DATA PROCESSING 1 (Information Technology)

BAM 125

AN ICT COURSE FOR NATIONAL DIPLOMA LEVEL 1

SECOND SEMESTER

DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

PREPARED

BY

MR. VICTOR AKINGBEHIN

Course Objectives:
1. Introduce students to ICT.
2. Understand computer operating systems and software.
3. Know the principles and methods of data processing.
4. Understand the principle of data management.
5. Understand the principles of data communications and its application.
6. Identify and efficiently operate an office computer package (MS word Processing
Applications).

Page 2 of 66
 MODULE 1
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Computer

A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculations and operations

based on instructions provided by a software or hardware program. It has the ability to
accept data (input), process it, and then produce outputs.

Computers can also store data for later uses in appropriate storage devices, and retrieve
whenever it is necessary. Modern computers are electronic devices used for a variety of
purposes ranging from browsing the web, writing documents, editing videos, creating
applications, playing video games, etc. They are designed to execute applications and
provide a variety of solutions by combining integrated hardware and software components.

Development of Computer

(1) ABACUS

Alternatively referred to as the counting frame, an abacus is a mechanical device used to assist a
person in performing mathematical calculations and counting.

Who built the first abacus?

It is still unknown who built the first abacus and when it was built. There is evidence of the
abacus used in Mesopotamia going back as early as 2700 B.C., for use with their sexagesimal
numbering system. The abacus was also used in other early civilizations, including the Chinese,
Egyptian, Greek, Persian, and Roman civilizations.

Why was the abacus used?

Before computers, calculators, or even arithmetic using paper and pencil, the abacus was the
most advanced device for crunching numbers. Before the abacus, the only methods people had to
use for their mathematical calculations were their fingers and toes, or stones in the dirt.

Is the abacus still used today?

Yes, even today in certain parts of the world the abacus is still used as a primary counting device
or as a backup to more modern counting devices,

Page 3 of 66
(2) THE PASCAL’S CALCULATOR

In 1642, at the age of 19, a French mathematician name Biaise Pascal, invented the
Pascaline. The Pascaline is the first mechanical and automatic calculator. It represents
the position of digit with the help of gears in it. The machine is sometimes called adding
machine or Pascal‘s calculator.

(3) ANALYTICAL ENGINE

The Analytical Engine was a mechanical computer that can solve any mathematical
problem. It was invented by Charles Babbage a scientist form England invented in 1833.
It uses punch cards similar to those used by the Jacquard loom and can perform simple

Page 4 of 66
conditional operations. For this great invention of the computer, Sir Charles Babbage is
also known as the father of the computer.

(4) Herman Hollerith and Computer Punch Cards

A punch card is a piece of stiff paper that contains digital information represented by the
presence or absence of holes in predefined positions. The information might be data for
data processing applications or, as in earlier times, used to directly control automated
machinery. The terms IBM card, or Hollerith card, specifically refer to punch cards used
in semiautomatic data processing.

Punch cards were widely used through much of the 20th century in what became known
as the data processing industry, where specialized and increasingly complex unit record
machines, organized into data processing systems, used punched cards for data input,
output, and storage. Many early digital computers used punched cards, often prepared
using keypunch machines, as the primary medium for input of both computer programs
and data. Punched cards are now obsolete as a recording medium, as the last election in
which they were used was the 2014 midterms, according to the Pew Research Center.

Page 5 of 66
 (5) ENIAC

Short for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, the ENIAC was the first
electronic computer used for general purposes, such as solving numerical problems. It was
designed and invented by John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly at the University of
Pennsylvania to calculate artillery firing tables for the US Army's Ballistic Research
Laboratory. Its construction began in 1943 and was not completed until 1946. Although it
was not completed until the end of World War II, the ENIAC was created to help with the
war effort against German forces. During the war, there was a shortage of male engineers, so
the programming was done by a team of six women computers: Betty Jean Jennings (Bartik),
Marilyn Wescoff, Ruth Lichterman, Elizabeth Snyder, Frances Bilas, and Kathleen McNulty

In 1953, the Burroughs Corporation built a 100-word magnetic-core memory, which added to
the ENIAC's memory capabilities, which at the time only held a 20-word internal memory.
By 1956, the end of its operation, the ENIAC occupied about 1,800 square feet and consisted
of almost 20,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, 10,000 capacitors, and 70,000 resistors. It also
used 200 kilowatts of electricity, weighed over 30 tons, and cost about $487,000.

CLASSIFY THE COMPUTER ACCORDING TO GENERATIONS

Computers categorized into several types based on generations and size of computers. Both
types of categories work well up till now. The major types of computers are:

1. Super computer
2. Mainframe Computer
3. Minicomputer
4. Microcomputer

Page 6 of 66
COMPUTER GENERATIONS CLASSIFIED INTO FIVE TYPES SUCH AS
FOLLOWING:

1. First Generation
2. Second Generation
3. Third Generation
4. Fourth Generation
5. Fifth Generation

First Generation Computers

First Generation Computers were working during the 1940-1956 with proper maintenance of
Vacuum Tubes on those computers. Vacuum Tubes most useful to process the data in
memory. First generation computers use more power from electricity, as such, it produce
high heat, those devices vulnerable to the attacks malfunction. First generation computers
perform several operations per bit; thus, take more time due to the simple programming
skills. Those types of computers take the input from punched cads and give output to the
users on screens. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer design with vacuums
tubes in first generation in U.S that developed to use at U.S. census Bureau.

Page 7 of 66
Second Generation Computers

Second Generation computers were working in between the 1956-1963 with Transistors. The
size of the computers decreases than first generation and available with cheap cost. Second
generation computers maintain binary and assembly level languages. The famous high level
languages COBOL, FORTRAN and etc developed in second generation computers. Second
generation computers designed for atomic energy industry.

Page 8 of 66
Third Generation Computers:

Third generation computers were working during the 1964-1971 with Integrated Circuits
those IC‘s placed at the place of transistors. IC‘s maintain transistors along with the silicon
chips and semiconductors. They can increase the system performance and efficiency. This
generation computers use keyboard and Operating system, thus, provide high efficiency to
the users.

Fourth Generation Computers:

Fourth generation computers, built in the year 1971, work with Microprocessors, It consists
of several ICs placed in single environment to complete operations quickly. It has proper
input and output controls so, number of people are working with fourth generation
computers. This generation designed by the IBM Company in the year 1981 and Apple
Company, 1984 respectively. Fourth generation computers occupy limited space.

Page 9 of 66
Fifth Generation Computer

Fifth generation computers were designed on Artificial Intelligence technology mode. The
major applications will go to install in fifth generation computers those are voice
reorganization techniques and parallel processing techniques. Those may be useful to the
Nano technology, quantum technology, etc. Fifth generation computing devices offer self-
learning and self-organization features to the users.

Page 10 of 66
Analog, Digital and Hybrid Computers

The basis of Data Handling capability computers are three types:

1. Analogue Computer
2. Digital Computer
3. Hybrid Computer

1. Analogue Computer
Analogue Computers are designed to process the analogue data. Analogue data is continuous
data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values such as speed, temperature,
pressure and current.
The analogue computers measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and generally
render output as a reading on a dial or scale.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting
it into numbers and codes. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue
computers.
2. Digital Computer
Digital Computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It
accepts the raw data as digits or numbers and processes it with programs stored in its memory to
produce output. All modern computers like laptops and desktops that we use at home or office
are digital computers.
3. Hybrid Computer

Page 11 of 66
Hybrid Computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like analogue
computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both continuous
and discrete data. So it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and
digital data is processed. For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the
measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price.

Calculator and Computer

The foundation of calculator and computer is the same, and these devices were developed to
solve the complicated problems. However, the calculator and computer can be differentiated by
the fact that we can program a computer to make decisions while this can‘t be done with the
calculator.

Key Differences Between Calculator and Computer:

1. A calculator can conduct just arithmetic operations. On the contrary, a computer can
successfully perform arithmetic as well as logical operations.

