What is Computer Network?

A computer network is a system that connects numerous independent

computers in order to share information (data) and resources. The
integration of computers and other different devices allows users to
communicate more easily.
A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that
are linked together. A network connection can be established using either
cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used to connect
computers and tools in any network.
A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers, networking
hardware, personal computers, and other specialized or general-purpose
hosts can all be nodes in a computer network. Host names and network
addresses are used to identify them.

What Do Computer Networks Do?

Computer Networks are one of the important aspects of Computer Science.
In the early days, it is used for data transmission on telephone lines and had
a very limited use, but nowadays, it is used in a variety of places.
Computer Networks help in providing better connectivity that helps
nowadays. Modern computer networks have the following functionality like
1. Computer Networks help in operating virtually.
2. Computer Networks integrate on a large scale.
3. Computer Networks respond very quickly in case of conditions
change.
4. Computer Networks help in providing data security.
Criteria of a Good Network
1. Performance: It can be measured in many ways, including transmit
time and response time. Transit time is the amount of time
required for a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response. The performance of the network depends on a number
of factors, including the number of users, the type of medium &
Hardware

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 2. Reliability: In addition to accuracy is measured by frequency of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from failure, and the
network’s robustness in catastrophe.
3. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data loss.

Goals of Computer Networking

• Programs do not have to execute on a single system because of
resource and load sharing.
• Reduced costs – Multiple machines can share printers, tape drives,
and other peripherals.
• Reliability – If one machine fails, another can take its place.
• Scalability (it’s simple to add more processors or computers)
• Communication and mail (people living apart can work together)
• Information Access (remote information access, access to the
internet, e-mail, video conferencing, and online shopping)
• Entertainment that is interactive (online games, videos, etc.)
• Social Networking
Data Communication

Data communication plays an important role in today’s interconnected

world and enables the exchange of information between devices and
networks. Whether you’re sending an email, making a video call, or
browsing the web, data communication ensures that information flows
smoothly.

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What is Data Communication?
Data communication refers to the process of transmitting and receiving data
between two or more devices over a communication channel. It involves the
conversion of data into signals that can be transmitted and then decoding
those signals at the receiving end. Effective data communication requires
the use of appropriate protocols, encoding techniques, and hardware
devices.

Components of Data Communication

Data communication systems consist of several components that work
together to enable the transfer of data. These components include:
• Sender: The device or system that initiates the data transmission.
• Receiver: The device or system that receives the transmitted data.
• Medium/Channel: The physical pathway through which data is
transmitted, such as cables or wireless connections.
• Protocol: A set of rules and conventions that govern the
transmission and reception of data.
• Modem: Short for modulator-demodulator, a device that converts
digital signals into analog signals for transmission and vice versa.

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Types of Data Transmission
Data transmission can occur in two primary ways:
• Serial Transmission: In serial transmission, data is transmitted bit
by bit over a single communication channel. It is commonly used
for long-distance communication and is more reliable but slower
compared to parallel transmission.
• Parallel Transmission: In parallel transmission, multiple bits are
transmitted simultaneously over separate communication
channels. It allows for faster data transfer but is more susceptible
to errors in long-distance transmissions.

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks

(Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full-Duplex)

Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also

known as a communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to
allow communication to occur between individual devices that are
interconnected.
There are three types of transmission mode:-

These are explained as following below.

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1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way
street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only
receive. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to
send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only
introduce input, the monitor can only give the output.

Advantages:
• Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of
communication.
• It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one
communication channel.
• There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and
receiving devices, which simplifies the communication process.
• Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or
response is not required, such as broadcasting or surveillance.

Disadvantages:
• Only one-way communication is possible.
• There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received
correctly.
• Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require
bidirectional communication.

2. Half-Duplex Mode –
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and

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vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for
communication in both directions at the same time. The entire capacity of
the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and
messages are sent in both directions.
Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Advantages:
• Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is
useful in situations where devices need to send and receive data.
• It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode,
as the channel can be used for both transmission and reception.
• Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it
only requires one communication channel.

