Measuring Elastic Moduli

Contents
I. Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ 2
II. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 2
A. Linear deformation of materials and Young’s modulus .......................................... 2
B. Shear deformation of materials and shear modulus ................................................ 3
III. Experiments............................................................................................................................. 5
A. Measuring Young’s modulus .......................................................................................... 5
B. Measuring shear modulus ............................................................................................... 8
IV. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 11
I. Abstract
It can be observed that objects in everyday life can sometimes undergo states of
deformation, caused by certain motions such as pulling, compressing or twisting actions on
them. The objects can return to the original size and shape after being deformed in some
cases; in other instances, the deformations become permanent. With careful observation, it
can be seen that the amount of force in the pulls, compressions and twists on an object has
a relation with the amount of deformation in the object, and there exists a limit to which an
object can be distorted before it becomes permanently deformed. This property of objects
being able to return to the original size and shape after being deformed until a threshold limit
is called elasticity, quantified by what is called as “elastic modulus”. This “elastic modulus”
describes the relation between the amount of force acting on an object causing it to be
distorted and the amount of resultant deformation in the object. In mathematical sense, the
elastic modulus is defined as the derivative of stress applied on a body with respect to the
strain resulting from that stress; i.e. the slope of the stress-strain curve. Elastic moduli are
generally classified into three types:
1. Young’s modulus, related to linear stress,
2. Shear modulus, related to shear stress, and
3. Bulk modulus, related to volumetric stress.
In the following experiments, the Young’s modulus of a wire by hanging weights on it and the
shear modulus of a wire as a rotational oscillation is performed on it.

II. Introduction
A. Linear deformation of materials and Young’s modulus
Consider a long, thin wire having a cross-sectional area of A and a length l. At the wire’s
ends, apply a pulling force F along the dimension of l. It will result in an elongation ∆𝑙 in the
wire’s length.
The relative deformation, termed as “relative strain”, denoted by 𝜀 is a dimensionless
quantity, defined as the ratio of the change in dimension to the original dimension of the
given object:
∆𝑙
𝜀=
𝑙
The amount of force acting on a unit cross-sectional area is known as linear stress:
𝐹
𝜎𝑙 =
𝐴
It can be seen that this quantity has the same unit as pressure.
The linear elastic behavior of bodies is found to be governed by an experimental law, known
as “Hooke’s law”. This law states that the strain of a body caused by a stress is linearly
dependent on that stress until a certain limit.
In Fig. 1, the region shown by a straight line with a positive slope displays linear elasticity
behavior. As mentioned beforehand, the Young’s modulus is the slope of the stress-strain
graph, and thus:
 𝜎𝑙
𝐸=
𝜀
Or equivalently:
𝐹 𝑙
𝐸=
𝐴 ∆𝑙
If the dimensions of the wire, the change in length
and the force applied on it are known, Young’s
modulus can be determined. It can be seen that this
quantity also has the same unit as pressure.

Fig. 1 (Source: 120202-HOOKES-LAW-AND AND-

YOUNGS-THEORY, https://brainduniya.com/hookes-law/ )

From the diagram, it can be seen that the linear relation between stress and strain only lasts
till a certain point, which is the proportional limit. The deformed object can return to its
original shape and size until the point called “elastic limit” or “yield point”; when the stress
exceeds this limit, the object becomes permanently deformed. If the stress reaches beyond
a certain point, the nature of the object’s elasticity will change, and it will exhibit a behavior
known as plastic behavior. The fracture point is the utmost limit of the amount of stress that
can be applied before the material breaks. It should be noted that Hooke’s law only holds in
the region where the elastic behavior is displayed.

B. Shear deformation of materials and shear modulus

Under this topic, the concept of shear modulus will be discussed first. The shear modulus is
associated with the deformation of an object resulting from resultant forces on parallel
surfaces of an object acting in opposite directions to each other, e.g. the case of friction.

