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Chapter 0
Introduction to ICT

What is Data?
In terms of ICT, data is simply any numbers, letters or symbols that can be entered into a
computer system.

Here are some items of data:

A, 20, DOG, 3.1415927, ABC123, +++

But what do they mean? Who knows? They could mean anything!

Data values don’t have any meaning unless we put them into context (context means a setting or
circumstance).

For instance, in the above example what does the value 20 mean?

20 cm? 20 minutes? 20 cats?

Without a context the value 20 is meaningless. But, if we provide a context for our data, it
becomes something far more useful: information

What is Information?

We might enter this data into a computer…

1861977905
0806973587
0806992867
1402748124
0831110848

Without knowing the context (what the data actually represents) the data is just a
meaningless collection of numbers. However, if we are told that the values represent the ISBNs of
books, the values now have a context.

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With context, they have meaning - they are now information.

Information is
Data + Context

What is System?
A system has three stages...

1. Something feeds into the system (the input)

2. The system does something with the input (the process)
3. The process gives a result (the output)

We are surrounded by all sorts of systems. In fact we actually have

quite a few systems inside our bodies, e.g. our digestive system...

A computer system also has three stages...

What is a Computer?
Computers come in a huge variety of shapes, and sizes. You will be most familiar with Personal
Computers (PCs) – the small computer on your desk, or the laptop in your bag.
However, there are some computers that fill whole buildings and others that are small enough
to fit in a slim mobile telephone. Whatever the size, all computers do the same thing…

A computer is a device that stores and processes information according to a set of instructions.

In other words, a computer is a device that you feed information into and it does something
with the information (processes it) based on some instructions (a ‘program’) that it has been given.

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An Information Processing System

A computer is an information processing system...

It doesn’t matter what type of computer we are looking at, or what

programs the computer is running, it always takes in information and does
something with it.

For example, a spreadsheet running on a personal computer...

Or a game being played on a games console (these are computers too)...

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Chapter 1
Types and components of computer systems

In this chapter you will learn about:

• Hardware
• Software
• Main components of a computer system
• Operating systems:
o graphical user interface (GUI)
o command line interface (CLI)
• Different types of computer systems.

Hardware and software

What is Hardware?
Hardware is the physical parts of the computer system – the
parts that you can touch and see. A motherboard, a CPU, a keyboard
and a monitor are all items of hardware.

What is Software?
Software is a collection of instructions that can be ‘run’ on a computer. These instructions tell
the computer what to do.
Software is not a physical thing (but it can of course be stored on a physical medium such as
a CD-ROM), it is just a bunch of codes.
There are two types of software:
1. Applications software: programs that allow the user to do specific tasks, e.g. spreadsheets.
2. Systems software: programs that allow the hardware to run properly, e.g. operating systems

Main components of computer systems

A typical computer system is made up of hardware and software. Figure 1.1 shows an example
of a computer system consisting of input devices, output devices and secondary storage. These will
be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2, but examples include:
• Input devices: keyboard, mouse
• Output devices: monitor, printer
• Secondary storage devices: DVD R/W drive, removable hard drive.

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However, one part of the computer system has not yet been mentioned. This is shown as the
‘Processor and internal memory devices’ in the diagram – this consists of four key components called
the central processing unit (CPU), internal hard disk, random access memory (RAM) and read only
memory (ROM).

Figure 1.1 A typical computer system

The central processing unit (CPU) is the part of the computer which
interprets and executes the commands from the computer hardware and
software. CPUs used to be made up of discrete components and numerous
small integrated circuits, which were combined together on one or more
circuit board/s. However, due to modern manufacturing techniques, the
term microprocessor is now used instead of CPU.
This is a single integrated circuit (see Figure 1.2) which is at the heart of most
PCs and is also found in many household devices and equipment where some
control or monitoring is needed (e.g. the engine management system in a
car).
The internal hard drive is the computer’s main memory; this is where the applications software,
disk operating system and data files are stored. The main advantage of these
memories is the fast data transfer/access times and their large capacity to
store data (this is discussed further in Chapter 3).
Random access memory (RAM) is an internal chip where data is temporarily
stored when running applications. This memory can be written to and read
from.
Since its contents are lost when power to the computer is turned off, it
is often referred to as a ‘volatile’ or ‘temporary’ memory.

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Read only memory (ROM) is a memory used to store information that needs to be permanent. It is
often used to contain, for example, configuration data for a computer system. These chips cannot be
altered and can only be read from (hence their name). One of the main advantages is that the
information stored on the ROM chip is not lost even when power is turned
off to the computer. They are often referred to as ‘non-volatile’ memories.
It is worth noting that ROM also contains some coding known as the
boot file. This code tells the computer what to do when it first starts up; it is
often referred to as the BIOS (basic input/output system). When the
computer is turned on, the BIOS carries out a hardware check to find out if all
the devices are present and whether they are functional. Then it loads the
operating system into the RAM. The BIOS stores the date, time and system
configuration in a non-

volatile chip called a CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor), which is usually
battery powered.

The speed of a CPU is measured in Hertz (Hz).

The speed generally corresponds to the number of actions the CPU can perform every second.
• 1 Megahertz (MHz) is 1,000,000 (1 million) Hertz
• 1 Gigahertz (GHz) is 1,000,000,000 (1 billion) Hertz
A typical, modern, fast CPU runs at around 2.8GHz. That means it can perform almost 3 billion
actions every second!

Operating systems
To enable users to communicate with computer systems, special software, known as operating
systems, have been developed. The general tasks for a typical operating system include:
• controlling the operation of the input, output and backing storage devices
• supervising the loading, running and storage of applications programs dealing with errors that occur in
applications programs
• maintaining security of the whole computer system
• maintaining a computer log (which contains details of computer usage)
• allowing communication between user and the computer system (user interface).

Computer users need to be able to communicate with the operating system – this is called the
‘user interface’. There are two main types of user interfaces: command line interfaces (CLIs) and
graphical user interfaces (GUIs).

Command line interfaces

CLIs require a user to type in instructions in order to choose options from menus, open
software etc. There are often a number of commands that need to be typed in, for example, to

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save or load a file. The user therefore has to learn a number of commands just to carry out basic
operations. It is also slow having to key in these commands every time an operation has to be carried
out. However, the advantage of CLI is that the user is in direct communication with the computer and
is not restricted to a number of pre-determined options.

1. SQLPrepare(hStmt,
2. ? (SQLCHAR *) "INSERT INTO tableB SELECT * FROM
tableA",
3. ? SQL_NTS):
4. ? SQLExecute(hStmt);

Figure 1.3 Example of CLI code

For example, Figure 1.3 shows the CLI code required for importing data into a table called B.
The above statements show how complex it is just to carry out a fairly straightforward
operation using CLI.

Graphical user interfaces

GUIs allow the user to interact with a computer (or MP3 player, gaming device, mobile phone,
etc.) using pictures or symbols (icons) rather than having to type in a number of commands. For
example, the whole of the CLI code shown in Figure 1.3 could have been replaced by a single
icon: (table update). Simply selecting this icon would automatically execute all of the steps shown
in Figure 1.3 without the need to type them in each time.

GUIs use various technologies and devices to provide the user interface. One of the most
common is windows icons menu and pointing device (WIMP) which was developed for use on
personal computers (PCs). This uses a mouse to control a cursor, which then selects icons to open/run
windows. Each window contains an application and modern computer systems allow several windows
to be open at the same time. In the example shown in Figure 1.4, a number of icons can be seen on
the left-hand side and on the bottom right; three windows are open and these are shown as grey
rectangles at the bottom of the screen.
A windows manager looks after the interaction between windows, the applications and the
windowing system (which handles the pointing devices and the cursor’s position).

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Figure 1.4 A typical GUI

In recent years, devices such as touch screen phones use post-WIMP interaction, where fingers
are in contact with the screen. This allows actions such as pinching and rotating, which would be
difficult to do using a single pointer and device such as a mouse.

Types of computers

There are many types of computer systems in existence. This section summarises some of the
more common types currently available.

PC/desktop computers
PC/desktop usually refers to a general purpose computer which is
made up of separate monitor, keyboard, mouse and processor unit (see
Figure 1.1). The term PC (personal computer) usually refers to computer
systems which are IBM compatible, thus distinguishing them from, for
example, Macintosh systems.
It is worth making a comparison here with laptop computers:

Advantages
• Spare parts and connections tend to be standardised, which usually results
in low costs.Desktops tend to have a better specification (e.g. faster processor)
for a given price (often due to size and construction constraints in laptops).
• The large casing allows good dissipation of any heat build-up.

Disadvantages
• Desktops are not particularly portable since they are made up of separate
components.

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• All the components need to be hooked up by wiring, which can be quite complex and clutters up the
desk space.
• Because they are not particularly portable, it is necessary to copy files, etc. when you want to do some
work elsewhere (e.g. at home).

Early PCs were quite unlike

the PCs that we all use today:

• Displays were black and

white, and only
displayed text (no
graphics)
• No hard-drives (way too
expensive)
• Just a few 100 kB of
RAM (not MB or GB!)
• Slow - a typical speed
would be 5MHz (not
GHz!)
• No mouse (no pointer to
move!)
• Light brown case (for
some reason every early
PC was brown!)

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Laptop computers

Laptop (or notebook) refers to a type of computer where the

monitor, keyboard, pointing device and processor are all together in one
single unit. This makes them extremely portable systems.
The key features you would expect to find in a laptop are:
• low weight (to aid portability)
• low power consumption (and also long battery life)
• a processor that does not generate too much heat (cooling is very
important).

Advantages
• They are very portable, since the monitor, pointing device, keyboard, Early portable computers were
far from being 'laptops' - you
processor and backing store units are all together in one single box. would have crushed your legs if
• There are no trailing wires, etc. because everything is in one single you'd tried to put these beasts
unit. on your lap!
• They can take full advantage of WiFi (see discussion in Chapter 4).
• Since they are portable, they can link into any multimedia system.

Disadvantages
• Since they are portable, they are easy to steal!
• They have limited battery life so the user may need to carry a heavy
adaptor.
• The keyboards and pointing devices can sometimes be awkward to use.
• Heat dissipation is more difficult due to the structure of the laptop
computers.

Netbooks
Netbook is a term used to describe a computer that can almost fit
onto a hand and is a smaller version of a laptop. These used to be known
as palmtop computers, but this term now generally applies to much
smaller devices which use touch screens and often a stylus to key in data.

Advantages
Netbook computers have many of the features of laptops and therefore have
similar advantages and disadvantages.

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Disadvantages
In addition to the disadvantages listed above for laptops:
• netbooks don’t have optical drives
• the keyboards are only about 80 per cent the size of laptop keyboards
• they lack some of the features found in larger machines, principally due
to the size constraints and to the fact that they are cheaper to purchase.

Palmtop Computer
A palmtop computer is similar to a laptop computer, but smaller. Early palmtop computers
were pretty basic by today's
It's small enough to fit in the palm of your hand (hence the name!).
standards
Palmtops are usually not very powerful since fast CPUs require a large
Palmtops are often called
battery and get hot - both problems in a small device. ultra-mobile PCs (UMPC)

A typical palmtop have a very small keyboard - too small to type on normally. Instead the user
types using both thumbs. Also there is no room for a trackpad, so a touchscreen or tiny joystick is
used instead. Palmtops are extremely portable, but the small keyboard and screen make the devices
tiring to use for long periods.

Personal digital assistants

Personal digital assistants (PDAs) are small handheld computers

that usually come with a touch screen that is activated using a stylus. Data
(e.g. text) is entered by using a keyboard that appears on the touch
screen. Originally, these devices were used as personal organisers but
their use has expanded somewhat to include new generation mobile
phones, data loggers, satellite navigation systems, etc. Many PDAs now
have basic database, word-processing and spreadsheet facilities.

Advantages
• They can be used anywhere because of their size.
• They are very lightweight and are more portable than laptop
computers.

Disadvantages
• It is difficult to enter text quickly.
• They have very limited capabilities due to the software and the
operating system used.

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Mainframe computers
Mainframe computer is a term used for a large, very
powerful, computer system.
Mainframe computers are typically:
• Powerful - they can process vast amounts of data, very quickly
• Large - they are often kept in special, air-conditioned rooms
• Multi-user - they allow several users (sometimes hundreds) to use
the computer at the same time, connected via remote terminals (screens
and keyboards)

Uses
Their main purpose is to run commercial applications, such as banking and
insurance, where huge amounts of data need to be processed each day.
The main features of main frame computers are as follows.
• They can have several CPUs.
• They have very fast processor speeds.
• They can support multiple operating systems.
• They have huge amounts of storage capacity.
• They have huge internal memories (e.g. several hundred Gbyte of
RAM). From their invention back in
• They often operate using time sharing or batch processing (see the 1940s until the late 1960s,
computers were large, very
Chapter 7).
expensive machines that took
up the whole of a room
Advantages (sometimes several!) These
• Due to the features listed above, they can be used to do very large were the only computers
available.
jobs which require large memories and very fast processor time.
• They are used in time-sharing systems to allow users to be given a The circuit-boards of these
time slice of the very powerful facilities afforded by a mainframe system. computers were attached to
• They are capable of very large number crunching, and so can deal large, metal racks or frames.
This gave them the nickname
with very complex mathematical functions (e.g. fractals) which would be 'mainframe' computers.
very time consuming using, for example, a PC.

Disadvantages
• Mainframe computers need to be permanently housed in a large room, so cannot be moved around.
• They are very expensive to operate and maintain.

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Chapter 2
Input and output devices

In this chapter you will learn about:

• input devices:
o the uses of each device
o the advantages of each device
o the disadvantages of each device
• output devices:
o the uses of each device
o the advantages of each device
o the disadvantages of each device
• control applications and the uses of each device.

Input devices
As the name suggests, input devices are hardware devices that allow data to be input into a
computer. Many such devices exist, ranging from the more common ones, such as the keyboard,
through to the more specialist devices, such as barcode readers. A number are described in this
section.

Keyboards
These are the most common input devices and are used to input text, numbers and
instructions into the computer. Most use the QWERTY layout (this name comes from the keys on the
top row, which spell out ‘QWERTY’).
Ergonomic keyboards have also been developed recently.
These are designed to reduce health-related problems associated with
the standard keyboard (e.g. carpal tunnel syndrome or repetitive
strain injury (RSI).

Uses
• Keyboards are used to input data into applications software (e.g.
text into word processors, numbers into spreadsheets, etc.).
• They are also used for typing in commands to the computer (e.g.
Prnt Scrn, Ctrl+P to print out, etc.)

Advantages
• Keyboards enable fast entry of new text into a document.
• They are a well-tried technology and a well-known method of
entry.

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• Most people find them easy to use.

• It is easy to do verification checks as data is entered, as it appears on the screen simultaneously.

Disadvantages
• Users with limited arm/wrist use can find keyboards hard to use.
• Entering data using a keyboard is slow when compared to direct data entry (e.g. optical mark
recognition).
• Keyboards are fairly large devices that use up valuable desk space.

The concept keyboard uses icons or phrases instead of standard letters.

These are often used in, for example, fast food restaurants, offices and shops,
where a single key represents an item. For example, the symbol shown in the
photo represents ‘add tax’. The person using the keyboard only needs to touch
this key to calculate the tax on an invoice.

Advantages
• Concept keyboards enable fast data entry, as there is no need to type in whole commands.
• They are waterproof, which is useful in a restaurant environment.
• These keyboards are tamper proof and so are useful in certain applications
(e.g. at unmanned airport information kiosks), preventing people from keying in information which could
potentially corrupt the computer system.

Numeric keypads
A numeric keypad is used to enter numbers only (although some
have a function key to allow input of alphabetic characters).

Uses
• Numeric keypads are used in automatic teller machines (ATMs), where
customers can key in their personal identification number (PIN), an amount of
money, etc.
• Telephones have numeric keypads to allow phone numbers, etc. to be keyed in.
• Electronic point of sale (EPOS) terminals have numeric keypads in case the barcode reader fails to read
the barcode and the number has to be keyed in manually by the operator.
• Chip and PIN devices have numeric keypads for entry of PIN, amount of money, etc.
• They are used to enable fast entry of numeric data into a spreadsheet.