2. The memory installed in computer very much larger than the memory that a calculator is
equipped with.

3. A computer can also be used for entertainment and for other tasks too, but this is not
possible with a calculator.

4. We can program a computer in several different languages. As against, a calculator has no

such facility.

Four Basic Functions of a Computer

These tasks are all related to the four basic computer operations: input, output, processing and
storage.

 Input and Output Functions of a Computer: The input computer function accepts data
from input devices and sends it to the computer processor, while the output function
communicates the results of processing. A class of hardware devices known as
peripherals is used to perform these functions. Common input peripherals include the
keyboard, mouse, stylus and touchscreen. Digital cameras, microphones, scanners and
Page 12 of 66
 joysticks can also be used to input information into a computer. Output peripherals
include monitors, speakers and 2D and 3D printers.

 Data Processing Computer Function: Data processing is the most basic function of a
computer. This function is performed by the central processing unit (CPU), which
consists of electronic circuits that can read and execute code instructions to perform a
wide range of tasks, from performing complex mathematical calculations to sorting the
entries in a database. The CPU can be seen as the brain of the computer, accepting input
data and instructions, executing commands, storing results in memory and sending data to
output devices. It controls the sequence of operations and the use of data storage. In
addition to the CPU, some of the processing function of a computer may be performed by
an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and binary logic operations, or
a graphics processing unit (GPU) that's responsible for creating graphical output that
displays data in visual form. Gaming computers are heavily dependent on GPUs to
generate complex dynamic graphics.

 Data Storage Computer Function: One of the most useful functions of a computer is
data storage. Besides storing data that has been input through peripherals, computers also
need a way to save the results of data processing. All this is accomplished through
peripheral storage devices, which may be internal or external. Internal storage includes
RAM (random access memory), which is used during processing and temporary in
nature. Information stored in RAM memory is not retained if the computer is turned off.
Persistent, long-lasting data storage is provided by external devices like CDs, DVDs,
hard drives and flash drives.
Benefits of computers to the society

1. Accurate, repeatable and cheap manufacturing and design. Leading to cheaper

consumer and industrial products.
2. Scientific models leading to better predictions and theories on extremely complex
systems.
3. Logistical systems control leading to cheaper consumer and industrial products.
4. Comparatively cheap mass communication throughout the world.
5. Access to almost the sum of human knowledge, or at minimum an overview of a given
subject.
6. Easy and quick access to virtually all human knowledge.
7. Political changes that include and allow universal registration and voting.
8. Financial flexibility for customers of banks and brokerage houses.
9. Quick online purchases of anything from home.
10. Advances in science because of significant increase in design and analysis.
11. Ability to efficiently and efficaciously run a centralized form of government.

Page 13 of 66
 MODULE 2

COMPUTER OPERATING SYSTEMS AND SOFTWARE

Elements of a Computer System

There are six main elements that make up a computer system. They all interact with each other
and perform the task at hand. Let us take a look at all of them.

1. Hardware

These are all the physical aspects of a computer system. They are tangible, i.e. you can see and
touch them. Hardware components are the electronic or mechanical instruments, like keyboard,
monitor, printer etc. They help the users interface with the software, and also display the result
of the tasks being performed.

Hardware can actually be of four types, depending on which function they perform. The four
types of hardware are:

• Input Hardware: For users to input data into the computer system. Examples: Keyboard,
mouse, Scanner.

• Output Hardware: To translate and display the result of the data processing. Example:
Monitor Screen, Printer, etc.,

• Processing and Memory Hardware: Where data and information are processed and
manipulated to perform the task at hand. It is also the workspace of the computer, where it
temporarily stores data. Examples: Central Processing Unit (CPU), Read Only Memory
(RAM). Secondary Storage Hardware: Where the computer system stores data
permanently. Example: Hard disk, Pen drive, etc.,

2. Software

Software is nothing but a set of programs (computer instructions), which helps the user to do a
set of specific tasks. It helps the user interact with the computer system with the help of
hardware. Software, as you can imagine, is the intangible aspect of the computer system.

Basically, there are six main types of software, which are as follows:

• Operating System: These specialized programs allow the communication between software
and hardware. The operating systems run all the other computer programs, and even
regulate the startup process of the computer. Examples: Windows XP, Macintosh, etc.,
Page 14 of 66
• Application Software: These are designed to perform a specific task or a bunch of tasks.
They can be user-designed (specific to the user‘s needs) or readymade application software.
Example: PowerPoint, Tally etc.

• Utility Software: Like operating systems, it is system software. It helps maintain and protect
the computer system. For example, Anti-virus software is utility software.

• Language Processors: Software that interprets computer language and translates it into
machine language. It also checks for errors in language syntax and fixes the problems.

• System Software: This types of software control the hardware, the reading of the data and
other such internal functions.

• Connectivity Software: The special software that facilitates the connection between the
computer system and the server. This allows the computer to share information and
communicate with each other.

3. People

The people interacting with the computer system are also an element of it. We call this element
the Liveware. They are the ultimate ―users‖ of the computer systems. There are three types of
people that interact with the system, namely:

• Programmers: Professionals who write the computer programs that allow users to interact
with the computer. They must have technical knowledge of computers and computer
languages.

• System Analyst: They mainly design data processing systems, and solve problems that
arise in data processing

• End-Users: Also known as operators, they are the people who interact with the computer
system.

4. Procedures

These are a set of instructions, written in code, to instruct a computer on how to perform a task,
run a software, do calculations etc. There are three types of procedures in a computer they are:

• Hardware-Oriented Procedure: Instructs the hardware components of the system, ensures

they work smoothly.

• Software Oriented Procedure: Provides instructions to launch and run software programs

• Internal Procedures: Directs the flow of information and sequences the data.

Page 15 of 66
 5. Data

Data is essentially the raw facts and figures that we input in the computer. The data gets
processed via the computer system and becomes information, which is processed and organized
data. Information can then be used for decision-making purposes. The measurement of data is
done in terms of ―bytes‖. One kilobyte (KB) is approximately 1000 bytes, 1 megabyte (MB) is 1
million bytes and finally, 1 gigabyte (GB) is approximately 1 billion bytes.

6. Connectivity

This is when the computers are linked to a network. It facilitates sharing of information, files,
and other facilities. Computers can connect to a network via LAN cables, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi,
satellites etc. The internet is the most obvious example of connectivity in a computer system.

Figure 2.1 Interaction between computer Elements

What Are the Functions of Computer Peripherals?

Without peripherals, your communication with your computer would be far more limited.
Peripherals are the devices external to your computer that take in information, allow the
computer to put out information in visible and audible form, and perform other important
tasks. Devices such as printers, scanners, audio and visual equipment and external drives
allow us to make full use of the computer's resources. All of these devices hook up

Page 16 of 66
electronically via cables or wireless connection to the main computer, but are separate from
the main operating functions of the computer.

1. Printers
Printers provide the means for the computer to output information in portable form.
Whether a document, a photograph or even an image on canvas (for more sophisticated
devices) a printer allows us to reproduce information and share it with others.

2. Scanners

Scanners are input devices that give the means to insert information into a computer. They
can be used for visual information such as photographs or drawing, or teamed with type
reading software to import documents and translate the hard copy to text that can be edited
in word processing programs. Some scanners are sensitive enough to produce images that
are many millions of megabytes in size from an image as small as a slide.

3. Audio Peripherals
Audio peripherals are both input and output devices. Microphones make it possible to put
our voice into the computer and onto the web, or record an instrument. They need a special
jack (usually called a "stereo-mini") though better microphone can be used with the proper
adapters or external hardware. Most high-end recording studios now operate exclusively
with computerized inputs and sound boards. Speakers are another peripheral that output
music and other audio.

4. Video
Video cameras work with the microphones to create a complete audio/visual input that can
be edited on the computer and viewed, or uploaded to a video website. To view video, the
visual output is the monitor, not considered a peripheral as it is vital to computer function.
Some computers have a microphone and camera built in, in which case they are not
commonly considered peripherals.

