

(iii) All interviews are pre-planned. The only possible exception is the dismissal interview.

(iv) There are at least two participants in the event - an interviewer and an interviewer.
However, in common practice, there can be more than one interviewer.

(v) There is a clear exchange of information.

Preparation for an Interview

(i) Physical Preparation

Physical preparation includes the

(a) Good grooming is expected when a person appears for an interview. It is expected on all
official and formal occasions. Neat appearance with clean and tidy clothes and footwear,
properly combed hair, a suitable hand bag or brief-case, is the necessary requirement.

(b) The way in which the candidate carries himself while walking and sitting is much more
revealing than mere appearance. Good carriage and posture have to be developed because
posture reflects self confidence or the lack of it. The way on carries himself or herself also plays
an important role in impressing the interviewer.

(c) Good manners and proper behavior are necessary. The first thing to do is to pleasantly greet
the interviewer. He must sit down only after being told to do so. Elbows must not be put on the
table, the brief-case or the bag should be kept on the floor beside the chair. Playing with the
handkerchief, fiddling with the things on the table, or moving nervously, shows lack of
confidence and break in concentration and should be avoided.

(ii) Mental Preparation

Mental preparation includes the following steps -

(a) It is necessary to be well-informed about current events, important current problems and
issues in the country and in the world, and topics of general interest. Regular reading of
newspapers, listening to radio and TV discussions, participation in group discussions and general
reading habits are very helpful activities in developing the required mental preparation for an
interview.

(b) Information about the company, its directors, turnover, share capital and such other
information which is available in its annual report, is expected of candidates by public limited
companies. A candidate must find out as much as possible about the prospective employer whose
employment he seeks.

(c) Questions are often asked in the candidate's special subjects studies for graduation and
professional examinations. A revision of the subjects along with the reasons for choosing the
particular subjects should be done.

(d) A number of general questions and biographical questions are usually asked in interviews.
The candidate should try and frame prospective questions so that he is well-prepared to answer
them.
(iii) Psychological Preparation

Psychological preparation include the following-

(a) A candidate needs courage and self-confidence in a situation when he appears to be defeated.
A situation may arise when the candidate may not know the answer to a question that is asked.
How he handles this situation shows his ability to think on his feet. This is a test of personality. It
is always better to state one's inability to answer than to pretend to know the answer No one is
expected to know all kinds information and admitting that one does not know the answer is not
failure but requires courage to face,

(b) A candidate must have clarity of purpose and determination to want to know everything. An
able candidate is expected to know about his prospects in the company. He must be able to ask
questions about the nature of duties, employee benefits, future prospects and other things which
he want to know about the company before taking any decision.

(c) One should also be prepared to talk about salary without appearing to be bargaining or
without being driven into accepting less than one's due. This needs careful prior thinking. One
should examine one's training, experience, proved ability, as well as needs, in order to feel sure
of one's worth. It is also necessary to know the salaries of similar positions in other companies
and in fact this should be discussed with family and friends so that a clear idea emerges,
Psychological preparedness has to be built up slowly and gradually. It is a part of education and
training which a person gets during his studies and professional training.

(iv) Self Assessment - Anyone who wants to be successful in life needs a good self-assessment.
Each individual must honestly examine himself and find out one's areas of strengths and
weakness. This requires time and practice. One can take the help of parents, teachers or friends
who are sympathetic and understanding. It is also possible for a small group of three or four
friends to help one another with self-assessment. Knowledge of one's shortcomings is useful
since it helps in becoming aware and overcoming whatever can be overcome. Unconsciously
done actions or bad habits of posture or speech can be corrected by effort. Shortcomings which
cannot be overcome can be accepted and acknowledged so that they do not depress or embarrass
when others notice them. Coming to terms with oneself and knowing how to deal with one's
faults, and how to make the best use of one's talents and skills, is excellent preparation for an
interview. It adds a great deal of self-confidence.

PREPARING A CV

An ideal structure of CV should be as follows-

(1) Heading- The heading should include name, address, date of birth, e-mail id and mobile
number.
(ii) Objective-In this section mention a particular position for which there is the job opening or
that suits your educational qualification and work experience. State clearly your objective in
practical terms. Do not write vague language.