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Advantages
• Numeric keypads are faster than standard keyboards for entry of
numeric data.
• Since many are small devices (e.g. mobile phones), they are very easy to
carry around.

Disadvantages
• They can be difficult to use, due to very small keys.
• It is difficult to use them for entering text.
• Sometimes the order of the numbers on the keypad isn’t intuitive.

Mice
The mouse is an example of a pointing device. A ball is used underneath the mouse to detect
movement, so by moving the mouse around the user can control the position of a pointer on the
screen. There are usually two buttons, which have different functions: very
often the left button is used to select something by double clicking it and the
right button brings up drop-down menus (see Figure 2.1).
Many mice also have a scroll button, which speeds up the process of
moving through a document.

Recent developments have produced the optical mouse (where

movement is detected by reflected light rather than the position of a moving
ball) and the cordless mouse (which is an example of a wireless device). The advantage of an optical
mouse is it has no moving parts and it also doesn’t pick up any dirt. This makes it more robust and
improves its performance, since the older type of mouse can ‘skid’ on certain
surfaces reducing the control of the pointer.

Uses
• Mice can be used for opening, closing and minimising software.
• They can be used for grouping, moving and deleting files.
• They are very useful when editing images, for example controlling the size and
position of a drawing pasted into a document.
• Mice are used for controlling the position of a pointer on the screen to allow selection
from a menu or selecting an icon and for scrolling up and down/left to right.

Advantages
• It can be faster to select an option using a mouse rather than a keyboard.
• Mice enable rapid navigation through applications and the internet.
• Mice are small and so take up little area.

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Disadvantages
• People with restricted hand/wrist movement can find it hard to operate a mouse.
• Mice are easily damaged and the older type of mouse also quickly becomes clogged up with dirt.
• They are difficult to use if there is no flat surface readily available (e.g. on an aeroplane).

Touchpads
Touchpads are used in many laptop computers as a pointing
device. The pointer is controlled by the user moving their finger on the
touchpad and then gently tapping it to simulate the left hand button of a
mouse (i.e. selection). They also have buttons under the touchpad which
serve the same function as the left and right buttons on a mouse.

Uses
The uses of a touchpad are the same as those of a mouse.

Advantages
• It can be faster to select an option using a touchpad rather than a
keyboard.
• Touchpads enable rapid navigation through applications and the
internet.
• Since the touchpad is integrated into the laptop computer, there is no need for a separate mouse,
aiding portability.
• They can be used even when there are no flat surfaces available.

Disadvantages
• People with limited hand/wrist movement find touchpads difficult to use.
• It can be more difficult to control the pointer when compared with a mouse.
• They are more difficult to use when doing certain operations such as ‘drag and drop’.
•

Trackerballs

Trackerballs are similar to a mouse, except that the ball is on the

top of the device and the user controls the pointer on the screen by
rotating the ball with the hand. Some trackerballs have two buttons which
have the same function as the left- and right-hand mouse buttons. If they
have a third button, this is equivalent to a double click.

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Uses
• They have the same pointing/cursor control capability as a mouse.
• They are used in applications where the user has a disability (such as RSI).
• They are used in a control room environment, where it is faster than a mouse to navigate through
process screens and is more robust than a mouse.

Advantages
• Trackerballs do not need the same fine control as a mouse.
• People with limited hand/wrist movement find it easier to use than a mouse.
• The pointer can be positioned more accurately on the screen than with a mouse.
• They take up less desk space than mice since they are stationary.

Disadvantages
• Trackerballs are not supplied with the computer as standard, so they are more expensive.
• User may need training since they are not standard equipment.

Remote controls
A remote control is used to control the operation of other devices remotely by using infra-red
signals. The buttons on the keypad are used to select options (such as television stations, sound levels
on a hifi, timings on a DVD recorder, etc.).

Uses
• Most home entertainment devices such as a television, satellite system, DVD
player/recorder, hifi systems, etc. have remote controls.
• Remote controls are also used to control multimedia systems.
• They are used in industrial applications to remotely control processes, stop and
start machinery, etc.

Advantages
• Remote controls enable devices to be operated from any distance, which is
particularly useful for people with disabilities.
• Some chemical processes are hazardous, so it is safer to operate equipment from
a distance.

Disadvantages
• People with limited hand/wrist movement can find them hard to use.
• The signal between the control and the device can be easily blocked.

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Joysticks/Joy pad
Joysticks have similar functions to mice and trackerballs. By gripping the stick, a pointer on the
screen can be controlled and buttons are used to make selections.
Often they have another button on the top of the stick that is used
for gaming purposes, e.g. to fire a weapon.

Uses
• Video/computer games are often controlled by joysticks.
• They are used in simulators (e.g. flight simulators) to mimic actual
controls.

Advantages
• It is easier to navigate round a screen using a joystick rather than a keyboard.
• Control is in three dimensions.

Disadvantages
• It is more difficult to control the on-screen pointer with a joystick than
with other devices, such as a mouse.

Touch screens
With this system the user can choose an option by simply touching the button/icon on the
screen. The selection is automatically made without the need for any pointing device.

Uses
• Touch screens are used for self-service tills, e.g. petrol stations, where the user just touches the screen
to select the fuel grade and payment method.
• Touch screens are used where selections are made on screen, for example
ATMs, point of sale terminals (e.g. at restaurants), public information systems at
airports, railway stations, tourist offices.
• Personal digital assistants (PDAs), mobile phones and satellite navigation
systems use touch screens.
• Interactive white boards used for education are large touch screens.
• Touch screens are used in computer based training (CBT) where selections are made in answering on
screen testing.

Advantages
• Touch screens enable faster entry of options than using a keyboard or a mouse.
• It is very easy to choose options.
• It is a user friendly method for inputting data, so no training is necessary.
• Touch screens are tamper proof, preventing people from keying in information which could potentially
corrupt the computer system (e.g. at unmanned ticket collection kiosks).

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Disadvantages
• There is a limited number of options available.
• Using touch screens frequently can lead to health problems (e.g. straining of arm muscles, RSI, etc.).
• The screen can get very dirty with constant touching.

Magnetic stripe readers

These are used to read information on the magnetic stripe
found, for example, on the back of a credit card (see Figure 2.2). The
stripe contains useful information, such as the account number, sort
code, expiry date and start date.

Uses
• Credit and debit cards have magnetic stripes that are used by ATMs
or EFTPOS
(electronic funds transfer point of sale) terminals.
• Security cards for entry to buildings, hotel rooms, etc. use magnetic
stripes.
• Travel systems (e.g. train and underground tickets) use magnetic stripes.

Advantages
• Data entry is faster compared with keying in using a keyboard or keypad.
• The system is error free, since no typing is involved.
• The information held on the magnetic stripe is secure: because it cannot
be read directly by a person; and, since there is no typing, there is not the risk of
somebody observing your key strokes.
• They can prevent access to restricted/secure areas.
• Magnetic stripes are unaffected by oil, water, moisture, etc.
• There are no moving parts, so they are physically very robust.

Disadvantages
• If the magnetic stripe gets damaged (e.g. due to exposure to a strong magnetic field or excessive use)
the data is lost.
• The card needs to be in close contact with the reader, so magnetic stripe readers don’t work at a
distance.
• Since the information is not human readable, this can be a disadvantage in some applications (e.g.
hotel room numbers are not printed on the card, so there needs to be another way of showing the
information for the customer).

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Smart card readers

Smart cards contain chips (see Figure 2.3) and are similar to magnetic
stripe cards. With these cards the information is stored on the chip (e.g. PIN
and personal data). The data stored on the chip can be updated (e.g. on
loyalty cards). For example, certain oil companies use these cards: when a
customer buys fuel at a filling station, the loyalty card is swiped and ‘points’
are added to the card; these points can be used for air miles, money off next
purchases, and so on. The storage capacity of the chip is much greater than
a magnetic stripe, so more information (such as customer details) can be
stored.

Uses
• Loyalty cards, ID cards and public transport passes use smart cards.
• Smart cards can be used to track customer/passenger movements (e.g. on
a metro system).
• They are used with satellite systems to decode program signals.
• Smart cards are used for electronic passports and driving licences.

Advantages
• Some smart cards (e.g. transport tickets) are used instead of money, reducing the need to carry cash.
• The chip on the card does not need to be in contact with reader, so
there is less damage compared with a magnetic stripe reader.
• Data is more secure, since it is easier to copy information on a magnetic
stripe than it is to copy information on a chip.

Disadvantages
• If the card is lost, information stored on the chip could be used in
identity theft.
Figure 2.3 The chip on a
smart card

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Chip and PIN readers

Chip and PIN readers are similar to smart card readers, but are used at EFTPOS terminals. The device
has a slot into which the card is placed and the chip is read.
The PIN is entered using the keypad. A small screen is also part of the reader, which gives instructions to the
operator.

Uses
• Chip and PIN readers are used where payments are made using cards
(restaurants, supermarkets, travel agents, etc.).

Advantages
• Chip and PIN readers provide a more secure payment system than requiring a
signature or using a magnetic stripe, since the PIN typed in must match up with PIN
stored on chip.
• Chip and PIN readers provide a more robust system than magnetic stripe readers, since the chip does
not need to be in contact with the reader.

Disadvantages
• Since the customer types in the PIN, they need to be careful that it isn’t read by somebody else, thus
giving an opportunity for fraud.

Scanners
Scanners are used to enter information on hard copy (e.g. text
documents, photographs) into a computer. The most common type is the
flat bed (as shown here) which is made up of a glass panel and lid. The hard
copy document or photo is scanned by a light source and produces a
computer-readable image.
The subsequent image can then be manipulated using a drawing
package. Images can also be used with optical character recognition (OCR)
software to allow the information to use in a word processor, desktop
publishing, presentation software, etc. Specialist scanners exist which are
designed to carry out a specific task, e.g. barcode scanners (discussed later
in this section).

Uses
• Scanners are used to scan in documents and convert them into a format for use in various software
packages.
• Old and valuable documents and books can be scanned, thus protecting the originals from damage
through handling and also producing records in case the paper copies are lost or destroyed.

• Non-digital photographs need to be scanned if they are to be stored on computer.

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Advantages
• Images can be stored for editing at a later date (paper documents cannot be edited unless they are
scanned first).
• Scanners are much faster and more accurate (i.e. no typing errors) than typing in documents again.
• It is possible to recover damaged documents and photographs by scanning them and then using
appropriate software to produce an acceptable copy.
Disadvantages
• The quality can be limited, depending on how good the scanner resolution is.

Barcode readers
Barcode readers are used to read information in the form of a
bar code (illustrated in Figure 2.4). The readers are usually in the form
of a barcode scanner and are often built into POS terminals in
supermarkets. Handheld scanners or wands (as shown here) are also
very common for reading barcodes if portability is required (e.g. if the
barcodes are on large or fixed objects).

Uses
• Barcode scanners are used in supermarkets and other shops where the
goods are marked with a barcode; the barcodes are used to give information about the product, which enables
automatic stock control, itemised billing, etc. to take place.
• They are used in libraries, to scan both users’ library cards and barcodes on books, in order to keep track
of books on loan.
• They are used as a safety function in many companies to ensure that electrical
equipment is checked on a regular basis. Barcodes are placed on an item to identify
it and a database holds all the information related to that barcode so it is possible to
interrogate the system as part of a safety audit.

Advantages Figure 2.4 A barcode

• Scanning barcodes is much faster than keying in data manually and fewer
mistakes are made.
• When barcodes are used as a way of recording data, they can improve safety.
• Barcodes enable automatic stock control.
• Barcode scanning is a tried and trusted technology.
• When an item price is changed, only the central database needs to be updated.
• There is no need to change the prices individually on each item.

Disadvantages
• Barcode scanning is a relatively expensive system to administer since every item in the shop needs a
barcode and every barcode needs to be entered on to the central database. Also, there is a need to invest in
the computer technology together with staff training, which can all be very expensive.
• The system is not foolproof – barcodes can be swapped around on items!

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OMR devices
Optical mark recognition (OMR) is a system which can read marks written in pen or pencil.
The places where the pen or pencil marks can be made are clearly shown on the form, for example:

In this example, a pencil mark has been made between the dots
on answer 1. The position of the mark is stored in the computer’s
memory after being read by the OMR device.

Uses
• OMR devices are used to read questionnaires, multiple-choice examination papers and many other
types of form where responses are registered in the form of lines or shaded areas.

Advantages
• It is a very fast way of inputting the results of a survey, etc. – the documents are fed in automatically
and there is no user input.
• Since there is no typing, it is more accurate than keying in the data.
• OMR is more accurate than OCR (discussed later in this section).
Disadvantages
• The forms need to be carefully designed to make sure that the marks/shading are correctly positioned
to gather accurate information.
• There can be problems if the forms haven’t been filled in correctly and sometimes they have to be
manually checked before being read by the OMR device – this is both time consuming and expensive.

OCR readers
Optical character recognition (OCR) is the name given to software
that takes scanned text and converts it into a computer readable form. The
text can then be used in various application packages such as word
processors, desktop publishers and presentation software.
Uses
One of the most recent uses is in the processing of passports and identity cards.
OCR is used when scanning in documents so that they can be modified using a
word processor or desktop publisher package.

Advantages
• It is a much faster data entry system than manually keying in data.
• Since no manual data entry, the number of errors is also reduced.

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Disadvantages
• The system still has difficulty reading handwriting.
• It is still not a very accurate technique.

MICR devices
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) is a system which can
read characters printed in a special ink (containing iron particles). Only
certain characters written in a standard font can be read, for example the
characters at the bottom of a bank cheque (see Figure 2.5). These
characters are converted into a form that the computer can understand and
then stored in a computer file.
Characters
read by
Figure 2.5 A bank cheque
MICR

Figure 2.5 A bank cheque

Uses
• It is primarily used to process cheques in banking operations. When a cheque is presented its value is
then printed on the cheque in the special ink. The cheques are all gathered together (either at the end of the
day or after some specified period) and then read using a batch processing method.

Advantages
• MICR offers greater security than OCR since the printed characters cannot be altered.
• There is no manual input, thus errors are reduced.
• Even if somebody writes over the magnetic ink characters (e.g. with a signature) they can still be read.

Disadvantages
• Only certain characters can be read and the number of different characters is very limited.
• It is a more expensive method than other methods used in direct data entry.

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Digital cameras
Digital cameras are rapidly replacing traditional, film-based
cameras. Once photographs are stored in memory, they are easily
transferred to a computer using a universal serial bus (USB) connection
(see Figure 2.6). Once saved, the images can be manipulated (e.g.
cropped, re-sized, contrast altered, etc.).

Uses
• Digital cameras produce photographs for transfer to a computer directly
or to print out by connecting directly to a printer.
• Many digital cameras also allow short video clips to be produced.
• Photographs can be uploaded directly into applications software such as word processors, desktop
publishers, etc.

Advantages
• It is easier to produce better quality photographs than with a traditional camera.
• It is easier and faster to upload photographs to a computer rather than
having to scan in hard copies when using traditional methods.
• There is no need to develop film and print out photographs any more – this
saves money and is also environmentally more acceptable (saves paper and no
longer need the chemicals used in developing the films).
• It is easy just to delete an image from memory if it is not satisfactory and
take the photograph again.
• The memory cards can store several hundred photographs. A traditional camera was limited by the
number of photographs that could be taken on a roll of film.

Disadvantages
• The camera user needs to be computer literate to use the cameras properly; also the transferring,
storing and manipulating of the images via a computer requires some understanding of how computers work.
• There is some artistry lost since clever software now corrects errors in A digital camera in fact
the photographs (e.g. incorrect exposure, removal of red eye, etc.). contains a small computer
• The resolution is not yet as good as traditional cameras, although this is that controls camera focus,
stores images, etc.
improving all the time. The quality of photographs depends on the number of
pixels (many cameras now offer more than 10 mega pixels per image), quality The camera’s computer runs
of lens, etc. a very simple operating
• Images often need to be compressed to reduce the amount of memory system (stored on ROM) and
usually provides a menu-
used (a single image can use more than 2 Mbytes of memory, for example).
based GUI for the user.
• It is possible to fill up computer memory very quickly with several
photographs of the same subject in an attempt to find the ‘perfect’ snap shot.