5. External Drives
External drives or memory can be much larger in size (in terms of gigabytes of storage)
than the hard drives on a computer, or small in memory and portable enough to slide into a
shirt pocket. They provide storage for digital information that is too voluminous for the
hard drive within the computer, and the means to physically transport this information
easily.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of your computer. So you're shopping for a new
computer in an electronics store and you're trying to make sense of the technical specifications.
One computer that looks pretty cool has a 64-bit quad-core Intel i7 3.5 GHz processor. Sounds
impressive, but what does it really mean? The last computer you bought a few years ago had a
sticker on it that said Pentium 4, but you don't remember the details. The computer was getting
Page 17 of 66
 sort of slow, but why would you need a 64-bit quad-core? Why exactly is this better than the
processor in your old computer? To understand what the specifications mean, we first have to
look at how the processor is designed and how it functions.

The CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT of a computer is a piece of hardware that carries out the
instructions of a computer program. It performs the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output
operations of a computer system. The CPU is like the brains of the computer - every instruction,
no matter how simple, has to go through the CPU. So let's say you press the letter 'k' on your
keyboard and it appears on the screen - the CPU of your computer is what makes this possible.
The CPU is sometimes also referred to as the central processor unit, or processor for short. So
when you are looking at the specifications of a computer at your local electronics store, it
typically refers to the CPU as the processor. When we start to look at the various components of
a CPU and how they function, remember that this is all about speed. When we use a computer,
we want the instructions to be carried out very fast. As the instructions become more
complicated (for example, creating a 3D animation or editing a video file), we demand more
from the CPU. Thus, the technological advances we have seen in processor technology have
largely been driven by the need for speed.

The Four Primary Functions of the CPU

The CPU processes instructions it receives in the process of decoding data. In processing this
data, the CPU performs four basic steps:

1. Fetch: Each instruction is stored in memory and has its own address. The processor takes this
address number from the program counter, which is responsible for tracking which instructions
the CPU should execute next.
2. Decode: All programs to be executed are translated into Assembly instructions. Assembly code
must be decoded into binary instructions, which are understandable to your CPU. This step is
called decoding.
3. Execute: While executing instructions, the CPU can do one of three things: Do calculations with
its ALU, move data from one memory location to another, or jump to a different address.
4. Store: The CPU must give feedback after executing an instruction, and the output data is written
to the memory.

CPU Components
A typical CPU has a number of components. The first is the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which
performs simple arithmetic and logical operations. Second is the control unit (CU), which
manages the various components of the computer. It reads and interprets instructions from
memory and transforms them into a series of signals to activate other parts of the computer. The
control unit calls upon the arithmetic logic unit to perform the necessary calculations.

Page 18 of 66
 Top view of an Intel CPU - because it is a single integrated unit,
the components are not visible from the outside.

Third is the cache, which serves as high-speed memory where instructions can be copied to and
retrieved. Early CPUs consisted of many separate components, but since the 1970s, they have
been constructed as a single integrated unit called a microprocessor. As such, a CPU is a
specific type of microprocessor. The individual components of a CPU have become so integrated
that you can't even recognize them from the outside. This CPU is about two inches by two inches
in size.

Bottom view of an Intel CPU - the gold plated pins provide the
connections to the motherboard.

Page 19 of 66
CPUs are located on the motherboard. Motherboards have a socket for this, which is specific
for a certain type of processor. A CPU gets very hot and therefore needs its own cooling system
in the form of a heat sink and/or fan.

CPU located on a motherboard with a heat sink and fan directly

on top.

Storage Units

Page 20 of 66
 1. Bit
The smallest unit of data in a computer is called Bit (Binary Digit). A bit has a single binary
value, either 0 or 1. In most computer systems, there are eight bits in a byte. The value of a bit is
usually stored as either above or below a designated level of electrical charge in a single
capacitor within a memory device.

2. Nibble
Half a byte (four bits) is called a nibble.

3. Byte
In most computer systems, a byte is a unit of data that is eight binary digits long. A byte is the
unit most computers use to represent a character such as a letter, number or typographic symbol
(for example, ―g‖, ―5‖, or ―?‖). A byte can also hold a string of bits that need to be used in some
larger unit of application purposes (for example, the stream of bits that constitute a visual image
for a program that displays images or the string of bits that constitutes the machine code of a
computer program).
In some computer systems, four bytes constitute a word, a unit that a computer processor can be
designed to handle efficiently as it reads and processes each instruction. Some computer
processors can handle two-byte or single-byte instructions. A byte is abbreviated with a ―B‖. (A
bit is abbreviated with a small ―b‖). Computer storage is usually measured in byte multiples. For
example, an 820 MB hard drive holds a nominal 820 million bytes – or megabytes – of data.
Byte multiples are based on powers of 2 and commonly expressed as a ―rounded off‖ decimal
number. For example, one megabyte (―one million bytes‖) is actually 1,048,576 (decimal) bytes.

Page 21 of 66
 4. Word

Word "size" refers to the amount of data a CPU's internal data registers can hold and process at
one time. Modern desktop computers have 64-bit words. Computers embedded in appliances and
consumer products have word sizes of 8, 16 or 32 bits.

5. Octet
In some systems, the term octet is used for an eight-bit unit instead of byte. In many systems,
four eight-bit bytes or octets form a 32-bit word. In such systems, instructions lengths are
sometimes expressed as full-word (32 bits in length) or half-word (16 bits in length).

6. Kilobyte
A Kilobyte (kb or Kbyte) is approximately a thousand bytes (actually, 2 to the 10th power, or
decimal 1,024 bytes).

7. Megabyte
As a measure of computer processor storage and real and virtual memory,
a megabyte (abbreviated MB) is 2 to the 20th power byte, or 1,048,576 bytes in decimal
notation.

8. Gigabyte
A Gigabyte (pronounced Gig-a-bite with hard G‘s) is a measure of computer data storage
capacity and is ―roughly‖ a billion bytes. A gigabyte is two to the 30th power, or 1,073,741,824
in decimal notation.

9. Terabyte
A Terabyte is a measure of computer storage capacity and is 2 to the 40th power of 1024
gigabytes.

10. Petabyte
A Petabyte (PB) is a measure of memory or storage capacity and is 2 to the 50th power bytes or,
in decimal, approximately a thousand terabytes (1024 terabytes).

11. Exabyte
An Exabyte (EB) is a large unit of computer data storage, two to the sixtieth power bytes. The
prefix exa means one billion billion, or on quintillion, which is a decimal term. Two to the
sixtieth power is actually 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes in decimal, or somewhat over a
quintillion (or ten to the eighteenth power) bytes. It is common to say that an Exabyte is
approximately one quintillion bytes. In decimal terms, an Exabyte is a billion gigabytes.

12. Zettabyte
A Zettabyte (ZB) is equal to one sextillion bytes. It is commonly abbreviated ZB. At this time,
no computer has one Zettabyte of storage. It has 1024 Exabytes.

13. Yottabyte
A Yottabyte is equal to one septillion bytes. It is commonly abbreviated YB. At this time, no
computer has one Zettabyte of storage. It has 1024 Zettabytes.
Page 22 of 66
 BUSES
A bus is a high-speed internal connection. Buses are used to send control signals and data
between the processor and other components.

Three types of bus are used.

 Address bus - carries memory addresses from the processor to other components such as
primary storage and input/output devices. The address bus is unidirectional.
 Data bus - carries the data between the processor and other components. The data bus
is bidirectional.
 Control bus - carries control signals from the processor to other components. The control bus
also carries the clock's pulses. The control bus is unidirectional.

THE CONCEPT OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Different Types of Software

Typically, there are two major classifications of software, namely System Software and
Application Software.

1. System Software

System software aids the user and the hardware to function and interact with each other.
Basically, it is software to manage computer hardware behavior so as to provide basic
functionalities that are required by the user. In simple words, we can say that system
software is an intermediator or a middle layer between the user and the hardware. This
computer software sanctions a platform or environment for the other software to work in.
This is the reason why system software is very important in managing the entire computer
system. When you first turn on the computer, it is the system software that gets initialized
and gets loaded in the memory of the system. The system software runs in the background
and is not used by the end-users. This is the reason why system software is also known as
‗low-level software‘.