Disadvantages:
• Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both
devices cannot transmit at the same time.
• There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can
cause problems in some applications.
• There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and
receiving devices, which can complicate the communication
process.

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3. Full-Duplex Mode –
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
In full_duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the
link with signals going in another direction, this sharing can occur in two
ways:
• Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission
paths, one for sending and the other for receiving.
• Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both
directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required

all the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between
the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the
same time.
Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay

Advantages:
• Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional
communication, which is ideal for real-time applications such as
video conferencing or online gaming.
• It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can
transmit and receive data simultaneously.
• Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy,
as there is no need for error correction mechanisms.

Disadvantages:

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 • Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two
communication channels.
• It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it
requires two physically separate transmission paths or a division of
channel capacity.
• Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it
requires a high level of bandwidth and may not be necessary for
some types of communication.

Types of Computer Networks

Division Based on the Communication Medium

• Wired Network: Communication done in a wired medium. Copper
wire, twisted pair, or fiber optic cables are all options. A wired
network employs wires to link devices to the Internet or another
network, such as laptops or desktop PCs.
• Wireless Network: “Wireless” means without wire, media that is
made up of electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves.
Antennas or sensors will be present on all wireless devices. For
data or voice communication, a wireless network uses radio
frequency waves rather than wires.
Division Based on Area Covered
• Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that covers an
area of around 10 kilometers. For example, a college network or an
office network. Depending upon the needs of the organization, a
LAN can be a single office, building, or Campus. We can have two
PCs and one printer in-home office or it can extend throughout the
company and include audio and video devices. Each host in LAN
has an identifier, an address that defines hosts in LAN. A packet
sent by the host to another host carries both the source host’s and
the destination host’s address.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN refers to a network that
covers an entire city. For example: consider the cable television
network.

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 • Wide Area Network (WAN): WAN refers to a network that
connects countries or continents. For example, the Internet allows
users to access a distributed system called www from anywhere
around the globe.WAN interconnects connecting devices such as
switches, routers, or modems. A LAN is normally privately owned
by an organization that uses it. We see two distinct examples of
WANs today: point-to-point WANs and Switched WANs
• Point To Point: Connects two connecting devices through
transmission media.
• Switched: A switched WAN is a network with more than
two ends.
Based on Types of Communication
• Point To Point networks: Point-to-Point networking is a type of
data networking that establishes a direct link between two
networking nodes.
A direct link between two devices, such as a computer and a
printer, is known as a point-to-point connection.
• Multipoint: is the one in which more than two specific devices
share links. In the multipoint environment, the capacity of the
channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices
can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection.
• Broadcast networks: In broadcast networks, a signal method in
which numerous parties can hear a single sender. Radio stations
are an excellent illustration of the “Broadcast Network” in
everyday life. The radio station is a sender of data/signal in this
scenario, and data is only intended to travel in one direction. Away
from the radio transmission tower, to be precise.

Based on the Type of Architecture

• P2P Networks: Computers with similar capabilities and
configurations are referred to as peers.
The “peers” in a peer-to-peer network are computer systems that
are connected to each other over the Internet. Without the use of a
central server, files can be shared directly between systems on the
network.

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 • Client-Server Networks: Each computer or process on the
network is either a client or a server in a client-server architecture
(client/server). The client asks for services from the server, which
the server provides. Servers are high-performance computers or
processes that manage disc drives (file servers), printers (print
servers), or network traffic (network servers)
• Hybrid Networks: The hybrid model uses a combination of client-
server and peer-to-peer architecture. Eg: Torrent.
Types of Computer Network Architecture
Computer Network Architecture is of two types. These types are
mentioned below.
1. Client-Server Architecture: It is basically the architecture where the
clients and the server are connected as two clients can communicate with
each other and the devices present work as servers in the network.
2. Peer-to-Peer Architecture: computers are connected to each other and
each computer is equally capable of working as there is no central server
here. Each device present here can be used as a client or server.