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Webcams
Webcams are similar to digital video cameras; however, they are connected
directly to the computer (through a USB port) and they do not have a memory. The
information that the webcam picks up is transmitted directly to the computer. Many
computer systems now have webcams built into the top of their monitors as standard
equipment.

Uses
• While chatting online, many people use webcams as a more personal way of having
a conversation.
• They are used to enable video conferencing to take place
(discussed in Chapter 4).

Advantages
• Webcams can be left on constantly, only being activated as required.
• They allow people to keep in contact with each other without the need to travel, so
they are particularly useful for elderly or disabled people.
Disadvantages
• Webcams have very limited features and the picture is often of poor quality.
• They need to be connected to the computer, although this is less of an issue with
laptop computers when the webcam is built into the monitor lid.

Microphones
Microphones can be connected directly to a computer. Sounds can be inputted
and then manipulated. The input sound is converted to an analogue signal and then
converted into a digital signal. The computer’s sound card usually does this
automatically (i.e. it acts as an analogue to digital converter (ADC).

Uses
• Microphones are used to input speech/sounds to be used in various applications, e.g.
presentations, sampling (in films, music, etc.), special effects (films).
• They are used in voice recognition software, which can have a number of purposes,
for example:
o conversion of speech into text that can be used in, for example, a word processor
o recognition of commands (e.g. some cars now have voice-activated systems to
switch on the lights, turn up the radio volume, etc.).

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Advantages
It is faster to read in text than to type it in using a keyboard.
• Using special software, it is possible to manipulate sound in real time rather than
working on a recording done at some earlier stage.
• If used in a voice activation system, this has the advantage of improving safety
since, for example, car drivers don’t need to take their hands off the wheel to operate a
switch or alter the radio station etc.

Disadvantages
• Sound files can use up a lot of computer memory.
• Voice recognition software isn’t as accurate as typing in manually (for example, the software can’t
distinguish the difference between ‘their’ and ‘there’).

Sensors
This section deals with analogue sensors. A sensor is a device
which inputs data to a computer, where the data is a measurement of
some physical quantity which is continuously changing (e.g. temperature,
light, moisture, etc.). These physical quantities are analogue in nature.
Since computers only understand digital data (i.e. 1s and 0s), the
information from the sensors needs to be converted into a digital form.
This is done using an analogue to digital converter (ADC).

Uses
Sensors are used in monitoring and control applications – the type of
sensor depends on the application (see Table 2.1). When monitoring, the data sent
to the computer is often transferred directly to a spreadsheet package (e.g. taking
measurements in a scientific experiment, measuring atmospheric pollution, etc.).

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Type of sensor Applications

Automatic washing machines, central heating systems,
Temperature
automatic greenhouses, ovens
Burglar alarm systems, washing machines, robotics,
Pressure
environmental monitoring
Automatic greenhouses, automatic doors, burglar alarm
Light
systems, street lighting control
Burglar alarm systems, monitoring liquid and powder flow in
Sound
pipes
Humidity/ Automatic greenhouses, environmental monitoring, factories
moisture where moisture levels are crucial (e.g. manufacture of
microchips, paint spraying)
Automatic greenhouses, chemical processes, environmental
pH
monitoring

Advantages
• Readings taken using sensors are generally more accurate that those
taken by human operators.
• Readings are continuous, so there is no break in the monitoring.
• Because it is a continuous process, any necessary action (control
system) or warning (monitoring system) will be initiated immediately.
• The system can be automatic, removing the need for human
intervention. This is particularly important if the process is hazardous or
needs precise control/monitoring.

Disadvantages
• Faulty sensors can give spurious results (e.g. if the sensors on the rear bumper of a car which monitor
for obstacles become dirty, they may either not identify an obstacle or give a continuous alarm).

Graphics tablets
A graphics tablet is used with a stylus to produce freehand drawings for example. The images
produced can then be stored in a file on a computer.

Uses

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• Graphics tablets are used to produce drawings, computer graphics, etc.

• In countries where characters are complex (e.g. China, Japan), they are
used as a form of input since it is faster than typing in the characters using a
keyboard.
• They are used in computer aided design (CAD) work.

Advantages
• It is possible to modify drawings before they are input.
• They offer a very accurate method of drawing, which is better than using
a mouse or trackerball.
Disadvantages
• They are more expensive than other pointing devices, such as a mouse.

Light pens
Light pens contain sensors that send signals to a computer whenever light changes are
detected. At the moment, the devices only work with cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors because they
rely on the screen image being built up row by row by an electron beam. The screen is refreshed 50
times every second, so the computer is able to determine the pen’s position by noting exactly when
the light pen detected the electron beam passing its tip. Systems to operate with thin film transistor
(TFT) monitors are still at the development stage.

Uses
Light pens are used for selecting objects on CRT screens.
They are also used for drawing on screen (e.g. with CAD packages).

Advantages
• Light pens are more accurate than touch screens.
• They are small, so can be used where space is an issue.
• They are easy to use.
Disadvantages
• There are problems with lag when drawing on screen.
• At the moment, they only work with CRT monitors.
• They are not very accurate when drawing.

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Output devices
As the name suggests, output devices are hardware devices that
allow data to be output from a computer. Some devices hold the data
temporarily (such as a printer) whereas other devices produce permanent
output in the form of a hard copy (such as a printer producing output on
paper). There is a third type of output device which is used to control
processes in conjunction with sensor input devices. These are covered
separately in Section 1.3.

CRT monitors
CRT monitors are the least expensive type of monitor, although they are
becoming increasingly rare as TFT monitors are now taking over. They come in
various sizes.
They use an electron gun to fire against a phosphor screen, which
creates a picture that is made up of tiny dots. Each dot is coloured red, green
or blue – the intensity of each coloured dot makes up the vast range of colours
interpreted by the eye.

Uses
• CRT monitors are used as the primary output device for computers so the
user can see immediately what they are typing in.
• They are used with light pens, for example to allow designs to be created on
screen.

Advantages
• CRT monitors still produce a higher quality image than TFT monitors.
• The angle of viewing is still better than with a TFT monitor.
• They work with light pens in computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM)
applications.

Disadvantages
• CRT monitors tend to be rather heavy and are a weight hazard if not supported properly.
• They run very hot and can cause fires if left unattended (especially as they get older).
• They consume considerably more power than the modern TFT monitors.
• They can flicker, which can lead to headaches and eyesight problems with prolonged use.

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TFT monitors
TFT and LCD are two of the
TFT monitors are taking over from CRT monitors as the main technologies used in flat-
output device. One of the reasons for the rapid development of laptop screen monitors: TFT is Thin-
Film-Transistor, and LCD is
computers can be attributed to the advancements made in TFT Liquid-Crystal Display.
technology. The screen is made up of thousands of tiny pixels, which are
made up of transistors controlled by a microprocessor. Each pixel has Another technology that may
replace these is OLED, or
three transistors, coloured red, green or blue; the intensity of each Organic Light-Emitting
governs the effective colour of the pixel seen by the eye. Diodes.

Uses
• TFT monitors are used as the primary output device for computers so the user can see immediately
what they are typing in.
• They are an integral part of laptop computers.

Advantages
• TFT monitors are lightweight, so do not pose the same risks as CRT monitors.
• They produce less glare than CRT monitors and also emit less radiation.

• They consume much less power and do not generate as much heat as a CRT monitor.

Disadvantages
• The angle of viewing a TFT monitor is fairly critical, with the image appearing unclear when viewed
slightly from the side. This can be an issue if several people are looking at a screen at the same time.
• The definition is sometimes not as good as CRT monitors.
• TFT monitors cannot yet be used with light pens, so these monitors cannot be used in CAD if light pens
are used to create and edit drawings.

Laser printers
Laser printers produce very high-quality hard copy output. The
print rate per page is very quick if a large number of pages are being
printed. They rely on large buffer memories, where the data for the
whole document is stored before the pages can be printed out.

Uses
• Laser printers are used where noise levels need to be kept low (e.g. in
an office).
• They are the best option for fast high quality high volume printing.

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Advantages
Printing is fast for high volumes. If only a few pages are to be printed they
are little faster than inkjet printers.
• They can handle very large print jobs.
• The quality is consistently high.
• Toner cartridges last for a long time, so laser printers can be a cost
effective option, particularly if colour outputs are not required.

Disadvantages
• Laser printers are expensive to buy.
• They are only really fast if several copies are being made.
• Colour laser printers tend to be expensive to run, since four cartridges (three colours plus black) are
needed as well as diffuser kits, etc.
• They produce ozone and volatile organic compounds because of their method of printing and type of
toner/ink used. These have been linked to health hazards in the office.

Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers are used to produce good quality hard copies. Although
the quality is not quite as good as that from laser printers, it is far better than
that from dot matrix printers. Unlike laser printers, inkjet printers do not have
large buffers, so printing is done a bit at a time. This is why printing is
sometimes paused, since the whole page can’t be stored in the buffer and it
has to wait for the computer to send more data.

Uses
• Inkjet printers are used where low output volumes are required.
• If high-quality printing is required for single pages (or only a small print job) then these printers are
ideal, for example they are very good at producing photo quality printouts.
• 3D inkjet printers are now being used in industry to produce
prototypes (see below).

Advantages
• The output is of high quality.
• Inkjet printers are cheaper to buy than laser printers.
• They are very lightweight and have a small footprint (i.e. take up little
space).
• They do not produce ozone and volatile organic compounds, unlike laser printers.
Disadvantages
• The output is slow if several copies needed, as there is little buffer capacity to store the pages.
• The ink cartridges run out too quickly to be used for large print jobs.
• Printing can ‘smudge’ if the user is not careful.
• Inkjet printers can be expensive to run if they are used a lot, since original ink cartridges are
expensive.

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3D inkjet printers
These are a new type of printer that produce solid 3D models using
modified inkjet technology. In this technology, known as ‘tomography’, thin
layers of fine powder (plaster, resin and starch) are bonded together as a 3D
model is slowly built up (each layer is only about 0.25 mm thick). Figure 2.7
shows some items produced on a 3D inkjet printer – these are known as
prototypes.

Uses
• Inkjet printers are used to produce prototypes which actually work from CAD packages, photograph
images, stored drawings, etc.
• Scale models are produced in colour before the real thing is manufactured.
• The ultimate objective is to produce organic objects (such as replacement human organs) using this
layering technology.

Advantages
• 3D inkjet printers save a lot of money, since making prototypes by other methods is very time
consuming and expensive.
• Physical scale models are produced with working parts, which gives a better idea of how the end
product will look.
• The powders used can often be ground up and re-used.
Disadvantages
• 3D inkjet printers are expensive to buy.
• They are slow at producing their output.
• The end product can sometimes be a little rough and often needs further work to be done on it.

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Dot matrix printers

Dot matrix printers are a type of impact printer, where a
printhead (made up of a matrix of pins) presses against an inked
ribbon. They tend to be slow, noisy and the output is not good quality.
They are still useful, however, where multi-part or continuous
stationery (e.g. long reams of perforated paper) is being used.

Uses
• They can be used in noisy environments (e.g. garage workshops)
and in applications where print quality is not very important.

Advantages
• Dot matrix printers can be used in environments which would be a
problem for laser or inkjet printers (e.g. dusty, dirty or moist atmospheres).
• Carbon copies or multi-part outputs can be produced.
• They are very cheap to run and maintain.
• They are easy to use if continuous stationery is required (e.g. long print
jobs such as wages slips).

Disadvantages
• They are very noisy and so not good in an office environment.
• They cost more than an inkjet printer to buy.
• They are very slow and the printing is of poor quality.

Plotters
Plotters (also known as graph plotters) are devices that produce
hard copies, but operate in a different way to printers. They are not
limited to normal printer paper size and are capable of producing highly
accurate, very large drawings and posters.
The most common types are pen plotters (which use coloured
pens to draw), electrostatic (similar method to laser printers) and inkjet
plotters. With pen plotters the coloured pens are controlled by a
computer and the paper can move backwards and forwards to allow accurate shapes to be drawn.

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Uses
• Plotters are used to produce large drawings (e.g. blueprints of
buildings, factories, etc.) and are often used with CAD applications.
• They are used to produce large pictures for use on billboards or giant
posters.
• They can also print on plastic-coated paper.
• If the pens are replaced with cutting tools, it is also possible to make
large signs.

Advantages
• They can produce huge printouts.
• The print quality is extremely high.
Disadvantages
• They are slow in operation.
• They are expensive, both to buy and to maintain.

Plotters are only suitable for

producing line drawings. They Plotters have been largely
cannot produce the kind of text superseded by large-format ink
and images that an ink-jet or laser jet printers that can produce
printer could. more detailed printouts and in
(So you cannot use a plotter to full-colour.
produce photos for example)

Speakers
Speakers can be connected directly to a computer or are built into the
monitor or casing (as in a laptop computer). Digital data from the computer is
converted into analogue form, using a digital to analogue converter (DAC).
The signal is then amplified through the speakers.

Uses
• Speakers are used to output sound from multimedia presentations.
• They are used in home entertainment centres.
• They can help blind people (together with speech generation software) through
audio output of text on the screen.
• They are used to play downloaded sound files.

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Multimedia projectors
Multimedia projectors receive signals that can be either analogue
or digital, although most modern projectors only work with digital inputs.
The signal source is usually from a computer, television or DVD player. The
image from the source is magnified and projected onto a large screen. The
devices usually work with a remote control, but can also use virtual mouse
technology which actually becomes a cordless PC mouse with the same
features as a mouse. It is then possible to direct the computer presentation
without being tied to the computer.

Another feature of the virtual mouse is the laser pointer. Most multimedia projectors take
input from various types of video format such as NTSC, PAL or SECAM.

Uses
• Multimedia projectors are used for training presentations (to allow the
whole audience to see the images from a computer).
• They are also used for advertising presentations (large images showing
product features of, for example, a new car, can be shown at exhibitions,
shopping malls, etc.).
• Home cinema systems (projecting the images from a DVD or television)
use multimedia projectors.

Advantages
• They enable many people to see a presentation rather than all of them crowding round a small
computer screen.
• They avoid the need for several networked computers. For example, when looking at a video clip on
an internet site, everybody can see the video on the large screen rather than logging on to a number of
computers.
Disadvantages
• Images can sometimes be fuzzy.
• Multimedia projectors are expensive to buy.
• Setting up projectors can be a little difficult.

Control devices
Control devices are another type of output device. They are used to control processes in
conjunction with sensor input devices. This section gives an overview of actuators and the devices
that they operate, but the use of sensors and actuators are covered in more depth in Section 7.7.

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Actuators
Actuators are transducers and are used to take signals from a computer and convert them into
some form of motion, for example operating motors, pumps, switches and valves. As part of the
control process, digital signals are sent from the computer to an actuator to operate a device. Usually,
conversion of the digital signal to analogue is required first (using a DAC).

Motors
The motor is turned on or off by the actuator.

Uses
• Motors are used in many domestic appliances, such as automatic
washing machines (to make the drum rotate), cookers (to switch on fans), water
pumps in central heating systems and automatic greenhouses to open windows
and switch on fans.
• In industry, they are used to control robot arms.
• In computers, they operate fans, disk drives and DVD drives.

Buzzers

Uses
• Buzzers are used in cookers and microwave ovens to tell the operator
when the cooking process is complete.
• They are used in burglar alarm systems to warn if intruders are present.

Lights

Uses
• They are used for security lights.
• Lights are used in greenhouses to control the lighting conditions.

Heaters
Actuators are connected to switches which turn the heater on or off.

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Uses
• Heaters are used in automatic washing machines, cookers and central heating systems.
• Heaters are used in automatic greenhouses to control the temperature.