(iii) Education-Both academic and professional educational is to be included in this section.

Begin with most higher/recent degree, For applying a post which requires graduate/post graduate
qualification there is no need to mention school certificates. Also include any short term training
done, or special certificate programmes, related course work attended in addition to regular
course work, special projects and academic accolades.

(iv) Work Experience- Mention your work experience in reverse chronological order. Include
details like job title, company's name, place and duration of work. Briefly describe your role
responsibility and your achievement at each job. The employer is not interesting in reading just a
record of your responsibilities. He wants to know how you performed in different positions. Thus
write each job detail separately in clear bold heading.

(v) Awards, Achievements and Honours - In this section mention all scholarships received
prizes and awards won in college or in professional life. Applicants applying for Senior Manager
or General Manager types of posts can mention achievements in their previous jobs, like some
successful projects handled, any targets achieved in a record time, any special technique
developed, etc.

(vi) Activities and Skills- In this section mention your cultural or sports activities you have
indulged in. Also write your hobbies if any, such as playing guitar, or cricket or any other games.
Do not write watching cricket or movies. Special skills like computer skills and languages
known should also be mentioned.

(vii) Personal Information - Any other personal information, besides that included in the
heading should be included here.

(viii) References- In this section, mention names of 2-3 persons who know you personally and
can verify the facts about you. These persons can be from your college or seniors at previous
work places.

MOCK INTERVIEW SESSIONS

Definition: Mock Interview is an imitation interviewing session of an actual interview, which

can be conducted by anyone who has little knowledge about the respective industry of
candidate’s interest. The interview tries to emulate an actual interview as closely as possible and
aims to provide the candidate with relevant experience. With such a session, the candidate can
learn and react to situations that are expected to happen during the real interview. Generally,
these sessions are videotaped, as the candidate is shown with the tape once the interview is
completed. Such interviews can be organized by career services for freshers, or by alumni, or
even by friends and relatives.

Importance of Mock Interview

The main focus of the mock interview is to figure out self-knowledge, industry knowledge,
behavioral competencies, skills proficiency, and more such aspects of the candidate. It is an
excellent tool to practice for an interview for fresher. Due to its worth even few experienced
professionals prefer a mock interview before they finally go for the genuine interview round.
Mock interviews present the candidates with a fair idea of things and elements that they are
going to experience during an actual interview round. Being a fresher, attending such an
interview program can provide you with more other benefits as follow:

Advantages of Mock Interview

1. Helps in reducing anxiety and stress related to the interview

Interview is almost similar to an exam. And, the fear of answering unknown questions and
meeting unfamiliar faces, normally generate lots of stress. The mock interview offers you a great
opportunity to test your responses to such questions. You can even opt to hire skilled interviewer
if you wish to secure feedback that is precise yet friendly. If you have someone experienced in
the same industry in which you hold interest, then hiring him as an interviewer can be really
fruitful for you.

2. Greatly supportive in boosting candidate’s confidence

The main aim of mock interviewers is to focus and highlight the candidate’s strength. They also
focus towards correcting the candidate’s weakness or weak points. As a result to this, candidates
get familiar with their strengths and skills and able to secure high confidence level. They,
therefore, perform well in their actual interview, keeping in consideration the fails during the
mock interview session.

3. Offers you with constructive feedback in a friendly manner

No candidate is absolutely perfect, but a mock interview can help you to comprehend suitable
responses to vital questions and also work on your weak areas. In a real interview, there is no
feedback given for your interviewing, but the mock interview can be your best opportunity to get
prepared for your first ever job interview. If you have given a couple of interviews previously,
then such a session can help you understand your flaws that are coming in between of your path
to your dream job.
4. Excellent way to get prepared for behavioral based interview sessions

Even if you are a fresher, it might happen that the company outlines a behavioral based interview
session for you. Most of the time, company judge behavioral skills of a fresher through their
body language. So, as a fresher it becomes extremely vital that you learn the right way to behave
and react in an interview. Conducting a mock interview will also help you to learn basic
practices and ways that are expected by the interviewer during the actual round.