Fig. 2 (Source: Shear Stress, https://www.e-education.psu.edu/matse81/node/2100 )

In this figure, the rectangular cuboid is being deformed into a parallelepiped as its lower
surface and upper surface experience forces which are opposite in direction to each other.
Here, the bottom and top surfaces undergo a displacement with respect to each other, and
there is an inclined angle 𝜃. This 𝜃 is the definition of shear strain. Similarly to the linear
stress, the shear stress is the magnitude of the force acting on a unit cross-sectional area:
∆𝐹
𝜎𝑠 = lim
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴
 The shear modulus can be given as:
𝜎𝑠
𝐺=
𝜃
Now, the case of a thin cylindrical wire with radius R and length l being twisted with a force F
which is perpendicular to the axis of symmetry and tangential to the round surface of the
wire will be studied.
The wire will be divided into many infinitesimally thin
hollow cylinder rings with the same axis, which has
thickness ∆r and radius r. The force acting on each of
these rings will be ∆F, which will be smaller than F. If
the torsion of the wire has a shear angle 𝛾 and a
deflection angle 𝜑, ∆F can be given by:
∆𝐹 = 𝜎𝑠 ∆𝐴 = 𝐺𝛾2𝜋𝑟∆𝑟
where G is the shear modulus of the material.
By simple geometry, the relation between the length,
the radius and the shear strain can be found as:
𝑟𝜑
𝛾=
𝑙
𝜑
And therefore: ∆𝐹 = 𝐺 2𝜋𝑟 2 ∆𝑟.
𝑙

The torque of ∆F along the axis of symmetry will be:

𝜑
∆𝑀 = 𝑟∆𝐹 = 𝐺 2𝜋𝑟 3 ∆𝑟
Fig. 3 (Source: Twisting_torsion_pendulum 𝑙
(unideb.hu) ) This torque is only for a hollow tube.

For the whole wire, this can be integrated over the entire cross-section as the parts are
continuous:

𝑅
𝜑 3
𝜋𝑅 4
𝑀 = ∫ 𝐺 2𝜋𝑟 ∆𝑟 = 𝐺 𝜑
0 𝑙 2𝑙

Here, it is apparent that the torque and the twisting angle are related. Considering the
twisted rod as a torsion spring, the torsion constant can be expressed:
𝑀 𝜋𝑅 4
𝐷𝜑 = = 𝐺
𝜑 2𝑙
To maintain the equilibrium, there will be an internal restoring torque in the wire trying to
compensate for the external torque. Thus, some oscillation can be observed even after the
external force acting on the body stops. Consider attaching the rod to another body so that a
torsion pendulum having a moment of inertia around its axis I is obtained. Applying Newton’s
second law of motion:
𝜋𝑅 4 𝜋𝑅 4
𝐼𝜑̈ = ∑ 𝑀 <==> 𝐼𝜑̈ = −𝐷𝜑 𝜑 = −𝐺 𝜑 <==> 𝜑̈ + 𝐺 𝜑=0
2𝑙 2𝐼𝑙

The solution for this equation is a harmonic trigonometric function, having the period
 2𝐼𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐺𝜋𝑅 4

If the numerical values of the properties of the wire and the period are known, the shear
modulus can be obtained immediately from the formula:
8𝜋𝐼𝑙
𝐺=
𝑇 2 𝑅4

III. Experiments
A. Measuring Young’s modulus
The apparatus is set up as shown in Fig. 4.1.
The instruments included here are:
A. A steel wire the Young’s modulus of which is to
be measured (A1: marker on the wire to make the
measuring of the change in length easier. This
part is magnified in Fig 4.2. A2: upper end of the
wire.)
B. Microscope
C. Backlight
D. Hook to hang the weights
E. Microscope stand and position adjusting
mechanism (E1: for focusing the image. E2: for
moving left-right E3: for moving up-down.)
F. Place to hold the stage micrometer.
As mentioned in section II. A, the size
characteristics of the wire - i.e. the diameter and
the length - has to be measured first.