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Chapter 3
Storage devices and media
In this chapter you will learn about:
• back-up storage
• why it is necessary to back up data and files
• the types of access used by the backing stores
• the types of internal and external backing storage devices:
o magnetic
o optical
o solid state.

Backing up data
The first two sections in this chapter consider the need for backing up data and the different
ways of storing and accessing data. Section 3.3 then discusses many forms of backing storage and
compares the advantages and disadvantages of each type.
The comparative performance and main uses for each type of store are also discussed in some
depth.

What is backing up of data?

Backing up refers to the copying of files and data to a different medium (disk, tape, flash drive,
etc.) in case of a problem with the main storage device. Backing up files and data on a regular basis is
seen as good computing practice and many computer systems can be set to back up files automatically
on a regular basis.
The backups are often stored in a different place to the main storage. This is in case of fire or
some other situation which could lead to irretrievable loss of key data and files.

Why back up data?

There are various reasons why backups are made. Some of the more common reasons are
considered below:
• Data could be lost due to failure of the original storage device. This could be due to hardware failure
(e.g. head crash on a hard drive unit), problems caused by files being over-written accidentally (or otherwise)
or possible corruption of files
• (e.g. caused by power surges).
• Hackers could be responsible for the corruption or even loss of data. This may not be their intention
(they may only want to gain access to the information for other purposes, e.g. to find personal information
such as bank account details).
• However, the very act of hacking into files could cause problems such as corruption or data loss.

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• Backups are also made in case the files need to be used elsewhere. The original files are then
protected against possible corruption or loss.
However, backups do not necessarily guard against the effect of a virus. The virus could attach
itself to the files which could mean that the backups were also affected.
If the computer was ‘cleaned’ of the virus and then the backup files were re-loaded there
would remain the risk that the same virus could infect the computer system again. The best protection
is not to get a virus in the first place (discussed in Chapter 6).

Types of access
The way data is stored and read by different backing storage devices varies considerably. This
section briefly describes the two main methods of accessing data.

Serial access
With this system, to access data it is necessary to start at
the beginning and then access each piece of data in turn until the
required information is found.
It is primarily used on magnetic tape systems and is a very
slow form of access. It is used in applications where speed of access
or where the order in which the data is accessed is not important,
for example in utility billing, clearing bank cheques or producing
pay slips.
When a magnetic tape needs updating, an additional tape is required so that the old
information can be merged with the new data (itself often on another tape, but the new data could
be stored in various ways) to produce the updated tape (see Figure 3.1).

Direct access
This method is used with magnetic disks and with optical media (such as CDs and DVDs). The
computer uses a key field to calculate where data has been stored. It is then able to access the data
directly from the calculated position. Consequently, access is much faster than with serial access.
It is used in applications where access speed is vital (e.g. in real-time process control systems
such as controlling a chemical plant or online systems such as booking air tickets or automatic stock
control).
When updating media which uses direct access, the new data is written to the next available
location and its position is calculated using the built-in algorithm.

Backing storage media

Dating back to the development of the personal computer, all computer systems have come
equipped with some form of backing storage. When a user types data into a computer, the
information is stored temporarily on the RAM – however, this information would be lost as soon as
the computer was turned off. Backing storage devices ensure that data is stored permanently and can

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be used at a later date. This section will be considering various types of backing storage and the media
used.
Backing storage devices are either internal or external (i.e. plug-in devices) to the computer,
and are one of three types:
• magnetic
• optical
• solid state.

Fixed hard disk

Fixed hard disk drives are available on all computers and are the
main method used for data storage. On a PC this is usually a fixed hard disk
with read/write heads allowing data to be written to or read from the disk
surface. The disk surface is coated in a magnetic film which allows data to
be stored by altering the magnetic properties to represent binary 1s or 0s
(the fundamental units of computer memories). The hard drive disks usually
store the disk operating system (DOS) and other important software and
files. Applications software (e.g. spreadsheets and word processors) need a
hard drive to allow them to quickly retrieve and save data.

Uses
• Fixed hard drives are used to store the operating system and working
data.
• They are used for storing applications software that needs fast
retrieval and storage of data.
• Real-time systems (e.g. robots, control of a chemical plant) and online
systems
• (e.g. booking airline tickets, automatic stock control (using EPOS))
used fixed hard drives.
• They are used in file servers for computer networks.

Advantages
• They have a very fast data transfer rate and fast access times to data.
• They have very large memory capacities.
Disadvantages
• They can be fairly easily damaged (e.g. if the correct shut-down procedure
on a laptop computer has not been correctly carried out and the computer is
then moved).
• They lack portability unless a portable hard disk drive is used (see next sub-section).

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Portable hard disk drives

These devices work in much the same way as fixed hard disk drives but
are usually connected to the computer via a universal serial bus (USB) port and
can be disconnected and used on different computers. The disks are generally
capable of storing more data than the equivalent optical disk (CD, DVD and so
on).
Many portable music players (such as the iPod classic) contain tiny
hard-drives. These miniature devices are just not much bigger than a stamp, but can still store over
100MB of data.

Uses
• Portable hard disks can be used as back-up systems to prevent loss of
data.
• They can be used to transfer data, files and software between computers.

Advantages
• The data access time and data transfer rate is very fast.
• They have large memory capacities.
• They can be used as a method of transferring information between computers.

Disadvantages
• As with fixed drives, a portable hard disk can be easily damaged if the user accidentally drops it or
does not shut it down correctly after use.

Floppy disk drives

Floppy disks are still used on some computer systems. They consist
of a thin disk of plastic which is housed in a plastic case with a window
where the disk can be accessed. As the disk rotates, a read/write head is
used to add or read data stored on the surface.

Uses
• They are still used where small files need to be transferred/stored (e.g.
word-processed documents).
• Some older computer systems still make use of this method of storage.

Advantages
• Using a CD to store a small file (e.g. a word-processed document) is often regarded as wasteful –
especially if CD-R is used.
• It is a very simple technology. Floppy disk drives are also extremely low cost items to buy.

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Disadvantages
• Floppy disks have a very low memory capacity when compared to CD/DVDs, for example.
• Very few modern computers have floppy disk drives.
• The data transfer rate is slow compared to more modern data storage devices.
• Floppy disks are not very robust.

Magnetic tapes
A magnetic tape is a very thin strip of plastic which is coated in a
magnetic layer. They are read and written to by a read/write head. The data
is stored in magnetic areas which represent 1s and 0s. Data is written to and
read from the tape in sequence (i.e. in order) – for example, if five records
A, B, C, D and E were stored they would be in the order E D C B A on the
tape; so if record B was to be read it would be necessary to read E, D and C
first before getting to the required record. This is known as serial access. This type of storage is useless
in a real-time or online application (due to the very slow access speeds) and is best suited to offline
or batch processing.

Uses
• Magnetic tapes are used in applications where batch processing is used,
for example in clearing bank cheques, utility billing (gas, electricity, water) and
producing pay slips. In these applications, there is no need for any specific
processing order and speed of data access is not important).
• They are used as a back-up media since all the data needs to be stored.

Advantages
• They are generally less expensive than the equivalent-capacity hard disk.
• It is a very robust technology.
• The data transfer rate is fast.

Disadvantages
• Access time is very slow.
• When updating, another tape is needed (i.e. original tape + tape with the changes produces an
updated tape).

Optical storage media

Optical storage devices, such as CD and DVD, all use optical (i.e. light) read/write methods,
unlike tapes and floppy/hard drive disks which are magnetic media. A laser beam is used to write to
and read from the optical media.

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The CDs and DVDs are manufactured either from a single polycarbonate disk or from two
polycarbonate disks bonded together. A very thin layer of metal or organic dye is used as the recording
media. The big advantage of these storage media is that they are portable and can store large data
files (e.g. films, music or multimedia files) which would be too large for a floppy disk.

CD-ROM and DVD-ROM

CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs are read only memory (ROM), which
means they cannot be written over and can only be read. The data is stored
as a series of pits (equivalent to a binary value of 1) and lands (equivalent
to the binary value of 0) in the metallic optical layer. The pits are formed
by a laser beam etching the surface at the manufacturing stage. Only a single track exists which spirals
out from the centre of the disk.
The pits and lands are read by a low-powered laser beam which
follows the data stream and reads from the centre outwards in a spiral.
The light reflects differently off a pit than it does off a land and this is
interpreted as 1s and 0s (i.e. data) – hence the term digital media.

Uses
• CD-ROMs are used by manufacturers to store music files and software,
computer games and reference software (such as an encyclopedia).
• DVD-ROMs have much larger storage capacity than CD-ROMs and are
used to store films. They are now increasingly used to store computer data and
ever-more sophisticated computer and arcade games.

Advantages
• They hold far more data than floppy disks, so one CD/DVD could replace several floppy disks in some
applications.
• They are less expensive than hard disk drive systems.

Disadvantages
• The data transfer rate and data access time are slower than for hard disks.

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CD-R and DVD-R

The letter ‘R’ here means the disk is recordable once only and then it
becomes a CD-ROM or DVD-ROM. These use a thin layer of an organic dye as the
recording media; DVDs also use an additional silver alloy or gold reflector.
A laser beam produces heated spots and unheated spots. On reading the
disk, a laser beam is capable of distinguishing between the two types of spots and
effectively reads the data stream from the centre outwards in a spiral action. This
data is then interpreted as 1s and 0s.

Uses
• They are used for home recordings of music (CD-Rs) and films (DVD-Rs).

• They are used to store data to be kept for later use or to be transferred to
another computer.
• They are used in applications where it is necessary to prevent the deletion or
over-writing of important data).

Advantages
• CD-Rs and DVD-Rs are cheaper than RW disks.
• Once burned (and finalised), they are like ROM disks.

Disadvantages
• They can only be recorded once, so if an error occurs then the disk has to be thrown away.
• Not all CD/DVD players can read CD-R/DVD-R.

CD-RW and DVD-RW

The ‘RW’ means that these disks are a re-writable media and can be written
over several times. Unlike CD-R/DVD-R, they don’t become ROMs. The recording layer
uses a special phase-changing metal alloy. The alloy can switch between crystalline and amorphous
(non-crystalline) phases, thus changing its reflectivity to light, depending on the laser beam power.
Spots are produced which can be read by a laser and then interpreted as 1s and 0s. The system allows
data to be written, erased and re-written many times.

Uses
• CD-RWs and DVD-RWs are used to record radio and television programmes, but can be recorded over
time and time again.
• They are used in closed circuit television (CCTV) systems.

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Advantages
• CD-RWs and DVD-RWs can be re-used many times.
• They can use different file formats each time they are used.
• The RW format is not as wasteful as the R format since files or data can be added at a later stage.
Disadvantages
• CD-RWs and DVD-RWs can be relatively expensive media.
• It is possible to accidentally overwrite data.

DVD-RAM
DVD-RAM is a recent addition to the optical media group. Unlike
other CD and DVD formats, DVD-RAMs have several discrete concentric
tracks rather than a single spiral track. This gives them the advantage that
writing and reading can occur at the same time. This makes it possible to
watch an already recorded television programme at the same time as a
different programme is being recorded. DVD-RAMs can be written to
many times.
Figure 3.2 compares the single spiral track found on normal CDs and DVDs
with the discrete single tracks found on a DVD-RAM.

Figure 3.2 a Spiral tracks on a

normal CD or DVD b Discrete
tracks on a DVD-RAM

The recording layer is made from a similar phase-changing material to

that used in RW technology. When writing, a laser heats the phasechanging
alloy on the disk to about 500–700ºC, changing the reflective properties from
shiny to dull (i.e. pits). If the disk needs to be erased, a laser heats the surface
to about 200ºC to return the disk to its original shiny state. A low power laser
is used to read the written marks on the surface. The shiny and dull (pits) marks
represent data to a computer where they are interpreted.

Uses
• DVD-RAMs are used in recording devices such as satellite receivers to allow simultaneous recording
and playback.
• They are used in camcorders to store films.

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Advantages
• DVD-RAMs have a long life – minimum life is estimated to be 30 years.
• It is possible to do a re-write operation over 100,000 times, compared with the
• RW format which only allows about 1,000 re-writes.
• Writing on DVD-RAMs is very reliable, as they have in-built verification software to ensure the
accuracy of the data.
• Access is very fast if the files are fairly small.
• There is no need to finalise the disk.
• They have a very large capacity (about 10 Gbyte if double-sided format is used).
• They offer the ability to read data at the same time as data is being written.

Disadvantages
• DVD-RAMs are not as compatible as R or RW format, as many systems will not recognise their format.
• They are relatively expensive, costing about 4 times as much as a DVD-RW disk.

Blu-ray disks
Blu-ray disks have the largest capacity of all the optical media available and
go up to 100 Gbyte (at the present time). The laser beam used is at the blue/violet
end of the spectrum, rather than red which is the colour of the lasers used in other
optical media. Consequently, the light used has a shorter wavelength, allowing more data to be
stored/read on the disk.

Uses
• Blu-ray disks are used in home video consoles.
• They are used for storing and playing back films: 1 high-definition film of
two hours duration uses 25 Gbyte of memory.
• PCs can use this technology for data storage or backing up hard drives.
• Camcorders can use this media (in cartridge form) to store film footage.

Advantages
• They have a very large storage capacity, and so are ideal for storing high
definition films.
• The data transfer rate is very fast.
• The data access speed is also greater than with other optical media.
Disadvantages
• The disks are relatively expensive .
• At the time of writing, blu-ray systems still have encryption problems (which are used to stop piracy)
when used to store video.

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Solid state backing store

Solid state technology is being developed to the point where solid state drives will soon
replace hard disk drives in laptop computers. This is due to their inherent thinness, their much faster
data access time and the fact that they are extremely robust.
They are similar to magnetic and optical media in
that data is still stored as 1s and 0s. However, instead of
changing the magnetic properties on the thin film
surface of a rotating disk, these solid state systems
control the movement of electrons within a
microchip.
The 1s and 0s are stored in millions of
miniature transistors within the microchip: if the
transistor conducts a current, this is equivalent to
a 1, otherwise it is a 0. They consequently have no
moving parts, consume much less power and are extremely
robust.
They are used primarily as removable storage devices and are
collectively known as flash memory. The most common examples are
memory sticks/pen drives and memory cards.

Memory sticks/pen drives

Memory sticks/pen drives can store several Gbytes of data and use
the solid state technology described above. They are usually connected to
a computer through the USB port and power to operate them is drawn
from the host computer.

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They are extremely small and very portable. Most operating

You might wonder why, since
systems recognise these storage media, which means that no additional flash memory is non-volatile,
software is needed to operate them. normal computers don’t use it
Some expensive software increasingly use these storage instead of RAM. If they did we
would have computers that you
methods (sometimes referred to as portable flash drives) as a form of could turn off, turn back on again
security. They plug into the computer using the USB port and are and no data would be lost – it
known as dongles. The software installed on a computer sends out a would be great!
request (in encrypted form) to the dongle asking for an encrypted The reason is speed – saving data
validation key. Thus a person trying to commit software piracy would to flash memory is very slow
have to crack the code on the dongle first before they could use the compared to saving it to RAM. If
a computer were to use flash
software. memory as a replacement for
Some systems go one stage further and have key bits of RAM it would run very slowly.
software stored on the dongle in encrypted form. The software looks
However some portable
for these pieces of encrypted code to enable it to run. This gives an computers are starting to use
added security benefit to the software. flash memory (in the form of
solid-state ‘discs’ as a
replacement for hard-drives. No
moving parts mean less to go
Uses wrong and longer battery life.
• Memory sticks and pen drives are used for transporting files between
computers or as a back-up store.
• They are used as a security device – a dongle – to prevent software piracy.

Advantages
• They are very compact and portable media.
• They are very robust.

Disadvantages
• It is not possible to write protect the data and files.
• Their small physical size means that they are easy to lose.

Flash memory cards

These are a form of electrically erasable programmable read only
memory (EEPROM) and are another example of solid state memories.

Uses
• Flash memory cards are used to store photos on digital cameras.
• Mobile phones use them as memory cards.
• They are used in MP3 players to store music files.
• They are used as a back-up store in handheld computer devices.