Page 23 of 66
Some common system software examples are:

 Operating System: It is the most prominent example of System Software. It is a

collection of software that handles resources and provides general services for the
other applications that run over them. Although each Operating System is different,
most of them provide a Graphical User Interface through which a user can manage
the files and folders and perform other tasks. Every device, whether a desktop,
laptop or mobile phone requires an operating system to provide the basic
functionality to it. As an OS essentially determines how a user interacts with th e
system, therefore many users prefer to use one specific OS for their device. There
are various types of operating system such as real-time, embedded, distributed,
multiuser, single-user, internet, mobile, and many more. It is important to consider
the hardware specifications before choosing an operating system. Some examples
of Operating systems given below:

o Android
o CentOS
o iOS
o Linux
o Mac OS
o MS Windows
o Ubuntu
o Unix

 Device Drivers: It is a type of software that controls particular hardware which is

attached to the system. Hardware devices that need a driver to connect to a system
include displays, sound cards, printers, mice and hard disks. Further, there are two

Page 24 of 66
 types of device drivers: Kernel Device Drivers and User Device Driver. Some
examples of device drivers are:

o BIOS Driver
o Display Drivers
o Motherboard Drivers
o Printer Drivers
o ROM Drivers
o Sound card Driver
o USB Drivers
o USB Drivers
o VGA Drivers
o VGA Drivers
o Virtual Device Drivers

 Firmware: Firmware is the permanent software that is embedded into a read-only

memory. It is a set of instructions permanently stored on a hardware device. It
provides essential information regarding how the device interacts with other
hardware. Firmware can be considered as ‗semi-permanent‘ as it remains
permanent unless it is updated using a firmware updater. Some examples of
firmware are:
o BIOS
o Computer Peripherals
o Consumer Applications
o Embedded Systems
o UEFI
 Programming Language Translators: These are mediator programs on which
software programs rely to translate high-level language code to simpler machine-
level code. Besides simplifying the code, the translators also do the following :
o Assign data storage
o Enlist source code as well as program details
o Offer diagnostic reports
o Rectify system errors during the runtime
o Examples of Programming Language Translators are Interpreter, Compiler
and Assemblers.
 Utility: Utility software is designed to aid in analyzing, optimizing, configuring
and maintaining a computer system. It supports the computer infrastructure. This
software focuses on how an OS functions and then accordingly it decides its
trajectory to smoothen the functioning of the system. Software like antiviruses,
disk cleanup & management tools, compression tools, defragmenters, etc., are all
utility tools. Some examples of utility tools are:

o Avast Antivirus
o Directory Opus
o McAfee Antivirus
o Piriform CCleaner

Page 25 of 66
 o Razer Cortex
o Windows File Explorer
o WinRAR
o WinZip

2. Application Software

Application Software, also known as end-user programs or productivity programs are

software that helps the user in completing tasks such as doing online research, jotting
down notes, setting an alarm, designing graphics, keeping an account lo g, doing
calculations or even playing games. They lie above the system software. Unlike system
software, they are used by the end-user and are specific in their functionality or tasks and
do the job that they are designed to do. For example, a browser is an application designed
specifically for browsing the internet or MS Powerpoint is an application used specifically
for making presentations. Application Software or simply apps can also be referred to as
non-essential software as their requirement is highly subjective and their absence does not
affect the functioning of the system. All the apps that we see on our mobile phones are
also examples of Application Software. There is certain software that is exclusively made
for app development like Meteor and Flutter. These are examples of Application software
too.

There are various types of application software:

 Word Processors: These applications for documentation. Along with that it also
helps I storing, formatting and printing of these documents. Some examples of
word processors are:

o Abiword
o Apple iWork- Pages
o Corel WordPerfect
o Google Docs
o MS Word

 Database Software: This software is used to create and manage a database. It is

also known as the Database Management System or DBMS. They help with the
organization of data. Some examples of DBMS are:

o Clipper
o dBase
o FileMaker
o FoxPro
o MS Access
o MySQL

Page 26 of 66
 Multimedia Software: It is the software that is able to play, create or record
images, audio or video files. They are used for video editing, animation, graphics,
and image editing, Some examples of Multimedia Software are:

o Adobe Photoshop
o Inkscape
o Media Monkey
o Picasa
o VLC Media Player
o Windows Media Player
o Windows Movie Maker

 Education and Reference Software: These types of software are specifically

designed to facilitate learning on a particular subject. There are various kinds of
tutorial software that fall under this category. They are also termed as academic
software. Some examples are:

o Delta Drawing
o GCompris
o Jumpstart titles
o KidPix
o MindPlay
o Tux Paint

 Graphics Software: As the name suggests, Graphics Software has been devised to
work with graphics as it helps the user to edit or make changes in visual data or
images. It comprises of picture editors and illustration software. Some examples
are:

o Adobe Photoshop
o Autodesk Maya
o Blender
o Carrara
o CorelDRAW
o GIMP
o Modo
o PaintShop Pro

 Web Browsers: These applications are used to browse the internet. They help the
user in locating and retrieving data across the web. Some examples of web
browsers are:

o Google Chrome
o Internet Explorer
o Microsoft Edge
o Mozilla Firefox

Page 27 of 66
 o Opera
o Safari
o UC Browser

Other than these, all the software that serves a specific purpose fall under the category of
Application Software.

However, there exists one more classification of the software. The software can also be
classified based on their availability and sharabilty.

This classification is as given below:

1. Freeware

Freeware software is available without any cost. Any user can download it from the
internet and use it without paying any fee. However, freeware does not provide any liberty
for modifying the software or charging a fee for its distribution. Examples are:

 Adobe Reader
 Audacity
 ImgBurn
 Recuva
 Skype
 Team Viewer
 Yahoo Messenger

Page 28 of 66
2. Shareware

It is software that is freely distributed to users on a trial basis. It usually comes with a
time limit and when the time limit expires, the user is asked to pay for the continu ed
services. There are various types of shareware like Adware, Donationware, Nagware,
Freemium, and Demoware (Cripplewareand Trialware). Some examples of shareware are:

 Adobe Acrobat
 Getright
 PHP Debugger
 Winzip

3. Open-source

These kinds of software are available to users with the source code which means that a
user can freely distribute and modify the software and add additional features to the
software. Open-Source software can either be free or chargeable. Some examples of open -
source software are:

 Apache Web Server

 GNU Compiler Collection
 Moodle
 Mozilla Firefox
 Thunderbird

Page 29 of 66
4. Software

They are also known as Closed-source software. These types of applications are usually
paid and have intellectual property rights or patents over the source code. The use of these
is very restricted and usually, the source code is preserved and kept as a secret.

Page 30 of 66
Low Level and High Level Programming Languages
Low- level languages (are machine dependent. That is, the code written can only be understood
by the particular computer or processor that it was used to write the code) Examples include:
First generation (Machine Language) and Second Generation (Assemble Language).
A high-level language is any programming language that enables development of a program in a
much more user-friendly programming context and is generally independent of the computer's
hardware architecture. High-level Language has a higher level of abstraction from the computer
and focuses more on the programming logic rather than the underlying hardware components-
such as memory addressing and register utilization.

Source Program and Object Program

The key difference between Source Program and Object Program is that Source program is a
human-readable program written by a programmer while object program is a machine
executable program created by compiling a source program.

Source programs can be either compiled or interpreted for execution. Compilers helps to convert
object programs back to its original source programs. It is important to note that the terms source
program and object program are used as relative terms. If you take a program transformation
program (like a compiler), what goes in is a source program and what comes out is an object
program. Therefore, an object program produced by one tool can become a source file for
another tool.

Source Program

The programmer writes the source program using High Level Language. Therefore, it is easily
readable by the human. Source programs usually contain meaningful variable names and helpful
comments to make it more readable. A machine cannot directly execute a source program. A
compiler helps to transform source program to executable code for execution by the machine.
Alternatively, is to use an interpreter. It executes a source program line by line without pre-
compilation.