Fig. 4.1 (Source: M4 Measurement

setup (unideb.hu) )
In this experiment, only the stretched part of the
wire will be taken into account, and thus, the
length will be measured only till the marker.
Length of the wire, l = 100.5 ± 0.05 cm,
l = 1.005 ± 0.0005 m
To compute the cross-sectional area of the wire
later, the diameter will be measured using a
micrometer screw gauge. The measurements
will be taken 5 times, and then, the average
value and the uncertainty is evaluated.
Fig. 4.2 (Source: M4 Measurement
setup (unideb.hu) )
 No. Diameter Diameter
(mm) (m) Average diameter (m) = 4.14E-4 m
1. 0.41 0.41E-3
Uncertainty = 2.45E-6 m
2. 0.42 0.42E-3
3. 0.41 0.41E-3 The micrometer screw gauge used for this measurement
does not show any zero error.
4. 0.42 0.42E-3
5. 0.41 0.41E-3 The diameter of the wire, d = 4.14E-4 ± 2.45E-6 m
𝜋𝑑̅ 2
Average cross-sectional area of the wire, 𝐴̅ = = 1.346E-7 m2
4
𝜋𝑑̅ ∆𝑑
Uncertainty of the area, ∆𝐴 = = 1.593E-9 m2
2
The elongations of the wire will be very small, and hence, a microscope will be used to
measure the change in length much more precisely.
Before using the ocular micrometer in the microscope for measurements, it will have to be
calibrated with a stage micrometer first. Each division in the stage micrometer corresponds
to 0.01 mm. The calibration processed needs to be performed so that the correspondence of
the ocular micrometer to the object size can be determined.
The stage micrometer is placed in the holder, and the microscope is adjusted so that the
scales on the stage micrometer is focused and in line with the ocular scales. Next, try to find
a set of points on the stage and ocular micrometers which have the most accurate
correspondence. Then, readjust the microscope and find a different set of such points.
Repeat this for five times and calculate the number of divisions on the stage and ocular
micrometers for each corresponding length found. The length for 1 division on the ocular
micrometer can be found out by converting the measurement of the divisions on the stage
micrometer to meters and dividing it with the number of divisions on the ocular micrometer
for the corresponding measurement.
No. No. of No. of Length of 1 Length of 1 Length of 1
divisions on divisions on division on the division on the division on the
the stage the ocular stage (mm) stage (m) ocular (m)
1. 60 35 0.01 0.01E-3 1.714E-5
2. 60 35 0.01 0.01E-3 1.714E-5
3. 60 35 0.01 0.01E-3 1.714E-5
4. 60 35 0.01 0.01E-3 1.714E-5
5. 60 35 0.01 0.01E-3 1.714E-5

Average length of 1 division on the ocular (m)= 1.714E-5 m

Uncertainty = 0.000 m
Since the measurements turn out to be completely consistent for all 5 times, it can be seen
that the uncertainty can be taken as zero.
Next, the marker on the wire will have to be set to zero position. Adjust the microscope so
that the marker is in focus and as near to the zero marking as possible. In my case, the zero
point is hidden when I look into the microscope, and therefore, had to take another start
point. It should be noted that if the taken start point has a non-zero value, that value must be
subtracted when evaluating the elongation. And while taking measurements, the same side
of the marker (left/right, up/down) must always be measured.
 The actual measurements to determine the Young’s modulus can be started now. The wire
will be hanged with weights from 0 kg to 5 kg in 0.5 kg increments. In the loading process,
the torsion should be avoided as much as possible. Read the elongation for each time a load
is added, and note down the data. It should be noted that the image seen in the microscope
is inverted. If the marker went out of the field of vision, readjust the microscope position to
upwards, and take note at which point this readjustment is done.
After reaching to 5 kg of load, unload the weights one by one in 0.5 kg decrements until 0 kg.
The marker can go out of visible range during this stage too, and so, the microscope may
have to be readjusted at a certain point while unloading. Also take not of the point requiring
readjustment in the unloading process.

For Loading

Mass Reading of Change in

Force (N) Stress (Pa) Elongation Strain
No. loaded stage microscope
m*g y (m) x
(kg) microscope divisions
1. 0 0 0 10 0 0 0
2. 0.5 4.905 36441307.58 22 12 2.04E-4 2.020E-4
3. 1 9.81 72882615.16 32 22 3.74E-4 3.721E-4
4. 1.5 14.715 109323922.7 43 33 5.61E-4 5.582E-4
5. 2 19.62 145765230.3 55 45 7.65E-4 7.612E-4
6. 2.5 24.525 182206537.9 66 56 9.52E-4 9.473E-4
7. 3 29.43 218647845.5 78 68 1.156E-3 1.150E-3
8. 3.5 34.335 255089153 89 79 1.343E-3 1.336E-3
(re-adjusted) 10 -
9. 4 39.24 291530460.6 21 90 1.53E-3 1.522E-3
10. 4.5 44.145 327971768 32 101 1.717E-3 1.708E-3
11. 5 49.05 364413075.8 44 113 1.921E-3 1.911E-3