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Advantages
• Flash memory cards are very compact, so they can be easily removed and
used in another device or used for transferring photos directly to a computer or
printer.
• Since they are solid state memories, they are very robust.

Disadvantages
• They are expensive per Gbyte of memory when compared to hard drive disks.
• They have a finite life in terms of the number of times they can be read from or written to.
• They have a lower storage capacity than hard disks.

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Chapter 4
The effects of using ICT

In this chapter you will learn about:

• software copyright rules
• viruses and hacking:
o definitions
o ways of protecting the system
• the effects of ICT on society:
o employment
o social impact
o online shopping and banking
o policing of the internet
o use of microprocessors in household appliances
• information from the internet:
o reliability of data
o risks of undesirable websites
o security (including phishing, pharming and spam)
• internet developments, e.g. blogs, wikis and social networking
• health and safety issues.

Introduction
The use of ICT has affected our everyday lives in many ways. These range from the effects of
ICT on society in general, such as the changes in types and styles of employment, to the convenience
that it offers the individual, through services such as online shopping and banking. However, in
addition to providing new opportunities, ICT has introduced its own problem, such as issues relating
to copyright, security of both companies and individuals, and health and safety. This chapter
discusses many of these effects.

Software copyright
Software is protected by copyright laws in much the same way as music CDs, film DVDs and
articles from magazines and books are protected. When software is supplied on CD or DVD there are
certain rules that must be obeyed.
• It is not legal to make a software copy and then sell it or give it away to a friend or colleague.
• Software cannot be used on a network or used in multiple computers unless a licence has been acquired
to allow this to happen.
• It is not legal to use coding from the copyright software in your own software and then pass this
software on or sell it as your own without the permission of the copyright holders.

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• Renting out a software package without permission to do so is illegal.

• It is illegal to use the name of copyrighted software on other software without agreement to do so.

Software piracy (illegal copies of software) is a big issue amongst software companies. They
take many steps to stop the illegal copying of software and to stop illegal copies being used once
they have been sold. The following list shows a number of ways in which software is protected, both
by making the installer agree to certain conditions and also by methods which require the original
software to be present for it to work.
• When software is being installed, the user will be asked to key in a unique reference number (a string
of letters and numbers) which was supplied with the original copy of the software.
• The user will be asked to click ‘OK’ or ‘I agree’ to the licence agreement before the software continues
to install.
• The original software packaging often comes with a sticker informing the purchaser that it is illegal to
make copies of the software; the label is often in the form of a hologram, which indicates that this is a
genuine copy.
• Some software will only run if the CD-ROM or DVD-ROM is actually in the drive. This stops illegal
multiple use and network use of the software.
• Some software will only run if a dongle is plugged into one of the USB ports (dongles were discussed
in Section 3.3).

Viruses and hacking

A virus is a program that replicates (copies) itself and is designed to cause harm to a computer
system. It often causes damage by attaching itself to files, leading to one or more of the following
effects:
• causing the computer to crash (i.e. to stop functioning normally, lock up or stop responding to other
software)
• loss of files – sometimes system files are lost which leads to a computer malfunction
• corruption of the data stored on files.

Viruses infect computers through email attachments and through illegal software or
downloading of files from the internet that are infected. The following list shows ways of protecting
systems against viruses.
• Use up-to-date anti-virus software. This detects viruses and then removes or quarantines (i.e. isolates)
any file/attachment which has been infected.
• Do not allow illegal software to be loaded onto a computer and do not use any CD/DVD in the
computer which comes from an unknown source.
• Only download software and files from the internet if they are from a reputable site.
• Use firewalls (discussed below) on networks to protect against viruses.
Note that backing up files on a regular basis does not necessarily guarantee the prevention
of viruses spreading. If a file is already infected and it is then backed up, when the file is re-loaded
into the ‘cleaned’ computer the virus may actually be re-installed!
Hacking is the act of gaining access to a computer system or network without legal
authorisation. Although some hackers do this as a form of intellectual challenge, many do it with

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the sole intention of causing harm (e.g. editing/deleting files, installing harmful software, executing
files in a user’s directory or even committing fraud).
Some large companies actually employ hackers to test out their security systems. Although
the only foolproof way of stopping a networked computer from being hacked into is to disconnect it
from the internet, this is clearly not a practical or desirable solution. Similarly, the only certain way
to prevent a stand-alone computer from being hacked into is to keep it in a locked room when not
in use; again, this is not always practical.

However, there are a number of ways to minimise the risk of hacking:

• use of firewalls: these are used on networked computers. They provide a detailed log of incoming and
outgoing traffic and can control this traffic. They are able to stop malicious traffic getting to a user’s
computer and can also prevent a computer connecting to unwanted sites and from sending personal data to
other computers and sites without authorisation
• use of robust passwords (i.e. difficult passwords to guess) and user IDs to prevent illegal access to a
computer or internet site.

Whilst encryption makes files unreadable if accessed illegally, it does not prevent illegal
access (hacking) in the first place. It therefore would not prevent a hacker carrying out many of the
harmful actions described in this section.

Effects of ICT on society

One moral issue that has emerged from the development of ICT is the social divide created
by computer technology and ICT. This is often referred to as the ‘haves and have-nots’ – those people
who have the necessary ICT skills or money to purchase and use computer equipment will gain
benefit from the new technology; those who are not able to access this new technology are left even
further behind leading to this social divide.
ICT has affected many aspects of society. This section is going to look at just a few of these:
• the impact on employment
• the development of online shopping and banking
• policing of the internet
• the use of microprocessors in household appliances.

Impact on employment
The introduction of ICT has led to unemployment in many areas such as:
• manufacturing, where robots have taken over many tasks (e.g. paint spraying in a car factory)
• computer-controlled warehouses, which are automatic and require no personnel to be present
• labor-intensive work (e.g. in the printing industry, checking football pools, filing, etc.).
However, it is also true that some new jobs have been created with the introduction of ICT.
These include writing software, maintenance of robots and other ICT equipment and work connected
with internet sites (setting sites up, maintaining them, etc.).
The overall work- related effects on people can be summarised as follows:
• the need to be re-trained because of the introduction of new technology, e.g. how to operate or
maintain the new machinery which is being introduced to do the work previously done by a person

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• a cleaner working environment where robots have taken over many of the ‘dirty’ manual tasks
• de-skilling of the workforce, as jobs where high skills were needed in the past are now done by
computer systems (e.g. the use of DTP software in the printing industry, CAD software in producing
engineering drawings, etc.)
• a safer working environment (e.g. fewer people working in noisy factories)
• fewer manual tasks, since tasks such as heavy lifting are now done by robots.

Companies have also gained from the introduction of ICT systems. For example:
• there is no need to employ as many people to do the tasks, thus reducing labour costs
• robots do not take holidays, get sick or take coffee breaks, resulting in higher productivity
• whilst the quality is not necessarily better, there is greater consistency in the products made (e.g.
every car coming off a production line will be identical).

Impact of using ICT for online shopping and banking

The development of online shopping and banking has led to changes in the type of
employment in shops and banks. Fewer staff are now needed in traditional shops and banks, but
new staff are needed to provide the online services (e.g. packing and sending out orders, courier
services, and so on). As the amount of online shopping and banking increases, the impact on society
begins to gain in significance. (The applications are covered in more depth in Chapter 7; this section
will deal primarily with the impact of ICT.)
Online shopping and banking means that more and more people are staying at home to buy
goods and services, manage their bank accounts and book holidays, etc.
This would all be done using a computer connected to the internet and some form of
electronic payment (usually a credit or debit card). The following notes give a comprehensive list of
the benefits and drawbacks of using the internet to carry out many of these tasks.

Advantages
• There is no longer a need to travel into the town centre thus reducing costs (money for fuel, bus fares,
etc.) and time spent shopping. It also helps to reduce town centre congestion and pollution.
• Users now have access to a worldwide market and can thus look for products that are cheaper. This is
less expensive and less time consuming than having to shop around by the more conventional methods.
They also have access to a much wider choice of goods.
• Disabled and elderly people can now get access to shops and banks without the need to leave home.
This helps to keep them part of society since they can now do all the things taken for granted by able-bodied
people.
• Because it is online, shopping and banking can be done at any time on any day of the week – this is
termed 24/7. This is particularly helpful to people who work, since shops/banks would normally be closed
when they finished work.
• People can spend more time doing other things. For example, going shopping to the supermarket
probably took up a lot of time; by doing this online people are now free to do more leisure activities, for
example.

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Disadvantages
• There is the possibility of isolation and lack of socialisation if people stay at home to do all their
shopping and banking.
• There are possible health risks associated with online shopping and banking
• Security issues (e.g.) are a major concern. These include:
o hacking, stealing credit card details, etc.
o viruses and other malware (e.g. phishing, pharming, etc.,)
o fraudulent websites.
• It is necessary to have a computer and to pay for line rental to take part in online shopping and
banking. Also the telephone line will be tied up if the user does not have a broadband connection.
• Unlike high street shopping, it is not possible to see (or try on) the goods first before buying them. The
goods also take several days to arrive.
• There is a risk of lack of exercise if people do all their shopping and banking at the computer.
• High street shops and banks are closing because of the increase in online shopping and banking and
this is leading to ‘ghost towns’ forming.

Effects on companies due to the spread of online shopping and banking

The discussion above focused on the effects of ICT on people. However, companies and other
organisations have also been affected by the growth of ICT and online shopping and banking.
• Companies can save costs since fewer staff are required and they do not need as many shops and
banks in high streets to deal with potential customers.
• Because the internet is global, the potential customer base is increased.
• There will be some new costs, however, because of the need to re-train staff and the need to employ
more staff in despatch departments.
• There are also costs due to the setting up and maintaining of websites to enable online shopping and
banking.
• Since there is very little or no customer-employee interaction, this could lead to a drop in customer
loyalty, which could result in loss of customers. This could also be brought about by the lack of personal
service associated with online shopping and banking.

Should the internet be policed?

This is a question which has raged for many years. Currently, the internet has no controlling
body to ensure that it conforms to certain standards. There are many arguments in favour of control
and as many arguments against.

Arguments in favour of some form of control

• It would prevent illegal material being posted on websites (e.g. racist/prejudiced material,
pornographic matter, material promoting terrorist activities, etc.).
• People find it much easier to discover information which can have serious consequences (e.g. how to
be a hacker, how to make bombs, etc.). Although most of this can be found in books, it is much easier to find
the information using a search engine.

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It would prevent children and other vulnerable groups being subjected to undesirable
websites. Since anyone can produce a website, there is no guarantee of the accuracy of information.
Some form of control could reduce the amount of incorrect information being published.

Arguments against some form of control

• Material published on the websites is already available from other sources.
• It would be very expensive to ‘police’ all websites and users would have to pick up the bill.
• It would be difficult to enforce rules and regulations on a global scale.
• It can be argued that policing would go against freedom of information.
• Many topics and comments posted on websites are already illegal and laws currently exist to deal with
the perpetrators.

Microprocessor-controlled devices in the home

Many common household devices are now fitted with microprocessors to control a large
number of their functions. The devices fall into two categories:
• labour-saving devices, which include automatic washing machines, microwave ovens, ovens, and
dishwashers
• other household devices, such as television sets, hifis, fridge/freezers and central heating systems –
these are not labour saving, but they do have microprocessors to control many of their functions.

Tables 5.1 and 5.2 give the advantages and disadvantages of both types of devices.

Disadvantages
• They lead to more leisure time since the • They can lead to unhealthy diets
devices can be programmed to do the tasks. (e.g. TV dinners).

• People have more time to go out and • People can tend to become lazy, since they
socialise, and can go out
relywhen
on these
they
devices.
want to.

•They are becoming very sophisticated and

can make use of embedded web technology.

Table 5.1 Advantages and disadvantages of microprocessor-controlled labour-saving devices

Advantages Disadvantages
• They save energy, since they can switch off • They lead to a more wasteful society: devices
automatically. are thrown away if the electronics fail, since
they are not economic to repair.
• It is easier to program the devices to do a
task rather than having to set timings, dates, • They can be more complex to operate for
etc. manually. people who are not technology literate.

• Leaving devices on standby (such as

televisions) leads to a waste of resources

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Information from the Internet

The social and general impact of using the internet or devices which rely on microprocessors
have been discussed in earlier sections. This section will now look at the quality of information found
on the internet when using a search engines. There are four main aspects to consider:
• reliability of information
• undesirability of certain websites
• security issues
• other internet issues.

Reliability of information
• Information is more likely to be up to date than in books, since websites can be updated very quickly.
• It is much easier to get information from websites, as search engines quickly link key words together
and find information that matches the criteria.
• There is a vast amount of information on the internet, which is easier to locate than using the indices
in several books.
• However, information on the internet may be incorrect, inaccurate or even biased since it does not go
through any checking process.
• There is a risk of information overload even if search engines are used properly. It is possible to get
thousands of hits, which may make it difficult to find the information relevant to the user’s search.

Undesirability of certain websites

• There is always the risk of finding undesirable websites.
• There is also a risk of doubtful websites which are not genuine and could lead to a number of
problems such as undesirable web links, security risks, etc.
• Security risks are a very large problem and are discussed in the following section.

Security issues
The risk of viruses and hacking has already been discussed in Section 6.3. The use of
passwords, user IDs, encryption, firewalls and other software protection was also discussed in
Section 6.3. However, there are other security risks (not necessarily as a result of viruses or hacking)
associated with connecting to the internet. These security risks are now discussed in some depth.

Phishing
Phishing is a fraudulent operation involving the use of emails. The
creator sends out a legitimate-looking email, hoping to gather personal and
financial information from the recipient of the email. To make it more realistic
(and therefore even more dangerous!) the message will appear to have come
from some legitimate source (such as a famous bank). As soon as an

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unsuspecting user clicks on the link they are sent to a spoof website where they will be asked for
personal information including credit card details, PINs, etc. which could lead to identity theft.
Many ISPs now attempt to filter out phishing emails, but users should always be aware that
a risk still exists and should be suspicious of any emails requesting unsolicited personal details.

Pharming
Pharming is a scam in which malicious code is installed on a
computer hard disk or a server. This code has the ability to misdirect users
to fraudulent websites, usually without their knowledge or consent.
Whereas phishing requires an email to be sent out to every person
who has been targeted, pharming does not require emails to be sent out to
everybody and can therefore target a much larger group of people much
more easily. Also, no conscious action needs to necessarily be made by the
user (such as opening an email), which means the user will probably have no idea at all that have
been targeted. Basically, pharming works like this:
A hacker/pharmer will first infect the user’s computer with a virus, either by sending an email
or by installing software on their computer when they first visit their website. It could also be
installed as part of something the user chooses to install from a website (so the user doesn’t
necessarily have to open an email to become infected). Once infected, the virus would send the user
to a fake website that looks almost identical to the one they really wanted to visit. Consequently,
personal information from the user’s computer can picked up by the pharmer/hacker.
Certain anti-spyware, anti-virus software or anti-pharming software can be used to identify
this code and correct the corruption.

Spam
Spam is electronic junk mail and is a type of advertising from a
company sent out to a target mailing list. It is usually harmless but it can
clog up the networks, slowing them down, or fill up a user’s mail box. It is
therefore more of a nuisance than a security risk. Many ISPs are good at
filtering out spam. In fact, some are so efficient that it is often necessary
to put legitimate email addresses into a contacts list/address book to
ensure that wanted emails are not filtered out by mistake.

Spyware
Spyware is software that gathers user information through their network
connections without them being aware that this is happening. Once spyware is
installed, it monitors all key presses and transmits the information back to the
person who sent out the spyware. This software also has the ability to install
other spyware software, read cookies and even change the default home page
or web browser. Anti-spyware can be used to search out this software and
correct the corruption.

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Other internet issues

Although the following item is not regarded as a security threat, it can be a considerable
nuisance to an internet user and is included here for completeness.