Network Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines
via sender and receiver is referred to as Network Topology
There are two types of Network topology
1) Physical topology
2) Logical Topology
What is Physical Topology?
Physical topology indicates the arrangement of different elements of a
network. It reflects the physical layout of devices and cables to form a
connected network. It is concerned with the essentials of the network
ignoring minute details like transfer of data and device type. The pattern of
arrangement of nodes (computers) and network cables depends on the ease
of installation and setup of the network. It affects cost and bandwidth
capacity based on a solution of devices. It takes into account the placement

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of nodes and the distance between them. Devices can be arranged to form a
ring (Ring Topology) or linearly connected in a line called Bus Topology.
Types of Physical Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines
via sender and receiver is referred to as Network Topology. On the basis of
arrangements, Physical Topology has several types:
1. Mesh Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Bus Topology
4. Ring Topology
5. Hybrid Topology

Bus Topology
Every computer and network device is connected to a single cable in a bus
topology network. Linear Bus topology is defined as having exactly two
terminals.

Advantages
• Installation is simple.
• Compared to mesh, star, and tree topologies, the bus utilizes less
cabling.
Disadvantages
• Difficulty in reconfiguring and isolating faults.
• A bus cable malfunction or break interrupts all communication.

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 Ring Topology

The topology is named ring topology because one computer is connected to

another, with the final one being connected to the first. Exactly two
neighbors for each device. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction.
Each ring incorporates a repeater.

Advantages
• Data transmission is relatively straightforward because packets
only move in one direction.
• There is no requirement for a central controller to manage
communication between nodes.
• Easy installation & Reconfiguration
• Simplified Faulty connections
Disadvantages
• In a Unidirectional Ring, a data packet must traverse through all
nodes.
• All computers must be turned on in order for them to connect with
one another.

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Star Topology
Each device in a star topology has a dedicated point-to-point link to a
central controller, which is commonly referred to as the HUB. There is no
direct connection between the devices. Traffic between the devices is not
allowed in this topology. As an exchange, the controller is used.

Advantages
• When attaching or disconnecting devices, there are no network
interruptions.
• It’s simple to set up and configure.
• Identifying and isolating faults is simple.
• Less Expensive than mesh
• Easy to install & configure
Disadvantages
• Nodes attached to the hub, switch, or concentrator is failed if they
fail.
• Because of the expense of the hubs, it is more expensive than
linear bus topologies.
• More cable is required compared to a bus or ring
• Too much dependency on Hub

Example: Used in high-speed LANs

Mesh Topology
Every device in a mesh topology has dedicated point-to-point connectivity
to every other device. The term “dedicated” refers to the fact that the link

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exclusively transports data between the two devices it links. To connect n
devices, a fully connected mesh network contains n *(n-1)/2 physical
channels.

Figure : Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These

channels are known as links.
• Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other
in a mesh topology, the total number of ports that are required by
each device is N-1. In Figure , there are 5 devices connected to
each other, hence the total number of ports required by each
device is 4. The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
• Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a
mesh topology, then the total number of dedicated links required
to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure , there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of links required
is 5*4/2 = 10.

Advantages
• Data can be sent from multiple devices at the same time. This
topology can handle a lot of traffic.

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 • Even if one of the connections fails, a backup is always available.
As a result, data transit is unaffected.
• Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
messages
• Point to Point links make fault transmission & fault isolation easy
Disadvantages
• The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports that are
necessary.
• The sheer bulk of wiring can be greater than the available space
can accommodate.
• It is difficult to install and reconfigure.

Tree Topology
The topology of a tree is similar to that of a star. Nodes in a tree, like those
in a star, are connected to a central hub that manages network traffic. It has
a root node, which is connected to all other nodes, producing a hierarchy.
Hierarchical topology is another name for it. The number of Star networks is
connected via Bus in Tree Topology.
Advantages
• Network expansion is both possible and simple.
• We partition the entire network into pieces (star networks) that are
easier to manage and maintain.
• Other segments are unaffected if one segment is damaged.
Disadvantages
• Tree topology relies largely on the main bus cable because of its
basic structure, and if it fails, the entire network is handicapped.
• Maintenance becomes more challenging when more nodes and
segments are added.