Page 31 of 66
Figure 01: A Source Program

Visual Basic is an example of a compiled language, while Java is an example of an interpreted

language. Visual Basic source files (.vb files) are compiled to .exe code, while Java source files
(.java files) are first compiled (using javac command) to bytecode (an object code contained in
.class files) and then interpreted using the java interpreter (using java command). When software
applications are distributed, typically they will not include source files. However, if the
application is open source, the source is also distributed and the user gets to see and modify the
source code as well.

Object Program

Object program is usually a machine executable file, which is the result of compiling a source
file using a compiler. Apart from machine instructions, they may include debugging information,
symbols, stack information, relocation, and profiling information. Since they contain instructions
in machine code, they are not easily readable by humans. But sometimes, object programs refer
to an intermediate object between source and executable files. Tools known as linkers help to
link a set of objects into an executable (For example, C language). As mentioned above, .exe and
bytecode files are object files produced when using Visual Basic and Java respectively. The .exe
files directly execute on windows platform while bytecode files need an interpreter for execution.

Most software applications are distributed with the object or executable files only. It is possible
to convert the object or executable files back to its original source files by decompilation. For
example, the decompiler tools can decompile java.class files(bytecode) in to its original .java
files.
Page 32 of 66
Translator
A program written in High-Level Language is called as source code. To convert the source
code into machine code, translators are needed. A translator takes a program written in source
language as input and converts it into a program in target language as output. It also detects and
reports the error during translation.
Roles of translator are:
• Translating the High Level Language program input into an equivalent machine language
program.
• Providing diagnostic messages wherever the programmer violates specification of the high-
level language program.

Different type of translators

The different types of translator are as follows:
i. Compiler

Compiler is a translator which is used to convert programs in high-level language to low-level

language. It translates the entire program and also reports the errors in source program
encountered during the translation.

ii. Interpreter

Interpreter is a translator which is used to convert programs in high-level language to low-level

language. Interpreter translates line by line and reports the error once it encountered during the
translation process.
It directly executes the operations specified in the source program when the input is given by
the user.
It gives better error diagnostics than a compiler.

Page 33 of 66
Differences between compiler and interpreter
S/N Compiler Interpreter
1 Performs the translation of a program as a whole. Performs statement by
statement translation.
2 Execution is faster. Execution is slower.
3 Requires more memory as linking is needed for the Memory usage is efficient as
generated intermediate object code. no intermediate object code is
generated.
4 Debugging is hard as the error messages are generated Debugging is hard as the error
after scanning the entire program only. messages are generated after
scanning the entire program
only.
5 Programming languages like C, C++ uses compilers. Programming languages
like Python, BASIC, and Ruby
uses interpreters.

Bespoke Software

Bespoke software is an essential factor in each company. You, as the owner of your own
company, you should have custom software; you cannot work using commercial software of any
kind. Custom Software is one that adapts to the needs of your company, which has the necessary
features and the optimization that you need to provide a better service to your customers. Several
factors contribute, but let‘s see some advantages and benefits that custom software can offer you.
Bespoke Software Uses

The custom software indicated by your name customizes to the last detail. Within the custom
software, we find certain elements present in 80% of the solutions contracts of programming
companies. These are:

 ERP Applications: Custom software allows specialization for environments that

encompass different business processes to make work profitable, optimize resources, and
increase profits.
 Inclusion of a dashboard or strategic management system to allow companies to know
and measure the company‘s activity globally.
 Documentary managers and web applications that generate services to users and
integrates with web pages.
Page 34 of 66
  The custom software also contains CRM applications which companies use that require
exceptional control and monitoring of customers, database segmentation, and customer
service.
 Facebook applications: Virtualize, we set ourselves the objective that our customized
software is the one that suits the company and not the company to the program. This way,
you can make the most of your custom software from day one.

Bespoke Software Features

 Special Software: Custom Software is not only a whim, and also a system designed
especially for your company, it is software that facilitates the work and also increases the
speed in which it works. So, when looking for special and unique software for your
business, it is the best option with no useless functions, or strange buttons that you don‘t
know.
 Reduction of Costs and Times: One of the main advantages of having Custom Software
is cost savings, especially when it comes to labor. More so, time optimization is
essential, with a unique system for you, you can save ampule of time – which you can use
to improve other aspects of your company and even to continue growing it.
 Employee/Boss Satisfaction: Undoubtedly with specialized software, satisfaction will be
something unquestionable. Starting with the employee, who will feel more comfortable
and safe working with a system focused only and absolutely on the functions of the
company.

Custom software

Error Reduction and Productivity Increase: Two things go hand-in-hand; the number of
mistakes made with the custom software will be much smaller, which will generate an increase
in the productivity of your company. This will also increase sales, profitability of your business
and the income will show you that with the particular software you have made a significant
investment. A Total Control of your Company: With custom software, you can request what you
need. Therefore, if you need to have total control over everything that enters and leaves your
company, this will be possible. So, you will not miss anything; you can always be calm, it is
error-proof. But mainly, it is a customized system to execute all the processes of the company
and help in the solution of errors that may occur.

Conclusion
Custom Software is indispensable for any company, regardless of its size. And, it will allow you
to enjoy significant advantages, highlighting the optimization of times and the increase in sales
and profits. It is dedicated and specialized software for the needs of your business, which makes
few mistakes and generates satisfaction in your employees. A Customized Software will always
be far superior to any commercial software as this adapts to the functions and characteristics of
your company; able to deal with all aspects and problems of the company - something that the
software Generic is not able to do.

Page 35 of 66
Activity 1

1. Explain Microsoft Window.

2.8 Demonstrate the use of all the items in the desktop

2.9 Perform operation using warm and cool booting

2.10 Demonstrate the use of task bar and the start button

2.11 Demonstrate the use of the features of window

Page 36 of 66
 MODULE 3

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF DATA PROCESSING

Data processing
Data processing occurs when data is collected and translated into usable information. Usually
performed by a data scientist or team of data scientists, it is important for data processing to be
done correctly as not to negatively affect the end product or data output. Data processing starts
with data in its raw form and converts it into a more readable format (graphs, documents, etc.),
giving it the form and context necessary to be interpreted by computers and utilized by
employees throughout an organization. Data Processing is a method of manipulation of data. It
means the conversion of raw data into meaningful and machine-readable content. It basically is a
process of converting raw data into meaningful information. ―It can refer to the use of automated
methods to process commercial data.‖ Typically, this uses relatively simple, repetitive activities
to process large volumes of similar information. Raw data is the input that goes into some sort of
processing to generate meaningful output.

Six stages of data processing

1. Data collection
Collecting data is the first step in data processing. Data is pulled from available sources,
including data lakes and data warehouses. It is important that the data sources available are
trustworthy and well-built so the data collected (and later used as information) is of the highest
possible quality.

2. Data preparation
Once the data is collected, it then enters the data preparation stage. Data preparation, often
referred to as ―pre-processing‖ is the stage at which raw data is cleaned up and organized for the
following stage of data processing. During preparation, raw data is diligently checked for any
errors. The purpose of this step is to eliminate bad data (redundant, incomplete, or incorrect data)
and begin to create high-quality data for the best business intelligence.

3. Data input
The clean data is then entered into its destination (perhaps a CRM like Salesforce or a data
warehouse like Redshift), and translated into a language that it can understand. Data input is the
first stage in which raw data begins to take the form of usable information.

Page 37 of 66
4. Processing
During this stage, the data inputted to the computer in the previous stage is actually processed for
interpretation. Processing is done using machine learning algorithms, though the process itself
may vary slightly depending on the source of data being processed (data lakes, social networks,
connected devices etc.) and its intended use (examining advertising patterns, medical diagnosis
from connected devices, determining customer needs, etc.).

5. Data output/interpretation
The output/interpretation stage is the stage at which data is finally usable to non-data scientists. It
is translated, readable, and often in the form of graphs, videos, images, plain text, etc.). Members
of the company or institution can now begin to self-serve the data for their own data analytics
projects.