Cookies
Cookies are small files sent to a user’s computer via their web
browser when they visit certain websites. They store information about
the users and this data is accessed each time they visit the website. For
example:
• they remember who the user is and send messages such as ‘Welcome
Daniel’ each time they log onto the website
• they recognise a user’s buying preferences; e.g. if a user buys CDs, pop
ups (adverts) related to their buying habits will appear on the user’s screen each time they visit the website.
Without cookies, the web server would have no way of knowing that the user had visited the website
before.

Internet developments
The internet has changed out of all recognition since it first started, and continues to develop. This
section considers some of the most recent developments in the way the internet is used.
Web 2.0 refers to a second generation of internet development and design. This has led to a
development of new web-based communication, applications and hosted servers. For example, the
following will be considered in more detail in this section:
• blogs
• wikis
• digital media sharing websites
• social networking sites
• folksonomies.

Blogs
Blogs (which is an abbreviation for web logs) are personal internet
journals where the writer (or blogger) will type in their observations on
some topic (e.g. a political view) or even provide links to certain relevant
websites. No training is needed to do this.
Blogs tend to range from minor projects where people just gossip about some topic (such as
the performance of an actor in a recent film) through to important subjects such as politics,
advertising products or raising awareness of a certain key event taking place. However, comments
made are not immune from the law and bloggers can still be prosecuted for making offensive
statements about people!

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Wikis
The word ‘wiki’ comes from a Hawaiian word meaning ‘fast’. Wikis are software allowing
users to easily create and edit web pages using any web browser. A wiki
will support hyperlinks and has very simple syntax (language rules) for
creating pages.
They have often been described as ‘web pages with an edit button’. Anyone can use wikis,
which means that the content should always be treated with some caution. One of the most common
examples of a wiki is the online encyclopedia Wikipedia.

Digital media sharing websites

Digital media sharing websites allow users to upload video clips and other media to an
internet website. The video host, for example, will then store the video on a server and show the
user the different types of code which can be used to enable them to view the video clip.
This development is becoming increasingly popular since most users don’t have unlimited
web space. One of the most common examples of this is YouTube.

Social networking sites

Social networking sites focus on building online communities of users who
share the same interests and activities. They enable young people, in particular,
to share photos of themselves, show people their favourite videos and music, what they like to do in
their spare time, what they like to eat, etc.
Common examples include Facebook and Myspace, where users can join free of
charge and interact with other people. It is possible to add friends and post messages on
a bulletin/message board and update personal profiles to notify friends about
themselves.
These are rapidly becoming the modern way of interacting socially and they allow young
people, in particular, to communicate across the world and share their interests and views with many
people.

Folksonomies
Folksonomies are closely related to tagging and literally mean ‘management of people’.
Tagging is a type of social bookmarking where a user can tag any web page with words that describe
its contents. Anyone can view web pages corresponding to a specific tag. In folksonomies, the visual
representation is a tag cloud – this is a sequence of words of different sizes that represent popular
tags by showing them in a larger font size. One of the most common examples is Flickr.

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Health and safety issues

There are many health and safety problems associated with regular use of computer systems.
Health and safety regulations advise that all computer systems have a minimum of tiltable and anti-
glare screens, adjustable chairs and foot supports, suitable lighting, uncluttered work stations, and
recommend frequent breaks and eye tests.

Although health and safety are closely related, they are very different subjects. Health issues
are related to how to stop people becoming ill or affected by daily contact with computers. Safety is
more concerned with the dangers which could lead to serious injury or even loss of life. They are
discussed in separate sections below to help clarify the main differences.

Health aspects
Table 6.3 highlights a number of health issues, together with possible solutions to either minimise
the risk or eliminate it altogether.

isk Solution

• use fully adjustable chairs to give the correct posture

Back and neck
• use foot rests to reduce posture problems
problems/strain
• use screens that can be tilted to ensure the neck is at the correct angle

• ensure correct posture is maintained (i.e. correct angle of arms to the

keyboard and mouse, for example)
Repetitive strain injury
• make proper use of a wrist rest when using a mouse or a keyboard
(RSI) –
• take regular breaks and do some exercise
damage to fingers and
• use ergonomic keyboards
wrists
• use voice-activated software if the user is prone to problems when using
mouse and keyboard
• ensure that there is no screen flicker, since this can lead to eye problems
• change to LCD screens where flicker is less of a problem than with CRT
Eyestrain (caused by screens
staring at a computer • take regular breaks and try focusing on a point which is some distance away
screen too long or bad • make use of anti-glare screens if lighting in the room is a problem or use
lighting in the room) window blinds to reduce strong sunlight
• have eyes tested regularly – middle-vision glasses should be prescribed if
the user has a persistent problem such as eye strain, dry eyes, headaches, etc.)
• use an anti-glare screen or use window blinds to cut out light reflections
bad lighting can cause squinting and lead to headaches, etc.
Headaches
• take regular breaks and do some exercise
• have eyes tested regularly and use middle-vision glasses if necessary

Ozone irritation (dry skin,

• ensure proper ventilation to remove the ozone gas as quickly as possible
respiratory problems, etc.)
• house laser printers in a designated printer room
– this is caused by laser
• change to other types of printer if necessary (e.g. inkjet printers)
printers in an office area

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Table 6.3 Health risks and proposed solutions

Safety aspects
Table 6.4 gives a number of safety issues, together with possible solutions to eliminate or
minimise the risk.

Safety hazard Ways of eliminating or minimising hazard

● use of a residual circuit breaker (RCB)

● check insulation on wires regularly
Electrocution
● do not allow drinks near computers
● check equipment regularly

● use cable ducts to make the wires safe

● cover wires and/or have them neatly tucked away (under desks, etc.)
Trailing wires (trip hazard)
● try and use wireless connections wherever possible, thus eliminating
cables altogether

● use strong desk and tables to support heavy hardware ● use large
Heavy equipment falling desks and tables so that hardware isn’t too close to the edge where it
can fall off

● have a fully tested CO2/dry fire extinguisher nearby (not water

extinguishers!)
● don’t cover equipment vents, which can cause equipment to overheat
● make sure hardware is fully maintained
Fire risk ● ensure good ventilation in the room, again to stop overheating of
hardware
● do not overload sockets with too many items
● change to low voltage hardware wherever possible (e.g. replace CRT
monitors with LCD monitors)

Table 5.4 Safety hazards and proposed solutions

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Chapter 5

File Management

1. File Management

1.1 Files & Folders

Files are individual documents that a user makes and saves.

Folders are storage places for files.

1.2 Creating Folders

Right click where you want to make the folder (on desktop, in another folder, etc).

Choose New->New Folder

Type a name, then press Enter.

Right click and choose Rename to rename.

1.3 Copying & Moving Files & Folders

Copy – copy files and folders when you want to keep it in the original location, and add a copy
in another location.

Move – move files when you want them in a new location, and you no longer need them in the
old location.
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Moving Files

Open the folder where the original file or folder is located. Open the folder where you
want the file or folder to be. Drag form one window to the other.

1.4 Saving Location

By default, Microsoft Office programs save in My Document. You can save a document
wherever you want by navigating to a new location during the Save process. To save a file in
an existing folder in My Document, double click the folder.
 65

To save a file in location other than My Document, use the Save In drop down menu at
the top of the screen, or the links on the left hand side, and browse to a new location.

1.5 Renaming files and folders

Right click on the file or folders and choose Rename.

Type the new name, then press Enter.

Note: A computer will not allow two files in the same location to have the same name.

1.6 Deleting

When a file is deleted, it goes to the recycle bin. However, it is still in your computer,
taking up space.
 66

1.7 Restoring from the Recycle Bin

Open the Recycle Bin. Right click on the file or folder you want to restore, and choose
Restore. It will reappear in the folder from which it was deleted.

1.8 By pass Recycle Bin

To delete a file without having it go to the Recycle Bin, select the file or folder you wish to
delete. Hold the SHIFT key and the press the Delete key.
 67

Chapter 6

Word Processing

1. Introduction to Word

1.1 Starting Word

Before you begin these steps, be sure to turn on and/or log on to your computer.

On the Windows 10 desktop, click the Start button. The Start menu appears.

On the Start menu, locate Word 2016 and click the icon. The Word 2016 screen ap-
pears. On the left side of the screen, you see the recent documents that have been accessed, and
the right side displays the blank document page and templates.
 68

Microsoft Word’s primary user interface

Before you begin working in Microsoft Word 2016, you need to acquaint yourself with
the primary user interface (UI). When you open a blank document in Microsoft Word 2016.

Document Title Microsoft Account Sign-in

Quick access
Tool bar
Collapse ribbon
lbar
Ribbon

Document Page
Insertion Point

Status Bar Zoom Slider

1.2 Use the ribbon

 Start with the File > New screen open.

Click the Blank document icon to create a new document file. The Ribbon is located at the
top of the Word screen. In your newly opened document, the Home tab is the default tab on
the Ribbon. Note how the Ribbon is divided into groups: Clipboard, Font, Paragraph, Styles,
and Editing.
 69

1.3 Using the insertion point to add text

 The insertion point is the blinking vertical line in your document. It indicates where
you can enter text on the page.
 You can use the insertion point in a variety of ways.
 Blank document: When a new blank document opens, the insertion point will appear in
the top-left corner of the page.
 If you want, you can begin typing from this location.

 Adding spaces: Press the spacebar to add spaces after a word or in between text.
 New paragraph line: Press Enter on your keyboard to move the insertion point to the
next paragraph line.
 Manual placement: Once you begin typing, you can use the mouse to move the inser-
tion point to a specific place in your document. Simply click the location in the text where you
want to place it.
 Arrow keys: You can also use the arrow keys on your keyboard to move the insertion
point. The left and right arrow keys will move between adjacent characters on the same line,
while the up and down arrows will move between paragraph lines. You can also press Ctrl +
Left or Ctrl + Right to quickly move between entire words.
 70

1.4 Selecting text

Before you can move or format text, you'll need to select it. To do this, click and drag
your mouse over the text, then release the mouse. A highlighted box will appear over the se-
lected text.

When you select text or images in Word, a hover toolbar with command shortcuts will
appear. If the toolbar does not appear at first, try hovering the mouse over the selection.

To select multiple lines of text

 Move the mouse pointer to the left of any line so it becomes a right slanted arrow.
 Click the mouse. The line will be selected.
 To select multiple lines, click and drag the mouse up or down.
 To select all of the text in your document, choose the Select command on the Home
tab, then click Select All. Alternatively, you can press Ctrl + A on your keyboard.

 Other shortcuts include double-clicking to select a word and triple-clicking to select an

entire sentence or paragraph.
 71

1.5 To delete text

There are several ways to delete—or remove—text:
 To delete text to the left of the insertion point, press the Backspace.
 To delete text to the right of the insertion point, press the Delete key.
 Select the text you want to remove, then press the Delete key.
 If you select text and start typing, the selected text will automatically be deleted and
replaced with the new text.

1.6 To copy/cut and paste text

 Select the text you want to copy.
 Click the Copy command on the Home tab. Alternatively, you can press Ctrl + C.

 Place the insertion point where you want the text to appear.
 Click the Paste command on the Home Tab. Alternatively, you can press Ctrl + V on
your keyboard. The text will appear.
 72

1.7 To drag and drop text

 Select the text you want to move.
 Click and drag the text to the location where you want it to appear. A small rectangle
will appear below the arrow to indicate that you are moving text.
 Release the mouse, and the text will appear.

1.8 Undo and Redo

 Select the Undo command on the Quick Access Toolbar. Alternatively, you can press
Ctrl + Z on your keyboard. You can continue using this command to undo multiple changes
in a row.

 By contrast, the Redo command allows you to reverse the last undo. You can also access
this command by pressing Ctrl + Y on your keyboard.

1.9 Switching document views

Switching between different document views is easy. Just locate and select the desired
document view command in the bottom-right corner of the Word window.
 Read Mode
 Print Layout
 Web Layout
Zooming in and out
To zoom in or out, click and drag the zoom control slider in the bottom-right corner of
the Word window. You can also select the + or - commands to zoom in or out by smaller
increments. The number next to the slider displays the current zoom percentage, also called the
zoom level.
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1.10 Saving The file

 File tab > Save

 Double click computer or click Browse.
 Type file name in File name box. Click Save.

1.11 Closing The file

 File tab >Close

1.12 Creating the New Document

 File tab > New > Blank document.

1.13 Opening the Old Document

 File tab > Open

 Choose file
 74

Exercise 1

Jasmine Phyu
628, Rhode Avenue
Boise, ID 27632
Telephone: (252) 285-29373
Email ID:[email protected]

25 July 2017

Moe Moe San

Human Resources Manager
YOUTH International College
205-211, First Floor, Building 18
MICT Park, Hlaing, 11181

Dear San

Having seen advertisement published in myjob.net. I would like to apply as Office Assistant
in your company. I want to expand my skills and experience. I am interested working in
administrative field.

I graduated bachelor degree in business administration, Yangon Institute of Economics. I

would like to have career for improving my experience. I have worked as administrative as-
sistant in YOUTH Computer Center. I managed student’s data in a school. I have experienced
in managing data and maintaining mailing list. I assisted the director to manage activities and
schedules in the school.

I have enclosed my resume for your review and consideration. You can contact me at (252)
298-23918. Thank you for your attention.

Sincerely
Jasmine Phyu
 75

2. Formatting Text
2.1 Character Font and Size

 Select desire words. Press Ctrl + D.

 Appear Font Dialog Box.
 Change the font and size.
 You can also change the case (Capital Letter, Small Letter by Shift + F3)

2.2 Character Formatting

 Select desire words and change Bold, Italic, Underline, Superscript, Subscript etc.

2.3 Highlighting

 Select desire words and change font color and background color.

2.4 Using Text Effects

 Select the Text.

 Change Font: Cambria, Size: 28 pt.
 Choose Home tab > Font group > Text Effect > Outline > Dark Blue.
 Reflection > Tight Reflection, touching.
 76

2.5 Using the Format Painter

 Click Format Painter , and then select the text you

want to copy the formatting.
 Double-click Format Painter if you want to copy the for-
matting in more than one place.

2.6 Clear Formatting

Select desire words and Click Clear Formatting.

2.7 Alignment

Select desire words or paragraph and Click align (Left,

Center, Right and Justify).

2.8 Line Spacing

Select paragraph and Click line and paragraph setting.

2.9 Bullet and Numbering

Select facts and Click Bullet and Numbering. And then choose bullet style.
 77

2.10 Using Styles

Select the desire words or paragraph and click one desire styles. You can also modify
the styles or creating new styles. The advantage of using styles is consistency in all words and
paragraphs.

2.11 Borders and Shading

Select the desire lines or paragraph and click borders. You can also fill the shading
within the borders.
 78

Exercise 2

Consumer Acceptance and Use of Information Technology

Introduction1

Understanding individual acceptance and use of information technology is one of the

most mature streams of information systems research (see Benbasat and Barki 2007; Venkatesh
et al. 2007). There have been several theoretical models, primarily developed from theories in
psychology and sociology (for a review, see Venkatesh et al. 2003), employed to explain
technology acceptance and use. A review and synthesis of eight theories/models of technology
use resulted in the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology.

Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology

UTAUT has distilled the critical factors and contingencies related to the prediction of
behavioral intention to use a technology and technology use primarily in organizational con-
texts.
 Performance Expectancy
 Effort Expectancy
 Social Influence
 Facilitating Conditions
In longitudinal field studies of employee technology acceptance, UTAUT explained
about 70 percent of the variance in behavioral intention to use a technology and about 50 per-
cent of the variance in technology use.
 79

Exercise 3

Julianna Lanely
40 First Avenue, Apartment 214
New London, CT 54923

June 24, 2013

Ms. Sandi Moe Oo Phyu

Vice President of Sales
YOUTH International College
205-211, First Floor, Building 16
MICT Park, Hlaing, 11181

Dear Phyu
I attended an event planning career panel last year at Northeastern College where I
heard you speak about YIC. Something you mentioned has stuck with me – to be successful,
you must have passion for what you do. I believe I have the passion it takes to pursue a career
in event planning. I am writing to express interest in an event planning position at YIC. I
graduated from Northeastern College in May with a degree in marketing communications. As
a recent graduate I believe I can bring new ideas, personal energy, and a fresh perspective to
your company. Some highlights of my background include the following:

 Event Planning Experience

 Academic Excellence
 Creative Mindset

I would appreciate opportunity to show you some samples of my work and discuss any
open positions. I will contact you next week so we can set up a meeting time that is convenient
for you. You can reach me at 570-444-3596 or [email protected]. I look forward to
discussing your opportunities.
Sincerely,
Julianna Lanely
 80

3. Page Layout and Printing

3.1 Check Spelling, Grammar and clarity
 To check each item that Word finds, right-click the underlined text and learn more about
the issue. Accept the change that Word suggests, or ignore it.
 To check the whole document, moving to each issue Word finds, press F7.