For Unloading

Mass Reading of Change in

Force (N) Stress (Pa) Elongation Strain
No. loaded stage microscope
m*g y (m) x
(kg) microscope divisions
1. 5 49.05 364413075.8 44 113 1.921E-3 1.911E-3
2. 4.5 44.145 327971768 32 101 1.717E-3 1.708E-3
3. 4 39.24 291530460.6 22 91 1.547E-3 1.539E-3
4. 3.5 34.335 255089153 11 80 1.36E-3 1.353E-3
(re-adjusted) 90 -
5. 3 29.43 218647845.5 78 68 1.156E-3 1.150E-3
6. 2.5 24.525 182206537.9 67 57 9.69E-4 9.642E-4
7. 2 19.62 145765230.3 55 45 7.65E-4 7.612E-4
8. 1.5 14.715 109323922.7 44 34 5.78E-4 5.751E-4
9. 1 9.81 72882615.16 32 22 3.74E-4 3.721E-4
10. 0.5 4.905 36441307.58 21 11 1.87E-4 1.861E-4
11. 0 0 0 10 0 0 0
 𝐹 ∆𝑙
From the linear relation between stress and strain, =𝐸 , the Young’s modulus can be
𝐴 𝑙
𝐹 ∆𝑙
found by plotting a linear fitting to the y(x) curve, taking y = 𝐴 and x = .
𝑙

𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒1+𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒2
The average value of Young’s modulus will be 𝐸 = 2
= 190.579 GPa.

It can be seen that the linear fits for the loading and unloading process are almost identical.
Therefore, it can be said that the wire displays a nice behavior of elasticity, and the
measurements also seem to be good.

B. Measuring shear modulus

The formula for shear modulus of a torsion spring is:
8𝜋𝐼𝑙
𝐺=
𝑇 2 𝑅4
But it cannot be always feasible to determine the shear modulus for a torsion pendulum. To
get around this problem, a hollow cylinder can be added on the pendulum. In this case, the
resultant moment of inertia will become: 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 + 𝐼𝑐𝑦𝑙 , where 𝐼𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 is the moment of
inertia of the empty pendulum and 𝐼𝑐𝑦𝑙 is the moment of inertia of the cylinder. By using the
expressions of the periods, the following can be obtained:
8𝜋𝑙
𝑇 2 − 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦
2
= 𝐼
𝐺𝑅 4 𝑐𝑦𝑙
where T is the period of the weighted pendulum, and Tempty is the period of the empty
pendulum. If the inner radius Rin and outer radius Rout of the cylinder can be known, its
1 2 2
moment of inertia can be calculated as: 𝐼𝑐𝑦𝑙 = 2 𝑚(𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑅ⅈ𝑛 ). Then the shear modulus is:

8∙𝜋∙𝑙 128 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ 𝑙
𝐺= ∙ 𝐼𝑐𝑦𝑙 = 4 2 ∙𝐼
𝑅 4 (𝑇 2 2
− 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 ) 2
𝑑 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 ) 𝑐𝑦𝑙

where l is the length and d is the diameter of the wire.

Fig. 5 (Source: M4 Measurement setup (unideb.hu) )

Fig. 5 shows a torsion pendulum which will be used in this experiment. The one on the left is
an empty (unloaded) pendulum, and that on the right is a loaded pendulum. The shear
stress of the thin wire hanging the pendulum is to be measured.
Firstly, the outer and inner radii of the additional hollow cylinder which is to be added to the
empty pendulum will be measured, so that its moment of inertia can be calculated. A Vernier
caliper is used for this process. Check for any zero errors that might be present (in my case,
there was no visible zero error). The uncertainty for the measurements of overall dimension
will be approximated as 0.1 mm.
Outer diameter, dout = 7.27 ± 0.005 cm => Rout= 3.635 ± 0.0025 cm = 3.635E-2 ± 0.0025E-2 m
Inner diameter, din = 1.17 ± 0.005 cm => Rin = 0.585 ± 0.0025 cm = 0.585E-2 ± 0.0025E-2 m
The mass of the cylinder will be measured with a digital scale, and the uncertainty will be
approximated as 0.005 g
m = 561.71 ± 0.005 g => m = 561.71E-3 ± 0.005E-3 kg
 1 2 2
The average moment of inertia for the cylinder is: 𝐼𝑐𝑦𝑙 = 2 𝑚(𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑅ⅈ𝑛 ) = 3.807E-4 kgm2 .
This has an uncertainty of:
1 2
𝛥𝐼𝑐𝑦𝑙 = 2 𝛥𝑚(𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑅𝑖̇2𝑛 ) + 𝑚(𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝛥𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑅ⅈ𝑛 𝛥𝑅ⅈ𝑛 ) = 5.985E-7 kgm2

The empty pendulum is given a slight twist, and then set it into free oscillation for 20 full
cycles. The time taken for the pendulum to oscillate 20 cycles is noted down. This will be
repeated for 7 times.