6. Data storage
The final stage of data processing is storage. After all of the data is processed, it is then stored
for future use. While some information may be put to use immediately, much of it will serve a
purpose later on. Plus, properly stored data is a necessity for compliance with data protection
legislation like GDPR. When data is properly stored, it can be quickly and easily accessed by
members of the organization when needed.

Types of Data Processing

There are different types of data processing techniques, depending on what the data is needed
for. In this article, we are going to discuss the five main types of data processing.

1. Commercial Data Processing

The commercial data processing means a method of applying standard relational databases, and
it includes the usage of batch processing. It involves providing huge data as input into the system
and creating a large volume of output but using less computational operations. It basically
combines commerce and computers for making it useful for a business. The data that is
processed through this system is usually standardized and therefore has a much lower chance of
errors. Many manual works are automated through the use of computers to make it easy and
error-proof. Computers are used in business to take raw data and process it into a form of
information that is useful to the business. Accounting programs are prototypical examples of data

Page 38 of 66
processing applications. An Information System (IS) is the field that studies such as
organizational computer systems.

2. Scientific Data Processing

Unlike commercial data processing, Scientific data processing involves a large use of
computational operations but lower volumes of inputs as well as outputs. The computational
operations include arithmetical and comparison operations. In this type of processing, any
chances of errors are not acceptable as it would lead to wrongful decision making. Hence the
process of validating, sorting, and standardizing the data is done very carefully, and a wide
variety of scientific methods are used to ensure no wrong relationships and conclusions are
reached. This takes a longer time than in commercial data processing. The common examples of
scientific data processing include processing, manage, and distribute science data products and
facilitate scientific analysis of algorithms, calibration data, and data products as well as
maintaining all software, calibration data, under strict configuration control.

3. Batch Processing
Batch Processing means a type of Data Processing in which a number of cases are processed
simultaneously. The data is collected and processed in batches, and it is mostly used when the
data is homogenous and in large quantities. Batch Processing can be defined as concurrent,
simultaneous, or sequential execution of an activity. Simultaneous Batch processing occurs when
they are executed by the same resource for all the cases at the same time. Sequential Batch
processing occurs when they are executed by the same resource for different cases either
immediately or immediately after one another.

Concurrent Batch processing means when they are executed by the same resources but partially
overlapping in time. It is used mostly in financial applications or at the places where additional
levels of security are required. In this processing, the computational time is relatively less
because by applying a function to the whole data altogether extracts the output. It is able to
complete work with a very less amount of human intervention.

Page 39 of 66
4. Online Processing
In the parlance of today‘s database systems, ―online‖ that signifies ―interactive‖, within the
bounds of patience.‖ Online processing is the opposite of ―batch‖ processing. Online processing
can be built out of a number of relatively more simple operators, much as traditional query
processing engines are built. Online Processing Analytical operations typically involve major
fractions of large databases. It should, therefore be surprising that today‘s Online analytical
systems provide interactive performance. The secret to their success is precomputation.

In most Online Analytical Processing systems, the answer to each point and click is computed
long before the user even starts the application. In fact, many Online processing systems do that
computation relatively inefficiently, but since the processing is done in advance, the end-user
does not see the performance problem. This type of processing is used when data is to be
processed continuously, and it is fed into the system automatically.

5. Real-Time Processing
The current data management system typically limits the capacity of processing data on as and
when basis because this system is always based on periodic updates of batches due to which
there is a time lag by many hours in happening of an event and recording or updating it. This
caused a need for a system that would be able to record, update and process the data on as and
when basis, i.e. in real-time which would help in reducing the time lag between occurrence and
processing to almost nil. Huge chunks of data are being poured into systems off organizations,
hence storing and processing it in a real-time environment would change the scenario.

Most organizations want to have real-time insights into the data so as to understand the
environment within or outside their organization fully. This is where the need for a system arises
that would be able to handle real-time data processing and analytics. This type of processing
provides results as and when it happens. The most common method is to take the data directly
from its source, which may also be referred to as stream, and draw conclusions without actually
transferring or downloading it. Another major technique in real-time processing is Data
virtualization techniques where meaningful information is pulled for the needs of data processing
while the data remains in its source form.

Page 40 of 66
 Advantages of Computer Data Processing

Computer-oriented data processing systems or just computer data processing systems are not
designed to imitate manual systems. They should combine the capabilities of both humans and
computers. Computer data processing systems can be designed to take advantage of four
capabilities of computers.

1. Accuracy. Once data have been correctly entered into the computer component of a data
processing system, the need for further manipulation by humans is eliminated, and the
possibility of error is reduced. Computers, when properly programmed, aren't able to make
computational errors. Of course, computer systems remain vulnerable to the entry by humans
of invalid data.

2. Ease of communications. Data, once entered, can be transmitted wherever needed by

communications networks. These may be either earth or satellite-based systems. A travel
reservations system is an example of a data communications network. Reservation clerks
throughout the world may make an enquiry about transportation or lodgings and receive an
almost instant response. Another example is an office communications system that provides
executives with access to a corporate data base, from their personal microcomputer work
stations.

3. Capacity of storage. Computers are able to store vast amounts of information, to organize
it, and to retrieve it in ways that are far beyond the capabilities of humans. The amount of data
that can be stored on devices such as magnetic discs is constantly increasing. All the while, the
cost per character of data stored is decreasing.

4. Speed. The speed, at which computer data processing systems can respond, adds to their
value. For example, the travel reservations system mentioned above is not useful if clients
have to wait more than a few seconds for a response. The response required might be a
fraction of a second.

Thus, an important objective in the design of computer data processing systems is to allow
computers to do what they do best and to free humans from routine, error-prone tasks. The
most cost-effective computer data processing system is the one that does the job effectively
and at the least cost. By using computers in a cost-effective manner, we will be better able to
respond to the challenges and opportunities of our post-industrial, information-dependen

Disadvantages of Computer Data Processing

Computer data processing obviously has many advantages over manual processing. Many
offices, in particular small offices, still retain manual methods, sometimes with good reason. For
computers are not without their disadvantages:

• They have to be paid for. A small business system, with a decent printer, software, etc., will
probably cost around two or three thousand pounds.

Page 41 of 66
• Existing procedures have to be converted to computer processing. The change-over can be
protracted, and can cause many headaches.

• A breakdown in the equipment can bring the entire office to a halt.

• Computer processing is more inflexible than manual processing. Once set up, the computer
procedures cannot be as easily changed to cope with the changing requirements of a business.

• Computer security can be a major problem. Businesses have been defrauded of large sums of
money by employees tampering with their computer systems.

Apart from computer security, these disadvantages are declining in importance with the steady
reduction in costs and improvement in reliability and features of computer systems.

Page 42 of 66
 MODULE 4

PRINCIPLES OF DATA MANAGEMENT

METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

Source Documents
Source documents are the physical basis upon which business transactions are recorded.
Source documents are typically retained for use as evidence when auditors l ater review a
company's financial statements, and need to verify that transactions have, in fact, occurred.
They usually contain a description of a business transaction, the date of the transaction, a
specific amount of money, and an authorizing signature. Many source documents are also
stamped to indicate an approval, or on which to write down the current date or the accounts
to be used to record the underlying transaction. A source document does not have to be a
paper document. It can also be electronic, such as an electronic record of the hours worked
by an employee, as entered into a company's timekeeping system through a smartphone.
Examples of source documents, and their related business transactions that appear in the
financial records, are noted below:
 Bank Statement: A bank statement contains a number of adjustments to a company's
book balance of cash on hand that the company should reference to bring its records into
alignment with those of the bank.
 Cash Register Tape: A cash register tape can be used as evidence of cash sales, which
supports the recordation of a sale transaction.
 Credit Card Receipt: A credit card receipt can be used as evidence for a disbursement
of funds from petty cash.
 Lockbox Check Images: Lockbox check images support the recordation of cash receipts
from customers.
 Packing Slip: A packing slip describes the items shipped to a customer, and so supports
the recordation of a sale transaction.
 Sales Order: A sales order, when coupled with a bill of lading and/or packing list, can be
used to invoice a customer, which in turn generates a sale transaction.
 Supplier Invoice: A supplier invoice is a source document that supports the issuance of a
cash, check, or electronic payment to a supplier. A supplier invoice also supports the
recordation of an expense, inventory item, or fixed asset.
 Time Card: A time card supports the issuance of a paycheck or electronic payment to an
employee. If employee hours are being billed to customers, then it also supports the
creation of customer invoices. For example, a company is in the consulting business. it
accumulates hours-worked information from employee timesheets, which is then
included in customer invoices that in turn result in the creation of a sale and accounts
receivable transaction. Thus, in this situation, the timesheet is the source document for a
sale transaction.