3.2 Thesaurus
 Select the desire words and press Shift + F7 for Thesaurus.

3.3 Find and Replace

 Click Home >Replace.
 Enter the word or phrase you want to replace in Find what and your new text in Re-
place with
 Choose Replace All to change all occurrences of the word or phrase. Or, select Find
Next until you find the one you want to update, and then choose Replace.
 81

3.4 Indent and Tab

 Place the cursor where you want to Indent and click Increase/Decrease Indent.
 If you want to make a tab stops, click on the ruler and double click tab stops sign.

3.5 Layout pages

 Select Layout > Margins.
 Select the margin configuration you want.
 If you don't see the configuration you want, select Custom Margins to define your own
margins.
 You can also change the page orientation and size.

3.6 Paragraph Indent and Spacing

 Select desire paragraph and Click Layout and
make indent.
 Select desire paragraph and Click Layout and make spacing.
 82

3.7 Inserting Header and Footer

 Click Insert and choose Header.
 Click Insert and choose Footer.
 You can add page number, date and
time, picture and make setting.
 You can edit your header and footer by
choosing edit header or footer.
 You can remove your header and
footer by choosing remove header and footer.

3.7 Inserting Page Number

 Click Insert and choose Page Number.
 If you want to remove page numbers, choose Re-
move Page Numbers.

3.7 Inserting Breaks

 Place the insertion point where you want to insert a break and choose Layout and then
choose Breaks and Page Break.
 You can see the break by clicking hide/show button.

3.8 Inserting Columns

 Place the insertion point where you want to insert columns.
 Choose Layout and Columns. And then choose one or two etc.
 If you want to remove columns, do it again and choose one.

3.9 Printing
 Select File > Print.
 Choose Printer. Choose Print Range.
 Choose Orientation and Size.
 Choose copy and then Print.
 83

Exercise 4
1. Left and Right indent 1 inches for second paragraph.
2. All line spacing 1.15.
3. Format as shown below.
4. All margin 0.75 and choose A4 with Portrait. And then Print it.

While I Was Sleeping

No one ever gave me directions like this on a golf course before: "Aim at either Mi-
crosoft or IBM." I was standing on the first tee at the KGA Golf Club in downtown Bangalore,
in southern India, when my playing partner pointed at two shiny glass-and-steel buildings off
in the distance, just behind the first green.

The Goldman Sachs building wasn't done yet; otherwise

he could have pointed that out as well and made it a threesome.
HP and Texas Instruments had their offices on the back nine,
along the tenth hole. That wasn't all.

The tee markers were from Epson, the printer company, and one of our caddies was
wearing a hat from 3M. Outside, some of the traffic signs were also sponsored by Texas In-
struments, and the Pizza Hut billboard on the way over showed a steaming pizza, under the
headline "Gigabites of Taste!"

I had come to Bangalore, India's Sil- to do. India and the magical Spice Islands
icon Valley, on my own Columbus-like of the East were famed at the time for their
journey of exploration. Columbus sailed gold, pearls, gems, and silk—a source of
with the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Ma- untold riches.
ria in an effort to discover a shorter, more Finding this shortcut by sea to India,
direct route to India by heading west, across at a time when the Muslim powers of the
the Atlantic, on what he presumed to be an day had blocked the overland routes from
open sea route to the East Indies —rather Europe, was a way for both Columbus and
than going south and east around Africa, as the Spanish monarchy to become wealthy
Portuguese explorers of his day were trying and powerful.
 84

4. Inserting Objects
4.1 Insert WordArt
 Click Insert > WordArt, and pick the WordArt style you want.
 The placeholder text "Your text here" appears, with the text highlighted.
 Type “HAPPY BIRTHDAY’.
 To create a curved effect, on the Drawing Tools Format tab, click Text Effects
>Transform and pick the one you want.

4.2 Insert picture

 Select Insert > Pictures for a picture on your PC.
 Select Insert > Online Pictures for a picture that's on the web.

4.3 Resize or move pictures

 To resize a picture, select the picture and drag a corner handle.
 To wrap text around a picture, select the picture, and then select a wrapping option.
 85

4.4 Insert Hyperlink

 Copy the address from your browser's address bar.
 Go to your document in Word, and select the text that you want to be the link.
 Press Ctrl + K
 Paste the address and press Enter.
 Later, if you want to change the link, right-click it and choose Edit Hyperlink.

4.5 Remove Hyperlink

 Removing a hyperlink keeps the text; it just removes the link.
 Right-click the link, and choose Remove Hyperlink.
 86

4.6 Insert a SmartArt

Click Insert > SmartArt and then choose a SmartArt Graphic.

4.7 Insert a Table

 Click Insert > Table and move the cursor over the grid until you highlight the number
of columns and rows you want.
 For a larger table, or to customize a table, select Insert > Table > Insert Table.

4.8 Insert a watermark

 On the Design tab, select Watermark > Custom Watermark.
 Choose Picture Watermark and select a picture, or choose Text watermark and type
your watermark text in the Text box.
 Click OK.
 87

4.9 Remove a watermark

 Select Design > Watermark.
 Scroll to the bottom of the Watermark pane and select Remove Watermark.

4.10 Drop Cap

 Place the insertion point in the desire paragraph.
 Click on Insert and Choose Drop Cap and then Dropped.
 88

Exercise 5

CEO

General
Secretary

Academic Operation Student

Dept. Dept. Affairs

Exercise 6

As noted earlier, we extend Bhattacherjee and Premkumar’s (2004) model by incorporating

effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions from UTAUT, thus resulting in
a more comprehensive set of beliefs in order to capture other im-
portant factors. We further extend their model by incorporating trust
as a contextual belief to reflect users’ increased concerns about pri-
vacy and security when using emerging technologies in contexts that
require online transmission of personal and sensitive information.
 89

Curriculum Vitae
Personal Details

Name: Ye Thu Aung

Address: 4F/3, Snow Park Housing, Near Junction City, Latha
Contact: 096723190909
Date of Birth: 15 June 1980
Nationality: Myanmar
Race: Burmese
Religion: Buddhist
Marital Status: Single

Education Details

2000 – 2005 Bachelor of Engineering (Civil)

2007 – 2009 Master of Business Administration (YUE)

Qualifications

BTEC HND Diploma in Business Management

English YES English 4 Skills Certificate

Working Experience

2007-2010 YOUTH Computer Training Center

2010-2019 YOUTH International College

Others

Hobbies Reading Books, Listening Music

Signature -------------------------------
 90

Chapter 7

Presentation

1. Introduction to PowerPoint

PowerPoint is a presentation program developed by Microsoft. It is included in the

standard Office suite along with Microsoft Word and Excel. The software allows users to create
anything from basic slide shows to complex presentations.
PowerPoint is often used to create business presentations, but can also be used for ed-
ucational or informal purposes. The presentations are comprised of slides, which may contain
text, images, and other media, such as audio clips and movies. Sound effects and animated
transitions can also be included to add extra appeal to the presentation.
When presenting a PowerPoint presentation, the presenter may choose to have the slides
change at preset intervals or may decide to control the flow manually. This can be done using
the mouse, keyboard, or a remote control. The flow of the presentation can be further custom-
ized by having slides load completely or one bullet at a time.
PowerPoint presentations can be created and viewed using Microsoft PowerPoint. Pow-
erPoint presentations are often displayed using a projector. Therefore, if you are preparing a
PowerPoint presentation for a room full of people, just make sure you have the correct video
adapter.

1.1 Starting Power Point

Open Start button > All Program > Microsoft Office 2013 > Power Point 2013 (Run
> powerpnt)
Click Blank Presentation.

Fig 1.1
 91

Fig 1.2

About Button, Arrow and Ribbon Display Options

Tabs Ribbon Display

Options

Commands

Slide

Fig 1.3 Zoom In or Out

 92

Typing the Text

Fig 1.4

1.2 Saving the File

File tab > Save
Double click computer or click Browse
Type file name in File name box
Click Save

Fig 1.5
 93

1.3 Creating the New Presentation

File tab > New > Blank Presentation

Fig 1.6

1.4 Opening the Old Presentation

File tab > Open > Recent Presentation
Choose

Fig 1.7
 94

1.5 Adding the New Slide

Home tab > Slides group > New Slide

Fig 1.8

1.6 Deleting the Slides

Home tab > Clipboard group > Cut

Fig 1.9
 95

1.7 Copy and Paste

Home tab > Clipboard group > Copy
Home tab > Clipboard group > Paste

Fig 1.10

1.8 Slide Layout

Home tab > Slides group > Layout > Title and Content

Fig 1.11
 96

2. Formatting
2.1 Text Alignment

Home tab > Paragraph group > Align Left (Ctrl+L)

Fig 2.1
2.2 Line Spacing
Home tab > Paragraph group > Line and Paragraph Spacing > 1.5

Fig 2.2
 97

2.3 Fonts and Font Size

Home tab > Font group > Font > Time New Roman
Home tab > Font group > Font Size > 38

Fig 2.3
2.4 Find and Replacing Text
Home tab > Editing group > Replace > Find what > CPU > Find Next

Replace with > Central Processing Unit > Replace All

Fig 2.4
 98

2.5 Bullets and Numbering

Home tab > Paragraph group > Bullets > Arrow Bullets
Home tab > Paragraph group > Numbering > Number Alignment: Left

Fig 2.5

Fig 2.6
 99

Exercises
1.

2.
 100

3.

4.
 101

5.

6.
 102

7.

8.
 103

3. Inserting
3.1 Insert Picture
Insert tab > Image group > Pictures > Choose

Fig 3.1

3.2 Insert Table

Insert tab > Tables group > Table > Insert Table

Number of columns: 5, Number of rows: 7

Fig 3.2
 104

3.3 Insert Photo Album

Insert tab > Images group > Photo Album > New Photo Album

Insert picture from: File/Disk

Choose

Fig 3.3

3.4 Insert SmartArt

Insert tab > Illustrations group > SmartArt > Cycle > Basic Cycle

SmartArt Styles group > Polished

Fig 3.4
 105

3.5 Insert Chart

Insert tab > Illustrations group > Chart > Pie > Ok

Fig 3.5

3.6 Insert Footer

Insert tab > Text group > Header & Footer >Footer: Youth International College

Fig 3.6
 106

Insert Date & Time

Insert tab > Text group > Date & Time > Mark Date and Time >

Check update automatically > Apply to All

Fig 3.7

Insert Slide Number

Insert tab > Text group > Slide Number > Mark Slide Number > Apply to all

Fig 3.8
 107

3.7 Insert WordArt

Insert tab > Text group > WordArt
Pattern Fill – White, Text 2, Dark Upward Diagonal, Shadow

WordArt Styles group > Text Fill - Light Blue, Text Outline - Red, Text
Effects – 3-D Rotation > Isometric right up

Fig 3.9

3.8 Insert Video

Insert tab > Media group > Video > Video on My PC > Choose (video file)

Fig 3.10
 108

Insert Audio
Insert tab > Media group > Audio > Audio on My PC > Choose (audio file)

Fig 3.11

Exercises

Make the power point for the following designs.

9.
 109

10.

11.

12.
 110

13.

14.

15.
 111

16.

17.

18.
 112

19.

20.

21.
 113

22.

23.

24.
 114

25.
 115

4. Effect of Slides
4.1 Slide Design
Design tab > Theme group > Ion

Fig 4.1

4.2 Design Format Background

Design tab > Customize group > Format Background
Fill- Gradient fill, Preset gradient- Radial gradient- Accent 4, Position – 63

Fig 4.2
 116

4.3 Slide Transitions

Transitions tab > Transition to this slide group > Shape
Effect options > Plus

Fig 4.3

4.4 Slide Timing

Transitions tab > Timing group > On Mouse Click (or) After: 00:05:00
Fig 4.4
 117

4.5 Animations
Animations tab > Animation group > Zoom
Effect options > Object Center

Fig 4.5

Advanced Animations
Animation tab > Advanced Animation group > Animation Pane

Appear the Animation Pane dialog box

1 > Start After Previous > Timing > Delay: 2 seconds

Fig 4.6
 118

4.6 Animation Timing

Animations tab > Timing group > Duration: 01.50, Delay: 02.00

Fig 4.7

4.7 Slide Show

Slide Show tab > Start Slide Show group > From Beginning (F5) or From Current
Slide (Shift+F5)

Fig 4.8

Exercise 26
Presentation
 119

Chapter 8

Spreadsheets

1. Introduction to Excel
1.1 Stating excel

Open Start button > All Program > Microsoft Office 2013 > Excel 2013
The Microsoft Excel window appears and your screen looks similar to the one shown
here.

The Ribbon
In Microsoft Excel 2007, you use the Ribbon to issue commands. The Ribbon is located
near the top of the Excel window, below the Quick Access toolbar.
 120

Worksheets

Microsoft Excel consists of worksheets. Each worksheet contains columns and rows.
The columns are lettered A to Z and then continuing with AA, AB, AC and so on; the rows are
numbered 1 to 1,048,576.
The combination of a column coordinate and a row coordinate make up a cell address.
For example, the cell located in the upper-left corner of the worksheet is cell A1, meaning
column A, row 1. Cell E10 is located under column E on row 10. You enter your data into the
cells on the worksheet.

The Formula Bar

If the Formula bar is turned on, the cell address of the cell you are in displays in the
Name box which is located on the left side of the Formula bar. Cell entries display on the right
side of the Formula bar.

1.2 Select Cells

If you wish to perform a function on a group of cells, you must first select those cells
by highlighting them. The exercises that follow teach you how to select.
 121

1.3 Enter Data

In this section, you will learn how to enter data into your worksheet. First, place the
cursor in the cell in which you want to start entering data. Type some data, and then press Enter.
If you need to delete, press the Backspace key to delete one character at a time.

1.4 Edit a Cell – F2

After you enter data into a cell, you can edit the data by pressing F2 while you are in
the cell you wish to edit.
 122

1.5 Wrap Text

When you type text that is too long to fit in the cell, the text overlaps the next cell. If
you do not want it to overlap the next cell, you can wrap the text.

1.6 Delete a Cell Entry

To delete an entry in a cell or a group of cells, you place the cursor in the cell or select
the group of cells and press Delete.

1.7 Save a File

This is the end of Section 1. To save your file:
1. Click the Office button. A menu appears.
2. Click Save. The Save As dialog box appears.
3. Go to the directory in which you want to save your file.
4. Type Section1 in the File Name field.
5. Click Save. Excel saves your file.
 123

2. Entering Excel Formulas and Formatting data

2.1 Perform Mathematical Calculations
In Microsoft Excel, you can enter numbers and mathematical formulas into cells.
Whether you enter a number or a formula, you can reference the cell when you perform math-
ematical calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division. When entering
a mathematical formula, precede the formula with an equal (=) sign. Use the following to indi-
cate the type of calculation you wish to perform:
+ Addition
– Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
^ Exponential

Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division of Numbers

1. Type: Add, Subtract, Multiply, and Divide in cells A1, B1, C1, and D1 respectively
2. Type: 12, 25, 11 and 75 in cells A2, B2, C2 and D2 respectively
3. Type: 8, 13, 6 and 5 in cells A3, B3, C3 and D3 respectively
4. Type: = A2 + A3 in cell A5 and press Enter
5. Type: = B2 + B3 in cell A5 and press Enter
6. Type: = C2 + C3 in cell A5 and press Enter
7. Type: = D2 + D3 in cell A5 and press Enter
 124

When creating formulas, you can reference cells and include numbers. All of the fol-
lowing formulas are valid:
(a) =A2/B2; (b) =A2+12-B3; (c) =A2*B2+12; (d) =24+53/B2

Perform Advanced Mathematical Calculations

When you perform mathematical calculations in Excel, be careful of precedence. Cal-
culations are performed from left to right, with multiplication and division performed before
addition and subtraction.