Internet
The Internet is a larger network that allows computer networks controlled
by enterprises, governments, colleges, and other organizations all over the
world to communicate with one another. As a result, there is a tangle of

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cables, computers, data centers, routers, servers, repeaters, satellites, and
Wi-Fi towers that allow digital data to go around the world.
The Internet is a vast network of networks that functions as a networking
infrastructure. It links millions of computers throughout the world, creating
a network in which any computer can talk with any other computer as long
as they are both linked to the Internet.
The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that
communicate and share information using a standardized Internet Protocol
Suite.
The advantages of the Internet are,
• Source of entertainment – Online gaming, talking, browsing, music,
movies, dramas, and TV series are quickly becoming the most
popular ways to pass the time.
• Source of information – There is no better place to conduct
research than the internet. We can learn about the latest trends,
communicate with experts without having to physically visit them,
and seek professional advice over the Internet.
• E-Commerce – With the advancement of internet technology, large
online E-commerce enterprises such as Amazon, Ali Baba, myntra,
etc. have emerged.
• Working from home, collaborating with others, and having access
to a global workforce are all advantages.
• Keeps Updated – Because there are hundreds of thousands of
newsgroups and services that keep you updated with every tick of
the clock, the Internet is a source of the most recent news.

Disadvantages of the internet are,

• Time Wastage – Most people believe that spending too much time
on the internet is unhealthy for young people and leads to obesity.
• Money Laundering – Aside from reputable sites, there are some
Social Media Advertising sites that try to steal your personal
information, credit card information, and even your pin code. You
can easily become a victim of money scams if they get this
information.

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 • Exposure to private data – It is now quite easy to decipher
someone’s chat or email communication thanks to the hacking
community. As we all know, data is transmitted in packets, which
hackers can simply detect and reconstruct.
• Harassment & threatening – Bullies exist online, just as they do in
real life, and they can lower your self-esteem by harassing and
threatening you. Some of these individuals may be persons who
are aware of some of your personal details and dislike you and
may use this information to harass you.

Compare the Internet & the World Wide Web?

Sir Tim Berners-Lee is credited with creating the World Wide Web. He
came up with the core idea for the WWW while working at the European
Organization for Nuclear Research in 1989. He wanted to combine the
growing technologies of computers, data networks, and hypertext into a
powerful and easy-to-use worldwide information system.
The Internet is a vast network of networks that functions as a networking
infrastructure. It links millions of computers throughout the world, creating
a network in which any computer can talk with any other computer as long
as they are both linked to the Internet. The World Wide Web, or simply the
Web, is a method of gaining access to information over the Internet.
The world wide web , also known as the ‘www,’ is a collection of webpages
that can be quickly published on the Internet and read by millions of people.

What is OSI Model? – Layers of OSI Model

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a 7-layer
architecture with each layer having specific functionality to
perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the
data from one person to another across the globe. OSI model was
developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for
Standardization‘, in the year 1984.

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What are the 7 layers of the OSI Model?
The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down
order:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

Physical Layer – Layer 1

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The

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physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data,
this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the
synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls
both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit
level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission
rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh
topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data
flows between the two connected devices. The various
transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-
duplex.
Note:
1. Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
2. Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known
as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.

Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet
arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the
Host using its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)

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The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also
encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address
Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP
address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer

• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a

way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit
patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer
adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else
the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the
amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.
• Access control: When a single communication channel is shared
by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps
to determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.

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Note:
1. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
2. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and
device drivers of host machines.
3. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e.
selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of
routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the
header by the network layer.
0 seconds of 0 secondsVolume 0%

Functions of the Network Layer

• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is
suitable from source to destination. This function of the network
layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The

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 sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely
and universally.
Note:
1. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
2. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as
routers and switches.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred
to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the
complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment
of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from
the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and
error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to
the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the
receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually. For example, when a web application requests a web server, it
typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to
web applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its
header and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective
application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the
segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message
from the (session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller
units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with

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 it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address
called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying
this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
• Connection Establishment
• Data Transfer
• Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment,
back to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type
of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data
Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge
receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.
Note:
1. Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.
2. Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of
the OS and communicates with the Application Layer by making
system calls.
3. The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
4. Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP
Session Layer – Layer 5
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance
of sessions, and authentication, and also ensures security.
Functions of the Session Layer
• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer
allows the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a
connection.