Page 43 of 66
Controls over Source Documents
There are a number of possible controls that can be used to reduce the risk that source documents
are not properly recorded in an accounting system. One of the more common controls is to pre-
number documents, so that missing documents are easier to track down. Another control is to
reconcile the balances in accounts to the supporting source documents to see if either some
document have not been recorded, or if some transactions recorded in the accounts do not appear
to have any supporting source documents.
How Long to Retain Source Documents
Various regulations mandate that some source documents be retained for a number of years. It
may also be prudent to retain these documents irrespective of regulations, if only to provide
evidence in the event of a lawsuit, or to provide better customer service. For these reasons, a
company should adopt a document destruction policy that strictly controls the shredding or other
form of elimination of source documents until a certain number of years have passed.

DATA ELECTRONIC MACHINERY

 Barcode: A barcode, consisting of bars and spaces, is a machine-readable

representation of numerals and characters. Today, stripes as shown below on
packages of products sold at supermarkets, convenience stores and other stores are
ubiquitous. These are barcodes. A barcode consists of bars and spaces of varying
width that can be read with an optical barcode scanner.
 Punch cards (or "punched cards"), also known as Hollerith cards or IBM cards, are
paper cards where holes may be punched by hand or machine to represent computer data
and instructions. They were a widely-used means of inputting data into early computers.
The cards were fed into a card reader connected to a computer, which converted the
sequence of holes to digital information. For example, an early computer programmer
would write a program by hand, then convert the program to a series of punched cards
using a punch card machine. The programmer would then take the stack of cards to a
computer and feed the cards into a card reader to input the program.
 Cash Registers

Page 44 of 66
The official definition of the term ―cash register‖ is ―a business machine that usually has a
money drawer, indicates the amount of each sale, and records the amount of money received.‖
A cash register logs transactions that occur in your store, creating a record of the money coming
in and going out. It can also calculate and add taxes, generate receipts, and offer basic sales
tracking. Many major grocery stores and department stores use cash registers. The cash register
was first invented back in 1879 by whiskey, wine and cigar merchant James Ritty as a
preventative measure towards employee theft. And while we‘re willing to bet employee theft was
a lot more rampant back then, it‘s still a concern for retailers. In fact, employee theft is the
second-most leading cause of shrinkage for retailers, according to data by the National Retail
Federation. Cash registers have come a long way since their early iterations. Now, we have
electronic cash registers that you commonly see in restaurants. While a basic cash register is set
up to handle cash transactions, newer ones have more robust options.
Generally speaking, cash registers are only a few hundred dollars in cost, but if you want
additional functions like credit card readers, barcode scanners or scales, then you‘ll need to
invest in additional hardware.

 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): Magnetic ink character recognition

(MICR) is a technology used primarily to identify and process checks. The MICR on a
check is the string of characters that appears at the bottom left of the check. It consists of
Page 45 of 66
 three groups of numbers, including the bank routing number, the account number, and
the check number. The MICR includes, from left, a nine-character routing number, a 12-
character account number, and a four-character check number. It is called a magnetic ink
character recognition line in reference to the print technology that is used to enable a
machine to read, process, and record information.

 Optical Mark Recognition: The acronym ―OMR‖ stands for Optical Mark Recognition.
This popular and highly accurate recognition technology is used for collecting data from
―fill-in-the-bubble‖ types of questions on student tests, surveys, ballots, assessments,
evaluations, and many other types of forms. OMR can be confused with other types of
recognition including: OCR (Optical Character Recognition) – reading machine printed
characters, and ICR (Intelligent Character Recognition) – reading handwritten characters.
Optical Mark Recognition enables the respondent to select an answer to a question by
filling in a ―bubble‖ or ―mark‖ associated with an answer choice. For instance, in the
image on the right the respondent selected Excellent in a box to indicate that the location
was Excellent.

In addition to multiple choice questions, OMR can be used to capture names, ID numbers, and
other non-multiple-choice data as illustrated in the image to left. In this case, the respondent
filled in his or her name as ―KP CRABTREE‖. Collecting this type of data with OMR is much
more accurate than trying to recognize a respondent‘s handwritten name using ICR technology.

Page 46 of 66
METHODS OF DATA VALIDATION

Data Transmission

Data transmission is the transfer of data from one digital device to another. This transfer occurs
via point-to-point data streams or channels. These channels may previously have been in the
form of copper wires but are now much more likely to be part of a wireless network. Data can be
transmitted electronically over phone lines, by wireless, etc.

Methods of Data Storage

 Card Index: a method of storing information on cards, usually arranged in alphabetical

order in drawers. This computerized index replaced a card index system that had to be
updated by hand.
 Auxiliary Devices: Auxiliary storage is any storage that is made available to the system
through input/output channels. This term refers to any addressable storage that is not
within the system memory (RAM). These storage devices hold data and programs for
future use and are considered nonvolatile storage that retains information even when
power is not available. They trade slower read/write rates for increased storage capacity.
Auxiliary storage may also be referred to as secondary storage

 Examples of Auxiliary Devices:

o Floppy Disks
o Hard Drives
o CD-ROM
o Tape Backup Drives
o ZIP Drives

SECURITY AND SAFETY PROCEDURE WITHIN A COMPUTER ENVIRONMENT

Computer security
Computer security basically is the protection of computer systems and information from harm,
theft, and unauthorized use. It is the process of preventing and detecting unauthorized use of
your computer system.

Safety Measures

Page 47 of 66
The computer wizards/professionals and users should be aware of safety precaution to be taken
when using the computer. To avoid health problems and accidents in the computer room the
following safety measure should be considered.

Good Ventilation: Air conditioner is necessary in the computer room to make the computer
performs well. The computer generates a lot of heat, hence the need for the air conditioner or
fan. It is also necessary for the computer user to be comfortable. The design of workstations
should be such that people are maintaining neutral posture.

Setting Computers: When setting a computer room the following must be taken into
consideration:

⇒The computer must be space apart

⇒There must be free entry and exit
⇒All wires connecting the system should be properly disposed
⇔A computer library should be closed to computer room.

Dust free environment: Dust should be prevented as often as possible in the computer. The
floor must always be kept clean the computer and its peripheral should be covered using the dust
cover after use.

Protection from power problems: The surge protectors, the use of stabilizer and UPS must be
upheld to prevent any form of damage caused by power fluctuations.

Good Lightening: The computer room should be well illuminated, use of florescent tubes and
bulbs to provide light to make the room bright for all the activities carried out by the computer
uses is essential.

Computer Security: This involves putting in places a reliable security measures to protect both
the physical measures to prevent crime‖

Page 48 of 66
Fire Prevention in Computer and Server Rooms

There are some things that you can do to prevent a fire from breaking out—in some cases, fire
prevention is more powerful than any fire protection system. If you put in place practices that all
but eliminate any unintentional fire emergency, you may never have to use your fire suppression
system or evacuation plans.

It is recommended that you follow the most recent version of the National Fire Protection
Association‘s NFPA 75: Standard for Fire Protection of Information Technology Equipment. In
addition, you can follow these tips for preventing fire within your property:

o Keep your computer room free of storage—storing combustible materials in your

computer room can increase the chance and spread of a fire. Keep minimal supplies in the
area and store boxes, packaging, and manuals elsewhere.
o Inspect power cords—frayed or damaged power cords increase the risk of fire, as a spark
could easily ignite the room. Check for damage and have repairs done immediately.
o Maintain and clean computer systems—allowing dust and debris to settle on your
equipment only adds to flammable materials. Think of dust as kindling.
o Train employees and display fire emergency plans—ensuring your employees know how
to respond to a fire (whether that means proper use of a fire extinguisher or immediately
evacuating to safety) can save lives and help prevent further damage.
o Schedule regular inspection of your fire protection systems—your life safety and fire
protection systems are only effective if they are in working order. Schedule regular
inspections with a local, professional fire protection company, like State Systems Inc. They
can ensure that your equipment is not only in working order but that it meets all local and
state fire codes.