Advanced Calculations
1. Move to cell A7.
2. Type =3+3+12/2*4.
3. Press Enter.
Note: Microsoft Excel divides 12 by 2, multiplies the answer by 4, adds 3, and then adds an-
other 3. The answer, 30, displays in cell A7. To change the order of calculation, use parenthe-
ses. Microsoft Excel calculates the information in parentheses first.
1. Double-click in cell A7.
2. Edit the cell to read = (3+3+12)/2*4.
3. Press Enter.
Note: Microsoft Excel adds 3 plus 3 plus 12, divides the answer by 2, and then multiplies the
result by 4. The answer, 36, displays in cell A7.

2.2 AutoSum

You can use the AutoSum button on the Home tab to automatically add a col-
umn or row of numbers. When you press the AutoSum button, Excel selects the numbers it
thinks you want to add. If you then click the check mark on the Formula bar or press the Enter
key, Excel adds the numbers. If Excel's guess as to which numbers you want to add is wrong,
you can select the cells you want.
AutoSum
The following illustrates AutoSum:
 125

1. Go to cell F1.
2. Type 3.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
4. Type 3.
5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type 3.
7. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell to cell F4.
8. Choose the Home tab.
9. Click the AutoSum button in the Editing group. Excel selects cells F1 through F3 and
enters a formula in cell F4.

10. Press Enter. Excel adds cells F1 through F3 and displays the result in cell F4.
 126

Note that you can click on the arrow next to AutoSum to access other automatic calculations
like average, minimum and maximum values, count numbers, etc.

2.3 Align Cell Entries

When you type text into a cell, by default your entry aligns with the left side of the cell.
When you type numbers into a cell, by default your entry aligns with the right side of the cell.
You can change the cell alignment. You can center, left-align, or right-align any cell entry.
Look at cells A1 to D1. Note that they are aligned with the left side of the cell.

Note that left and right alignment can be carried out in a similar manner.

2.4 Copy, Cut and Paste

You can copy or cut data from one area of a worksheet to another.
1. Select cells D9 to D12
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Cut button.
 127

4. Move to cell G1.

5. Click the Paste button. Excel moves the contents of cells D9 to D12 to
6. cells G1 to G4

.
2.5 Insert and Delete Columns and Rows
You can insert and delete columns and rows. When you delete a column, you delete
everything in the column from the top of the worksheet to the bottom of the worksheet. When
you delete a row, you delete the entire row from left to right. Inserting a column or row inserts
a completely new column or row.
 128

2.6 Change A Column's Width

You can increase column widths. Increasing the column width enables you to see the
long text.
Change Column Width

1. Make sure you are in any cell under column A.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to Format in the Cells group.
4. Click Column Width. The Column Width dialog box appears.
5. Type 55 in the Column Width field.
6. Click OK. Column A is set to a width of 55. You should now be able to see all of the
text.

Change a Column Width by Dragging

You can also change the column width with the cursor.
1. Place the mouse pointer on the line between the B and C column headings. The mouse
pointer should look like the one displayed here, with two arrows.
2. Move your mouse to the right while holding down the left mouse button. The width
indicator appears on the screen.
3. Release the left mouse button when the width indicator shows approximately 20. Excel
increases the column width to 20.

Change a Column Width by AutoFit Column Width

1. Select the column or column you want to change the column width.
 129

2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the down arrow next to Format in the Cells group.
4. Click on AutoFit Column Width. You should now be able to see all of the text.

2.7 Format Numbers

You can format the numbers you enter into Microsoft Excel. For example, you can add
commas to separate thousands, specify the number of decimal places, place a dollar sign in
front of a number, or display a number as a percent.

1. Move to cell B8.

2. Type 1234567.
3. Click the check mark [ √ ] on the Formula bar.

4. Choose the Home tab.

5. Click the down arrow next to the Number Format box. A menu appears.
6. Click Number. Excel adds two decimal places to the number you typed.
7. Click the Comma Style button. Excel separates thousands with a comma.
8. Click the Accounting Number Format button, Excel adds a dollar sign to your number.
9. Click twice on the Increase Decimal button to change the number format to four deci-
mal places.
10. 10.Click the Decrease Decimal button, if you wish to decrease the number of decimal
places.
 130

3. Creating Excel Functions, Filling Cells and Printing

By using functions, you can quickly and easily make many useful calculations, such as
finding an average, the highest number, the lowest number, and a count of the number of items
in a list. Microsoft Excel has many functions that you can use.

3.1 Using reference operators

To use functions, you need to understand reference operators. Reference operators refer
to a cell or a group of cells. There are two types of reference operators: range and union. A
range reference refers to all the cells between and including the reference. A range reference
consists of two cell addresses separated by a colon. The reference A1:A3 includes cells A1,
A2, and A3. The reference A1:C3 includes cells A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3, C1, C2, and C3.
A union reference includes two or more references. A union reference consists of two
or more numbers, range references, or cell addresses separated by a comma. The reference
A7,B8:B10,C9,10 refers to cells A7, B8 to B10, C9 and the number 10.

3.2 Understanding Functions

Functions are prewritten formulas. Functions differ from regular formulas in that you
supply the value but not the operators, such as +, -, *, or /. For example, you can use the SUM
function to add. When using a function, remember the following:
1. Use an equal sign to begin a formula.
2. Specify the function name.
3. Enclose arguments within parentheses. Arguments are values on which you want to
perform the calculation. For example, arguments specify the numbers or cells you want
to add.
4. Use a comma to separate arguments.
Here is an example of a function:
=SUM(2,13,A1,B2:C7)
In this function, known as the SUM function:
1. The equal sign begins the function.
2. SUM is the name of the function.
3. 2, 13, A1, and B2:C7 are the arguments. Parentheses enclose the arguments.
4. Commas separate the arguments.
 131

After you type the first letter of a function name, the AutoComplete list appears. You
can double-click on an item in the AutoComplete list to complete your entry quickly. Excel
will complete the function name and enter the first parenthesis.
Functions
The SUM function adds argument values.

1. Open Microsoft Excel.

2. Type 12 in cell B1.
3. Press Enter.
4. Type 27 in cell B2.
5. Press Enter.
6. Type 24 in cell B3.
7. Press Enter.
8. Type =SUM(B1:B3) in cell A4.
9. Press Enter. The sum of cells B1 to B3, which is 63, appears.

Alternate Method: Enter a Function with the Ribbon

1. Type 150 in cell C1.

2. Press Enter.
3. Type 85 in cell C2.
 132

4. Press Enter.
5. Type 65 in cell C3, and Press Enter
6. Choose the Formulas tab.
7. Click the Insert Function button. The Insert Function dialog box appears.
8. Choose Math & Trig in the Or Select A Category box.
9. Click Sum in the Select A Function box.
10. Click OK.
11. The Function Arguments dialog box appears with C1:C3 displayed in the Number1
field.

12. Type C1:C3 in the Number1 field, if it does not automatically appear.
13. Click OK. The sum of cells C1 to C3, which is 300, appears.

3.4 Calculate an Average

You can use the AVERAGE function to calculate the average of a series of numbers.

1. Move to cell A6.

2. Type Average. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B6.
3. Type =AVERAGE(B1:B3).
4. Press Enter. The average of cells B1 to B3, which is 21, appears.
 133

3.5 Find the Lowest Number

You can use the MIN function to find the lowest number in a series of numbers.

1. Move to cell A7.

2. Type Min. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B7.
3. Type =MIN(B1:B3).
4. Press Enter. The lowest number in the series, which is 12, appears.

3.6 Find the Highest Number

You can use the MAX function to find the highest number in a series of numbers.

1. Move to cell A8.

2. Type Max. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B8.
3. Type =MAX(B1:B3).
4. Press Enter. The highest number in the series, which is 27, appears.
 134

3.7 Count the Numbers in a Series of Numbers

You can use the count function to count the number of numbers in a series.

1. Move to cell A9.

2. Type Count. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B9.
3. Type =COUNT(B1:B3).
4. Press Enter. The number of items in the series, which is 3, appears.

3.8 Fill Cells Automatically

You can use Microsoft Excel to fill cells automatically with a series. For example, you
can have Excel automatically fill your worksheet with days of the week, months of the year,
years, or other types of series.
(a) Fill Cells Automatically
The following demonstrates filling the days of the week:
 135

1. Click the Sheet2 tab. Excel moves to Sheet2.

2. Move to cell A1.
3. Type Sun.
4. Move to cell B1.
5. Type Sunday.
6. Select cells A1 to B1.
7. Choose the Home tab.
8. Click the Bold button . Excel bolds cells A1 to B1.
9. Find the small black square in the lower-right corner of the selected area. The small
black square is called the fill handle.
10. 10.Grab the fill handle and drag with your mouse to fill cells A1 to B14. Note how the
days of the week fill the cells in a series. Also, note that the Auto Fill Options button
appears.

(b) Fill Times

The following demonstrates filling time:
1. Type 1:00 into cell C1.
2. Grab the fill handle and drag with your mouse to highlight cells C1 to C14. Note that
each cell fills, using military time.
3. Press Esc and then click anywhere on the worksheet to remove the highlighting.
To change the format of the time:
1. Select cells C1 to C14.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the number format box. A menu appears.
 136

4. Click Time. Excel changes the format of the time.

(c) Fill Numbers

You can also fill numbers.
1. Type a 1 in cell D1.
2. Type a 2 in cell D2.
3. Select cells D1:D2
4. Grab the fill handle and drag with your mouse to highlight cells D1 to D14.
5. The cells fill as a series, starting with 1, 2, 3.
Here is another interesting fill feature.
1. Go to cell E1.
2. Type Section 1.
3. Grab the fill handle and drag with your mouse to highlight cells E1 to E14. The cells
fill in as a series: Section 1, Section 2, Section 3, and so on.

3.10 Set Print Options

There are many print options. You set print options on the Page Layout tab. Among
other things, you can set your margins, set your page orientation, and select your paper size.
Margins define the amount of white space that appears on the top, bottom, left, and
right edges of your document. The Margin option on the Page Layout tab provides several
standard margin sizes from which you can choose.
Paper comes in a variety of sizes. Most business correspondence uses 8 ½ by 11 paper,
which is the default page size in Excel. If you are not using 8 ½ by 11 paper, you can use the
Size option on the Page Layout tab to change the Size setting.
Set the Page Layout (Margins)
 137

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.

2. Click Margins in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click Wide. Excel sets your margins to the Wide settings.
Set the Page Orientation

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.

2. Click Orientation in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click Landscape. Excel sets your page orientation to landscape.
Set the Paper Size

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.

2. Click Size in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click the paper size you are using. Excel sets your page size.
Print
The simplest way to print is to click the Office button, highlight Print on the menu that
appears, and then click Quick Print in the Preview and Print the Document pane. Dotted lines
appear on your screen, and your document prints. The dotted lines indicate the right, left, top,
and bottom edges of your printed pages. To print from Microsoft Excel, you can proceed as
follows:
 138

1. Click on Microsoft Office Button

2. Highlight or point the mouse on Print.
3. Click on Print.
4. In the Name box, under Printer option, choose an appropriate printer.
5. Under the Print Range option, choose appropriate range of pages to be printed.
6. Under Copies option, choose appropriate number of copies of each page to be printed.
7. Click on OK when ready.

Print Preview

1. Click the Office button. A menu appears.

2. Highlight Print. The Preview and Print The Document pane appears.
3. Click Print Preview. The Print Preview window appears, with your document in the
center.
 139

Print

1. Click on Microsoft Office Button

2. Highlight or point the mouse on Print.
3. Click on Print. The Print dialog box appears

4. In the Name box, under Printer option, choose an appropriate printer.

5. Under the Print Range option, choose appropriate range of pages to be printed.
6. Under Copies option, choose appropriate number of copies of each page to be printed.
7. Click on OK when ready.
This is the end of Section 3. You can save and close your file.
 140

4. Creating Charts

In Microsoft Excel, you can represent numbers in a chart. On the Insert tab, you can
choose from a variety of chart types, including column, line, pie, bar, area, and scatter. The
basic procedure for creating a chart is the same no matter what type of chart you choose. As
you change your data, your chart will automatically update.
You select a chart type by choosing an option from the Insert tab's Chart group. After
you choose a chart type, such as column, line, or bar, you choose a chart subtype. For example,
after you choose Column Chart, you can choose to have your chart represented as a two-di-
mensional chart, a three-dimensional chart, a cylinder chart, a cone chart, or a pyramid chart.
There are further sub-types within each of these categories. As you roll your mouse pointer
over each option, Excel supplies a brief description of each chart sub-type.

4.1 Create a Chart

To create the column chart shown above, start by creating the worksheet below exactly
as shown.

After you have created the worksheet, you are ready to create your chart.
 141

Create a Column Chart

1. Select cells A3 to D6. You must select all the cells containing the data you want in your
chart. You should also include the data labels.
2. Choose the Insert tab.
3. Click the Column button in the Charts group. A list of column chart sub-types types
appears.
4. Click the Clustered Column chart sub-type. Excel creates a Clustered Column chart and
the Chart Tools context tabs appear.

4.2 Apply a Chart Layout

Context tabs are tabs that only appear when you need them. Called Chart Tools, there
are three chart context tabs: Design, Layout, and Format. The tabs become available when
you create a new chart or when you click on a chart. You can use these tabs to customize your
chart.
Apply a Chart Layout
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1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.

2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click the Quick Layout button in the Chart Layout group. A list of chart layouts ap-
pears.
4. Click Layout 5. Excel applies the layout to your chart.

4.3 Change the Style of a Chart

A style is a set of formatting options. You can use a style to change the color and format
of your chart. Excel 2007 has several predefined styles that you can use. They are numbered
from left to right, starting with 1, which is located in the upperleft corner.
Change the Style of a Chart

1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.

2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click the More button in the Chart Styles group. The chart styles appear.
4. Click Style 42. Excel applies the style to your chart.

4.4 Change the Size and Position of a Chart

When you click a chart, handles appear on the right and left sides, the top and bottom,
and the corners of the chart. You can drag the handles on the top and bottom of the chart to
increase or decrease the height of the chart. You can drag the handles on the left and right sides
to increase or decrease the width of the chart. You can drag the handles on the corners to in-
crease or decrease the size of the chart proportionally. You can change the position of a chart
by clicking on an unused area of the chart and dragging.
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Change the Size and Position of a Chart

1. Use the handles to adjust the size of your chart.
2. Click an unused portion of the chart and drag to position the chart beside the data.

4.5 Move a Chart to a Chart Sheet

By default, when you create a chart, Excel embeds the chart in the active worksheet.
However, you can move a chart to another worksheet or to a chart sheet. A chart sheet is a sheet
dedicated to a particular chart. By default, Excel names each chart sheet sequentially, starting
with Chart1. You can change the name.
Move a Chart to a Chart Sheet

1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.

2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click the Move Chart button in the Location group. The Move Chart dialog box ap-
pears.

4. Click the New Sheet radio button.

5. Type Toy Sales to name the chart sheet. Excel creates a chart sheet named Toy Sales
and places your chart on it.
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4.6 Change the Chart Type

Any change you can make to a chart that is embedded in a worksheet, you can also
make to a chart sheet. For example, you can change the chart type from a column chart to a bar
chart.
Change the Chart Type

1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.

2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click Change Chart Type in the Type group. The Chart Type dialog box appears.
4. Click Bar.
5. Click Clustered Horizontal Cylinder.
6. Click OK. Excel changes your chart type.