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 • Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints
that are considered synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is
re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Note:
1. All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a
single layer in the TCP/IP model as the ???? Application Layer”.
2. Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network
application itself. These are also known as Upper Layers
or Software Layers.
3. Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.
For example:-
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through
some Messenger application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here
acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to
create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if
any secure data), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be
transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from
the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required
format to transmit over the network.
Functions of the Presentation Layer

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 24 of 51
 • Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the
ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted on the network.
Note: Device or Protocol Use: JPEG, MPEG, GIF
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the
network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: 1. The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
3. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.
• Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote
host.
• FTAM- File transfer access and management: This application
allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and
manage or
control files from a remote computer.
• Mail Services: Provide email service.
• Directory Services: This application provides distributed database
sources
and access for global information about various objects and
services.

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Advantages of OSI Model
OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7
different layers. Advantages of OSI Model include:
• It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it
easier to understand and troubleshoot.
• It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed
functions and protocols.
• Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.
• It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get
updates separately.

OSI Model in a Nutshell

Information
Form(Data Device or
Layer No Layer Name Responsibility Unit) Protocol

Helps in
identifying the
Application
client and Message SMTP
Layer
synchronizing
7 communication.

Data from the

application
layer is
Presentation extracted and JPEG,
Message
Layer manipulated in MPEG, GIF
the required
format for
6 transmission.

Establishes
Session Layer Message Gateway
5 Connection,

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 26 of 51
 Information
Form(Data Device or
Layer No Layer Name Responsibility Unit) Protocol

Maintenance,
Ensures
Authentication
and Ensures
security.

Take Service
from Network
Transport Layer and
Segment Firewall
Layer provide it to the
Application
4 Layer.

Transmission of
data from one
Network host to another,
Packet Router
Layer located in
different
3 networks.

Node to Node
Data Link Switch,
Delivery of Frame
Layer Bridge
2 Message.

Establishing
Hub,
Physical
Physical Repeater,
Connections Bits
Layer Modem,
between
Cables
1 Devices.

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OSI vs TCP/IP Model
Some key differences between the OSI model and the TCP/IP Model are:
1. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers but OSI model has 7
layers. Layers 5,6,7 of the OSI model are combined into the
Application Layer of TCP/IP model and OSI layers 1 and 2 are
combined into Network Access Layers of TCP/IP protocol.
2. The TCP/IP model is older than the OSI model, hence it is a
foundational protocol that defines how should data be transferred
online.
3. Compared to the OSI model, the TCP/IP model has less strict layer
boundaries.
4. All layers of the TCP/IP model are needed for data transmission
but in the OSI model, some applications can skip certain layers.
Only layers 1,2 and 3 of the OSI model are necessary for data
transmission.

Difference Between OSI Model and TCP/IP

Model

Data communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive

data. For data communication two models are available. We will discuss
these two models in this article and also see the differences between these
two articles.
• OSI Model
• TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP Model

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TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It has 4
layers named as Physical layer, Network layer, Transport layer, and
Application layer. It also can be used as a communications protocol in a
private computer network. It was designed by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in the
1970s.

Advantages
• Many Routing protocols are supported.
• It is highly scalable and uses a client-server architecture.
• It is lightweight.
Disadvantages
• Little difficult to set up.
• Delivery of packets is not guaranteed by the transport layer.
• Vulnerable to a synchronization attack.

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 29 of 51
Differences between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for

OSI stands for Open Systems
Full Form Transmission Control
Interconnection.
Protocol/Internet Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

Approach It is vertically approached. It is horizontally approached.

