Module 10 Information Processing

Take the Challenge!

In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:

describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving knowledge.

cite educational implications of the theory on information processing.

Introduction

Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge enters and is
stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most significant cognitive theories in the last
century and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning process.
Advance Organizer
Information Processing Theory
Types of Knowledge
Stages
Executive Control Processes
General / Specific
Encoding
Declarative
Storage
Procedural
Retrieval
Episodic
Conditional

Information Processing Theory

Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy. The terms used in the information
processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those who program and design computers aim to
make computers solve problems through processes similar to that of the human mind. Read on to know
more about IPT.

Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is learned. They
consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change (as behaviorist theorists
thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. They believe that how a
person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives shape what he/she will learn. All these notions
comprise what is called the information processing theory.

IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment through the senses and
what takes place in between determines whether the information will continue to pass through the sensory
register then the short term memory and the long term memory. Certain factors would also determine
whether the information will be retrieved or "remembered when the learner needs it. Let us go into the
details.

We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.

"Types" of Knowledge

General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is usefull in many tasks, or only in one.
Declarative This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are. They may be in
the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT,
or even the face of your crush.

Procedural This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a lesson plan, baking a
cake, or getting the least common denominator.

Episodic This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
Conditional This is about "knowing when and why" to apply declarative or procedural strategies.

Stages in the Information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term memory and the long-
term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external information
becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame,
mental model, etc.).

These three primary stages in IPT are:

Encoding Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.

Storage The information is stored for either a brief or extended. period of time, depending upon the
processes following encoding.

Retrieval The information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for use on a current
task, the true measure of effective memory.

What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like model.
The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the memory system, and
brought back (recalled) when needed. Most theories of information processing revolve around the three
main stages in the memory process:

Sensory Register

The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very brief time.

Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what our minds can hold or
perceive.

Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief period in the order of 1 to
3 seconds.
There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more persistent than visual.

The Role of Attention

To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention to it. Such that, we can only
perceive and remember later those things that pass through our attention “gate”.

Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the material; when there is
concious control over attention, or when information involves novelty, surprise, salience, and
distinctiveness.

Before information is perceived, it is known as “precategorical” information. This means that until that
point, the learner has not established a determination of the categorical membership of the information.
To this point, the information is coming in as uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can
categorize, judge, interpret and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have no means by
which to recognize that the stimulus was ever encountered.

Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 “chunks” of information, sometimes described as 7+/-2. It is called
working memory because it is where new information is temporarily placed while it is mentally processed.
STM maintains information for a limited time, until the learner has adequate resources to process the infor
mation, or until the information is forgotten.

Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.

To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance rehearsal. It is using
repetition to keep the information active in STM, like when you repeat a phone number just given over and
over.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the stored information
until needed again.

Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.

Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite

Executive Control Processes

The executive control processes involve the executive processor of what is referred to as metacognitive
skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system, help the learner make informed
decisions 119

about how to categorize, organize or interpret information. Example of processes are attention, rehearsals
and organizationin

Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.

i There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

Decay Information is not attended to, and eventually 'fades' away. Very prevalent in Working Memory.

Interference New or old information 'blocks' access to the information in question.

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information

Rehearsal This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.

Meaningful Learning This is making connections between new information and prior knowledge.

Organization - It is making connections among various pieces of information. Info that is organized
efficiently should be recalled.

Elaboration This is adding additional ideas to new information

based on what one already knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning.

Visual Imagery information This means forming a "picture" of the

Generation Things we 'produce' are easier to remember than things we 'hear'.

Context Remembering the situation helps recover information.

Personalization It is making the information relevant to the individual.

Other Memory Methods

Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) You will remember the beginning and end of a 'list' more
readily

Part Learning Break up the 'list' or "chunk" information to increase memorization.

Distributed Practice Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once (Massed
Practice)

Mnemonic Aids These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help them retain and retrieve
information more effectively. This includes the loci technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word
and association techniques, among others.