1.

Discourse Markers
Discourse markers are words or phrases that are used to signal the relationship and connections
between ideas in a speech or writing. They serve to guide the listener or reader through the
content, clarifying, connecting, and organizing the parts of the conversation or text. They also
can indicate relationships between ideas, signal a change in topic, or provide cues about the
speaker's attitude.
 Here are some common types of discourse markers:
3.1. Discourse Markers of Contrast
Discourse markers of contrast are words or phrases that signal a shift in thought, highlighting
differences or opposing ideas within a conversation or text. They help to clarify relationships
between statements and guide the reader or listener through the argument or narrative.
 Here are some common contrastive discourse markers, along with examples of their usage:
i. Although/ Though/ Even though
They are subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses that contrast with the main
clauses. They are used interchangeably in sentences but have slight difference.
Even though: emphasizes the contrast between two ideas, similar to "although" but often with more
emphasis.
Though: introduces the contrast between two ideas, similar to "although" but can be used at the
end of a sentence to introduce a contrasting idea.
Form: a. Although
Though Subject+ verb, Subject + verb
Even though
Examples: 1. Although she was tired, she finished her homework.
1. Though it was quite long, I enjoyed the movie.
2. Eventhough it was late, we decided to watch another episode.
Note: Though can be used at the end of the two contrasting sentences to emphasize an adverb.
The structure of the sentence is:

 Sentence; sentence, though.

 Sentence. Sentence, though.

 In the above example, the sentence, Though the movie was quite long, I enjoyed it, can be
written as: I enjoyed the movie; it was quite long, though.
although
b. Sentence + though + sentence
even though
Examples: 1.We decided to watch another episodeeventhough it was late.
2. I enjoyed the moviethough it was quite long.
ii. However/ Nonetheless/ Nevertheless
These words are transitional words used to link two contrasting or opposing ideas. They
introduce unexpected (surprising) ideas.
Form: a. however,
Sentence; nevertheless, +sentence
nonetheless,
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 Example: 1.
2.
Form: b. However,
Sentence. Nevertheless, +sentence
Nonetheless,

Example: 1.
2.
However: This marker often begins a new sentence and indicates a contrast with the previous
statement.
Example: 1. The team worked hard;however, they did not win the championship.
2. We enjoyed our holiday;however, it rained heavily.
 However can be used as an adverb in a sentence when it modifies adjective or adverb. The
structure of the sentence is:

 However + adjective/ adverb, sentence

 Sentence, however +adjective or adverb

Example: 1. However a lazy student she was, Mike passed her exams.
2. We enjoyed our holiday, howeverheavily it rained.
Nevertheless: This marker emphasizes that despite the previous statement, the following
action still occurred.
Example: 1.It was raining heavily; nevertheless, we decided to go hiking.
2. Jerry was sick;nevertheless, she decided to go for vacation with her father.
Nonetheless: Similar to "nevertheless," it indicates that the subsequent information contrasts
with what came before.
Example: 1. The weather was terrible; nonetheless, we had a great time at the picnic."
iii.Despite/ In spite of
These words are prepositions used to introduce contrast or concession phrases. These phrases
introduce a contrast between an expected outcome and what actually happened. They are
interchangeable in most of English sentences. They are followed by noun phrases.
 Here are the structure of sentences with despite or in spite of:
Form: a. Despite
+ Noun or (V-ing) gerund phrase, sentence
In spite of

Example: 1. Despite/ In spite of the challenges, we managed to complete the project on time.
2. Despite/ In spite of feeling tired, Sara continued working.

b. despite
Sentence + + noun or (V-ing) gerund phrase
in spite of
Example: 1. Robera climbed to the top of tower despite/ in spite of his fear of height.
2. Sara continued working despite/ in spite of feeling tired.

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Form: a. Despite
+ the fact that + sentence, sentence
In spite of

Example: 1. Despite/ In spite of the fat that he didn’t work a lot on his subjects, Robel scored
the highest mark.
2. Despite/ in spite of the fact she wasfeeling tired, Sara continued working.