Delivery of the package is Delivery of the package is not

Delivery
guaranteed in OSI Model. guaranteed in TCP/IP Model.

Replacement of tools and

Replacing the tools is not
Replacement changes can easily be done
easy as it is in OSI Model.
in this model.

It is less reliable than TCP/IP It is more reliable than OSI

Reliability
Model. Model.

What is Transmission media?

o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the
sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the
form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 30 of 51
 o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
o In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer
1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere,
water, and vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the
characteristics of medium and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired
media, medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal
characteristics are more important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost
and ease of installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model,
i.e., Physical layer.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a
medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the
transmitted one due to the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will
get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it
travels over a communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.

Causes Of Transmission Impairment:

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 31 of 51
 o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal
decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal. This
type of distortion is examined from different signals having different frequencies.
Each frequency component has its own propagation speed, so they reach at a
different time which leads to the delay distortion.
o Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is
added to it which creates the noise.

Classification Of Transmission Media:

o Guided Transmission Media

o UnGuided Transmission Media

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 32 of 51
Guided Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is
also known as Bounded media.

Types Of Guided media:

Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of
the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for
twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns

per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 33 of 51
 • Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one
another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference and
does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for
telephonic applications.

Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
⇢ High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
⇢ Susceptible to external interference
⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Applications:
Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid
covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in
fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of
telephone lines.

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 34 of 51
Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky
Applications:
The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely
cold climates, where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect
for withstanding such temperatures or for shielding the interior
components.
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC
or Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated
protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes:
Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable
bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television
networks widely use Coaxial cables.

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 35 of 51
Advantages:
• High Bandwidth
• Better noise Immunity
• Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable
television signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network
connections (like Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio transmitters
and receivers to their antennas.

(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –

It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering
called the cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength
Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and
bidirectional mode.

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 36 of 51
Advantages:
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
Applications:
• Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
• Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
• For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet
cables.
• Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety
measures in designing the interior and exterior of automobiles.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No
physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic
signals.

Features:
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 37 of 51
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

(i) Radio waves –

These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The
sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency
Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio
waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need
to be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz –
300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.

Microwave Transmission

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 38 of 51
(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems.
Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless
mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Difference Between Twisted pair cable, Co-axial cable, and Optical

fiber
Characteristi Twisted pair Optical fiber
cs cable Co-axial cable cable

Takes place in the Takes place in the

Takes place in an
electrical form over electrical form over
optical form over
Signal the metallic the inner conductor
glass fiber.
transmission conducting wires. of the cable.

Requires 4
components from Bundling of very thin
Pair of insulated inner to outer- optical fibers made
copper wires • Solid up of glass or plastic
conductor in a single cable.
Consists of wire

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 39 of 51
Characteristi Twisted pair Optical fiber
cs cable Co-axial cable cable

• Layer of
insulation
• Groundin
g
conductor
• Layer of
exterior
insulation.

Installation
and
Simple and easy Relatively difficult Difficult
Implementatio
n

Affected due to The external The external

External external magnetic magnetic field is less magnetic field is not
magnetic field field. affected. affected.

power loss due to

Power loss due to
Power loss due to absorption,
conduction and
Cause of conduction. scattering, and
radiation.
power bending.

Large diameter than Large diameter than

Small diameter
Diameter Optical fiber cable. Optical fiber cable.

The twisted-pair Co-axial cable has Optical fiber cable

cable has low moderately high has a very high
Bandwidth bandwidth. bandwidth. bandwidth.

Electromagnet
ic EMI is reduced to
EMI can take place. EMI is not present.
interference(E shielding.
MI

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 40 of 51
Characteristi Twisted pair Optical fiber
cs cable Co-axial cable cable

Fairly easy
Easy installation. Difficult to install.
Installation installation.

In twisted pair cable In optical fiber cable

In coaxial cable has
has very high has very low
low attenuation.
Attenuation attenuation. attenuation.

Twisted pair cable

Moderately high data
supports a low data Very high data rate.
rate.
Data rate rate.