Empty pendulum
No. Time Time (s) No. of cycles Period (s)
1. 1 min 23.9 s 83.9 20 4.195
2. 1 min 22.37 s 82.37 20 4.1185
3. 1 min 24.18 s 84.18 20 4.209
4. 1 min 24.19 s 84.19 20 4.2095
5. 1 min 22.43 s 82.43 20 4.1215
6. 1 min 23.8 s 83.8 20 4.19
7. 1 min 23.27 s 83.27 20 4.1635

Average period = 4.172 s

Uncertainty = 0.0147 s

The period of the empty pendulum: 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 = 4.172 ± 0.0147 s.

Load the pendulum with the given cylinder. Repeat the same steps as during the
measurement of the empty pendulum.

Loaded pendulum
No. Time Time (s) No. of cycles Period (s)
1. 1 min 49.13 s 109.13 20 5.4565
2. 1 min 49.47 s 109.47 20 5.4735
3. 1 min 48.95 s 108.95 20 5.4475
4. 1 min 49.31 s 109.31 20 5.4655
5. 1 min 49.22 s 109.22 20 5.461
6. 1 min 49.39 s 109.39 20 5.4695
7. 1 min 49.44 s 109.44 20 5.472

Average period = 5.464 s

Uncertainty = 0.0035 s

The period of the loaded pendulum: 𝑇 = 5.464 ± 0.0035 s.

The length of the wire is measured with a measuring tape, and the uncertainty is
approximated to be 0.05 cm.
l = 93.1 ± 0.05 cm = 0.931 ± 0.05E-2 cm.
The micrometer screw gauge is used to measure the diameter of the wire. The screw gauge
I used had a negative zero error of 3 circular scale divisions, i.e. 0.03 mm. Therefore, while
the reading of the micrometer screw gauge shows as 0.59 mm, the actual measurement will
be 0.59 mm + 0.03 mm = 0.62 mm. The uncertainty for this measurement will be
approximated as 0.01 mm.
d = 0.62 ± 0.01 mm = 0.62E-3 ± 0.01E-3 m
The average value of shear modulus will be:
128∙𝜋∙𝑙
G= 2 ∙ 𝐼𝑐𝑦𝑙 =7.748E10 Pa = 77.48 GPa
𝑑 4 (𝑇 2 −𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 )

Uncertainty can be calculated as:

ln G = ln 128𝜋 + ln l + ln 𝐼𝑐𝑦𝑙 – 4 ln d – ln (𝑇 2 − 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦

2
)

∆𝐺 ∆𝑙 ∆𝐼𝑐𝑦𝑙 ∆𝑑 2𝑇∆𝑇+2𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 ∆𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦

= + +4 + 2 = 7.95%
𝐺 𝑙 𝐼𝑐𝑦𝑙 𝑑 𝑇 2 −𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦

Therefore, G = 77.48 ± 6.160 GPa.

IV. Conclusion
The experiments make use of tools which require careful observation and error
management, such as Vernier caliper, micrometer screw gauge, ocular micrometer.
Moreover, I had to put in extra effort in using the ocular micrometer in the microscope as this
is my first time using it. Nevertheless, the measurements for both the experiments turn out to
be quite good.
For the Young’s modulus of steel, the result from my experiment gives 190.579 GPa, which
lies in the range of the typical standard values which ranges from 190 GPa and 215 GPa
(According to Young’s modulus of steel – SteelonCall.com).
For the shear modulus of steel, the value from my experiment is 77.48 GPa, which is 2.30%
less than the typical value for shear modulus of steel (According to Shear modulus of steel –
The Engineering Toolbox). This small error may have arisen from the zero error in the
micrometer screw gauge used to measure the diameter of the wire and some reaction time
effects while measuring the time for oscillations.