b. despite
Sentence + + the fact that + sentence
in spite of
Example: 1. Robel scored the highest mark despite/ in spite of the fat that he didn’t work a lot
on his subjects.
2. Sara continued working despite/ in spite of the fact she wasfeeling tired.
Note: Despite/ in spite of the fact is the same in meaning and structure with although/
though/even though.
Example: 1. Although/Though/Even thoughhe was lazy, he passed the examination.
(Despite/in spite of the factthat he was lazy, he passed the examination.)
iv.But: is a simple (coordinating) conjunction that introduces a contrasting idea and join two
simple sentences.
Form: a. Sentence, + but sentence
Example: 1. I wanted to go for a walk, but it started to rain.
2.
b. Sentence + but Verb + complement
Example: 1.
2.
 Other common discourse markers of contrast are:
On the other hand: is used to present an alternative viewpoint or contrasting idea.
Example: Some people prefer to live in the city; on the other hand, others enjoy the peace of
the countryside.
In contrast: explicitly highlights the difference between two subjects or ideas.
Example: Incontrast to her brother, she prefers quiet evenings at home.
Conversely: indicates a direct opposite relationship between two statements.
Example: He loves classical music; conversely, his sister prefers pop.
Yet: a coordinating conjunction that used tointroduces a surprising contrast to what has
been stated previously.
Example: She was very busy; yet, she found time to help me.
Whereas: is used to compare two contrasting ideas or situations.
Example: I enjoy reading fiction, whereas my friend prefers non-fiction.
On the contrary: indicates a direct opposite relationship between two statements.
Example: He loves classical music; Onthecontrary, his sister prefers pop."
### Summary
Using discourse markers of contrast effectively helps clarify relationships between ideas,
making arguments more persuasive and narratives more engaging. They guide readers and
listeners through complex ideas by signaling shifts in perspective or highlighting differences.
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 When incorporating these markers into your writing or speech, consider the context and the
degree of contrast you wish to convey.
3.2. Discourse markers of Cause and Effect
These markers show a cause-and-effect relationship between ideas.
A. Cause or Reason Markers: introducethecauseorreasonclauses.
The common markers include: because, since and as:
 The structure of a sentence with because, since and as is:
because
Sentence, since Sentence
as
Result Clause Reason Clause

Examples: 1. I stayed home, because / as/ since I was feeling unwell.

2.
3.
Because
Since + Sentence, sentence
AS

 More Explanations
I. Because: introduces a reason for the preceding statement.
Example: She was late because she missed the bus.
 Because can be followed by preposition of. In this way, the structure of a sentence is:

Because of + Noun phrase, sentence

Example: Because ofthe rain, the match was cancelled yesterday.
II. Since: similar to "because”, it indicates a reason or justification.
Example: Since it was raining, we decided to stay indoors.
III. As: shows a temporal relationship that often implies causation.
Example: As the sun set, the temperature began to drop.
IV. Due to: introduces a reason for an event occurring. It is followed by a noun phrase.
Example: The match was canceled due toheavy rain.
 Due to + the fact that + sentence, sentence
Example: Due to the fact thatit rainedheavily, the match was canceled.
V. Owing to: Similar to "due to," it indicates the cause of an event. It is followed by a noun phrase.
Example: Owing tothe traffic jam, we arrived late for the exam.

B. Effect or Result Markers: introducetheresultoreffectclauses.

The common markers include: therefore, as a result, thus, so, hence
 The structure of a sentence with the result markers is:
therefore,
Reason Clause Sentence; as a result,
Sentence Result Clause
S
hence,
thus,
Examples: 1. He studied hard; therefore, he passed the exam
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 2. The company cut costs; asaresult, profits increased
3. She forgot her umbrella; thus, she got wet.
 More explanations
I. Therefore: indicates a conclusion drawn from the previous statement.
Example: He studied hard for the exam; therefore, he passed with flying colors.
II. Thus: Similar to "therefore," it shows a result or consequence.
Example: The roads were icy; thus, driving was dangerous.
III. Consequently: indicates a direct result of the preceding action.
Example: She forgot her umbrella; consequently, she got soaked in the rain.
IV. Hence: suggests a conclusion or result that follows logically from what has been stated.
Example: The project was a success; hence, we received additional funding.
V. So: indicates a direct consequence of the previous statement.
 The structure of the sentence with so is:
Sentence, so sentence
Example: It was getting late, so we decided to leave.
VI. For this reason: explicitly states that the following action is based on the previous
information.
Example: The experiment yielded positive results; for this reason, we will continue our research.
VII. As a result: highlights the outcome of a specific cause.
Example: He didn’t follow the instructions; as a result, his project failed.
VIII. Resulting in: connects an action with its consequences. It is followed by a noun phrase.
Example: The heavy snowfall caused road closures, resulting in many delays.
IX. In light of: suggests that a decision or conclusion is based on new information or
circumstances. It is followed by a noun phrase.
Example: In light ofrecent events, we have decided to revise our policy.
### Summary
Using discourse markers of cause and effect effectively helps clarify relationships between ideas
and events, making arguments more coherent and narratives more logical. They guide readers
and listeners through the reasoning process by explicitly linking causes to their effects. When
incorporating these markers into your writing or speech, consider the context and ensure that the
cause-and-effect relationships are clear and logical.
3. 3. Discourse Markers of Purpose
Discourse markers of purpose are words or phrases that indicate the intention or goal behind an
action or statement. They help clarify why something is done and enhance the coherence of
communication.
 Here are some common discourse markers of purpose, along with examples of their usage:
1. To: is infinitive form that indicates the purpose of the action.
Example: Shewit studies hard to achieve her goals.
2. In order to: emphasizes the intention behind an action and is often used in more formal
contexts.
Example: He saved money in order to buy a new car.
3. So as to: Similar to "in order to," this phrase indicates the purpose of the action.
Example: They left early so as to avoid traffic.
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 NOTE: the sentence structure with to/ in order to/so as to is:

Sentence + to/ in order to/so as to + base verb

4. So that: introduces a clause that explains the intended outcome or purpose.

Example: She works overtime so that she can afford a vacation.
5. In order that: is used to express a specific goal or intention, often followed by a modal verb.
Example: He studied every night in order that he would pass the exam.
NOTE: the sentence structure with so that/ in order that is:

Sentence + so that/ in order that+ sentence

6. For the purpose of: explicitly states the reason for an action or decision.
Example: The committee was formed for the purpose of improving community relations.
7. With the aim of: indicates a specific goal or objective behind an action.
Example: They launched the campaign with the aim of raising awareness about climate change.
8. With a view to: suggests planning or intention towards a future goal.
Example: She is taking courses with a view to advancing her career.
9. For: is preposition used to indicate the intended outcome of an action.
Example: He exercises regularly for better health.
10. In hopes of: expresses a desire or aspiration related to an action.
Example: They invested in new technology in hopes of increasing efficiency.
 Look atthe sentence structure with the following markers.
.√ For the purpose of √ With a view to
√With the aim of √ In hopes of √ For + Noun phrase, sentence

### Summary
Discourse markers of purpose play a crucial role in clarifying intentions and objectives in
communication. By using these markers, speakers and writers can effectively convey why
actions are taken, making their messages clearer and more coherent. When incorporating these
markers into your writing or speech, consider the context and ensure that the purpose is explicitly
connected to the actions being discussed.
3.4. Discourse markers of emphasis
Discourse markers of emphasis are words or phrases used to highlight, stress, or underline the
importance of a statement or idea. They help convey the speaker's attitude and can enhance the
persuasiveness of an argument or explanation.
 Here are some common discourse markers of emphasis, along with their uses and examples:
1. Indeed: is used to confirm or reinforce a previous statement.
Example: "The project was indeed a success."
2.In fact: introduces a statement that adds more weight or clarity to what has been said.
Example: In fact, the results were better than we expected.
3. Certainly: is used to express strong agreement or assurance.
Example: Certainly, we need to address this issue immediately.
4. Clearly: indicates that something is obvious or easily understood.
Example: Clearly, this is a critical situation.

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5. Obviously: suggests that the point being made should be apparent to everyone.
Example: Obviously, more research is needed.
6. Particularly: highlights a specific aspect that is of greater importance.
Example: I am particularly interested in this topic.
7. Especially: is used to single out something as noteworthy or significant.
Example: She is especially talented in mathematics.
8. Absolutely: conveys strong affirmation or certainty.
Example: I absolutely agree with your assessment.
9. Undoubtedly: indicates that there is no doubt about the statement being true.
Example: Undoubtedly, this will have a lasting impact.
10. Without a doubt: emphasizes certainty and confidence in the statement.
Example: Without a doubt, this is the best solution.
11. To be sure: acknowledges potential obstacles while reinforcing the main point.
Example: To be sure, there are challenges ahead.
12. No doubt: affirms the truth of a statement, often implying consensus.
- Example: "No doubt, this will change the industry."
13. What’s more: adds additional information that reinforces the main point.
Example: "What’s more, this approach is cost-effective."
14. Above all: indicates that something is the most important consideration.
Example: Above all, we must prioritize safety.
### Summary
Discourse markers of emphasis enhance communication by highlighting key points and
conveying the speaker's confidence and conviction. They can make arguments more persuasive
and help listeners or readers understand the significance of what is being said. When using these
markers, it's essential to choose those that best fit the context and tone of your message to ensure
clarity and effectiveness.
3.5. Discourse Markers of Addition
These markers add information or ideas to what has already been mentioned.
Form:
Sentence; furthermore, / moreover, / in addition, + sentence

Examples: 1.The project was successful; furthermore, it was completed ahead of schedule.
2. The results were impressive; moreover, they exceeded our expectations.
3.6. Discourse Markers of Time
These markers indicate the sequence or timing of events.
Examples: 1. First, we need to gather all the materials.
2. We will complete the report, andthen we can submit it.
3. We had dinner; afterward, we watched a movie.
4. She was studying for her exams; meanwhile, her friends were out having fun.
3.7. Discourse Markers of Clarification
These markers provide clarification or further explanation of an idea.
Examples: 1. He is an expert in his field; that is, he has over ten years of experience. (thatis)
2. The results were inconclusive; in other words, we need more data. (inotherwords)
3. To clarify, we will not be meeting next week. (toclarify)

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 4. There are three main issues to address, namely cost, efficiency, and safety.
(namely)
3.8. Discourse Markers of Summary
These markers signal a summary or conclusion of ideas.
Examples: 1.Insummary, we have made significant progress this quarter.
2. Tosumup, the benefits outweigh the risks.
3. Overall, the event was a success.
4. In conclusion, we recommend implementing the new strategy.
5. Innutshell,
3.9. Discourse Markers of Response
These markers indicate a reaction or response in conversation.
Examples: 1. Well, I think we should consider other options.
2. Youknow, it's important to stay informed.
3. Imean, it's not just about the money.
4. Actually, I have a different perspective on this issue.

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