Twisted pair cable Co-axial cable has Optical fiber cable

Noise has low noise higher noise has the highest noise
immunity immunity. immunity. immunity.

Cost The cost is very low. Cost is moderate Cost is expensive.

Repeater Repeater spacing is Repeater spacing is Repeater spacing is

Spacing 2-10 km. 1-10 km. 10-100 km.

Security is not Security is not Security is

guaranteed of the guaranteed of the guaranteed of the
Security transmitted signal. transmitted signal. transmitted signal.

• Unshielde
• Single
d Twisted
mode fiber
Pair (UTP)
• RG59 (SMF)
• Shielded
• RG6 • Multimod
Twisted
e fiber
Pair (STP)
(MMF)
Types

Reasons- absorption,
Reasons-conduction
scattering dispersion Reasons-conduction
and radiation
Power loss and bending

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 41 of 51
What is Switching?

o When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside their
immediate location, messages are sent through the network of transmission
media. This technique of transferring the information from one computer
network to another network is known as switching.
o Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A switch is a
small hardware device which is used to join multiple computers together with
one local area network (LAN).
o Network switches operate at layer 2 (Data link layer) in the OSI model.
o Switching is transparent to the user and does not require any configuration in
the home network.
o Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.
o A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been
addressed. It verifies the destination address to route the packet
appropriately.
o It is operated in full duplex mode.
o Packet collision is minimum as it directly communicates between source and
destination.
o It does not broadcast the message as it works with limited bandwidth.

Why is Switching Concept required?

Switching concept is developed because of the following reasons:

o Bandwidth: It is defined as the maximum transfer rate of a cable. It is a very

critical and expensive resource. Therefore, switching techniques are used for
the effective utilization of the bandwidth of a network.
o Collision: Collision is the effect that occurs when more than one device
transmits the message over the same physical media, and they collide with

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 42 of 51
 each other. To overcome this problem, switching technology is implemented
so that packets do not collide with each other.

Advantages of Switching:

o Switch increases the bandwidth of the network.

o It reduces the workload on individual PCs as it sends the information to only
that device which has been addressed.
o It increases the overall performance of the network by reducing the traffic on
the network.
o There will be less frame collision as switch creates the collision domain for
each connection.

Disadvantages of Switching:

o A Switch is more expensive than network bridges.

o A Switch cannot determine the network connectivity issues easily.
o Proper designing and configuration of the switch are required to handle
multicast packets.

Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching
technique will decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one

communication.

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 43 of 51
Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path
between sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then
the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone
works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes
place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data,
voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends
back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path.
After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 44 of 51
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:

o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single

transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate
set of crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar
switch is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or
disabled by a control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx
crossbar switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking
switches.

Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:

o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch

Crossbar Switch

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 45 of 51
The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar
switch has n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.

Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:

The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased.

Therefore, it becomes very expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to use
a multistage switch.

Multistage Switch

o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller
units and then interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is

dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of
data transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which
no data can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is
required for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is
transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be
transferred even if the channel is free.

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 46 of 51
Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred
as a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is
stored and forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated
path between the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching
provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed through the
intermediate nodes based on the information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the
most efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next
node. This type of network is known as store and forward network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored
in the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied.
Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 47 of 51
Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable

them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided
by the message switching technique.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in
one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are
given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend
the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment
message will be sent.

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 48 of 51
Approaches Of Packet Switching:
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is

considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information
about the destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet
to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established
before the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection
between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 49 of 51
 o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and
2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection
between the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver
that the message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the
termination.

Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit

approach

Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing decisions to forward the packets. Node does not take any routing decision.

Congestion cannot occur as all the packets travel in Congestion can occur when the node is busy, and it does not a
different directions. other packets to pass through.

I It is more flexible as all the packets are treated as It is not very flexible.
an independent entity

IQAC/ASU/F/2023-24/2.1 Page 50 of 51
Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not

require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized
to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a
cost-effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures
that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any
established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available
bandwidth very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that

require low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and
requires high implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of
lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor
recovered.

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