Fire Suppression Systems For Computer Rooms

Immediate detection and suppression of a fire within a computer room is critical to minimizing
injury, damage, and downtime. And, in many commercial and residential cases, water is the go to
method of diffusing fires. But when you‘re operating a computer or server facility, water can
potentially do as much damage to your equipment and assets as a fire itself.

Fire suppression systems are designed specifically for protecting sensitive electronic equipment
from a fire. With fast-acting suppression technology, these systems minimize the damage, clean-
up, and downtime. They are ideal for protecting things, such as:

o Financial records
o Data storage
o Computer equipment
o Data processing equipment
o Health care records

Page 49 of 66
Some fire suppression systems activate in as little as 10 seconds to suppress a detected
emergency. This not only minimizes damage to equipment—using clean agent chemicals rather
than technologically destructive water—but also contains the fire to its ignition site.

What Is Malware and How To Prevent Against It

You may have heard the terms ransomware, trojan and virus used in news reports and wondered
what they actually mean. These words all refer to a type of malicious software used to infect
computers and devices.

Malware (short for malicious software) is fast becoming one of the biggest threats online and has
been used in some of the world‘s largest cyber-attacks including the 2017 WannaCry attack that
affected more than 200,000 victims in 150 countries. Malware is typically installed on a
computer when a user clicks on a link, downloads a malicious attachment or opens a rogue
software program. Once installed, attackers can use the malware to spy on your online activities,
steal personal and financial information or use your device to hack other systems.

Page 50 of 66
This form of attack has proved hugely profitable and is becoming more sophisticated as
criminals blend old and new variants to cause maximum damage. There are lots of different
types of malware available, with some more harmful than others. 230,000 new malware samples
are produced every day and each strain has its own individual way of infecting and damaging
computers.

The most common types of malware are:

1. Virus

A computer virus is a type of malicious software that once activated, will replicate itself from
folder to folder, inserting its own code. A virus can spread rapidly and will usually infect a
system with the intention of stealing personal and financial information, sending spam or locking
the system down.

2. Worm

A worm is very similar to a virus in that it replicates itself within a system but unlike a virus, it
doesn‘t spread to other programs. Once installed, the worm silently goes to work and infects the
machine without the user‘s knowledge. Worms can replicate themselves hundreds of times over,
depleting system resources and damaging devices.

3. Trojan

A Trojan is a type of malware that disguises itself as legitimate software but really serves a
malicious purpose. A Trojan may claim to be a free update, game, or an anti-virus program,
tricking the user into installing it onto their device. Once installed, the Trojan works quietly in
the background to steal sensitive data, install a backdoor or take other harmful actions.

4. Ransomware

In recent years, ransomware has become the malware of choice and by the end of the year, it‘s
expected to cost the world more than $8 billion in damages. Ransomware is a type of malicious
software that encrypts a victim‘s data and blocks access until a ransom is paid. The most
common delivery method for ransomware is by clicking on a link within an email or opening a
malicious attachment.
Page 51 of 66
 5. Spyware

Spyware is a type of software that installs itself on a device and secretly monitors a victim‘s
online activity. It collects all sorts of data, including passwords, credit card numbers and
browsing activity.

6. Adware

Adware is a type of malware that once downloaded will unexpectedly show advertisements on
the victim‘s computer. Adware doesn‘t tend to steal data like other forms of malware, but it can
be extremely frustrating as the user is forced to see ads they would prefer not to. The ads range
from small banner ads to invasive pop windows that can‘t be closed down.

7. Botnet

A bot is a device that has been infected with malicious software to do something harmful without
the user‘s knowledge. Botnets are networks of these infected devices that work together under
the control of an attacker. Botnets can be used to conduct phishing campaigns, send out spam or
used to carry out Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks.

How can I prevent my device from becoming infected with malware?

To prevent your devices from being infected with malware, there are a number of steps you can
take:

1. Install Anti-virus software

Page 52 of 66
One of the most important ways to protect against malware is to install anti-virus software. Anti-
virus software will protect your device from malicious software that poses a threat to the system.
It will scan your computer to detect and clean the malware and provide automatic updates to
provide enhanced protection against newly created viruses.

2. Regularly update software

In addition to installing anti-virus software, it‘s vital to ensure that your software is regularly
updated to stop attackers gaining access to your computer through vulnerabilities in older and
outdated systems.
Page 53 of 66
3. Only buy Apps from trusted sources

Buying apps from trustworthy sources reduces the chance of your device being infected with
malware. Big brands will take great care to ensure they do not damage their reputation by
distributing malware. To check the authenticity of a source, you can check the full name, list of
published apps and contact details in the app description within the Google Play or Apple app
store.

4. Don’t click on suspicious links or download attachments from unknown sources

Page 54 of 66
Phishing remains the easiest way for hackers to install malware on your device. Phishing
scams trick people into opening emails or clicking on a link that may appear to come from a
legitimate business or reputable source. The link may direct you to a fake website where you are
prompted to enter your personal details or take you to a website that directly infects your
computer with malware. If in doubt, don‘t click the link.

5. Install Firewall

Another way to protect your device from malware is to use a firewall. A firewall prevents
malicious attacks by blocking all unauthorised access to or from a private computer network. In
addition to anti-virus software, a firewall provides an extra barrier against malware, reducing the
chance of attack.

6. Back up data regularly

Page 55 of 66
It‘s important to back up on a regular basis to ensure that you can still retrieve all your valuable
data and files if your computer is infected with malware. This will help mitigate any damage and
ensure that you are not held victim to a ransomware attack.

Phishing is the number one cause of all cyber-attacks and continues to prove one of the easiest
ways to steal valuable data and deliver malware. MetaPhish has been created to provide a
powerful defense against these threats and enables organizations to find out just how susceptible
their company is to phishing. If you would like to find out more about how MetaPhish can be
used to protect your business, then contact us for further information.

SYSTEMS SECURITY: FIREWALLS, ENCRYPTION, PASSWORDS & BIOMETRICS

System Security
The objective of system security is the protection of information and property from theft,
corruption and other types of damage, while allowing the information and property to remain
accessible and productive. System security includes the development and implementation of
security countermeasures. There are a number of different approaches to computer system
security, including the use of a firewall, data encryption, passwords and biometrics.

1. Firewall
One widely used strategy to improve system security is to use a firewall. A firewall consists of
software and hardware set up between an internal computer network and the Internet. A
computer network manager sets up the rules for the firewall to filter out unwanted intrusions.
These rules are set up in such a way that unauthorized access is much more difficult.
Page 56 of 66
A system administrator can decide, for example, that only users within the firewall can access
particular files, or that those outside the firewall have limited capabilities to modify the files.
You can also set up a firewall for your own computer, and on many computer systems, this is
built into the operating system.

2. Encryption
One way to keep files and data safe is to use encryption. This is often used when data is
transferred over the Internet, where it could potentially be seen by others. Encryption is the
process of encoding messages so that it can only be viewed by authorized individuals. An
encryption key is used to make the message unreadable, and a secret decryption key is used to
decipher the message.
Encryption is widely used in systems like e-commerce and Internet banking, where the databases
contain very sensitive information. If you have made purchases online using a credit card, it is
very likely that you've used encryption to do this.

3. Passwords
The most widely used method to prevent unauthorized access is to use passwords. A password is
a string of characters used to authenticate a user to access a system. The password needs to be
kept secret and is only intended for the specific user. In computer systems, each password is
associated with a specific username since many individuals may be accessing the same system.
Good passwords are essential to keeping computer systems secure. Unfortunately, many
computer users don't use very secure passwords, such as the name of a family member or
important dates - things that would be relatively easy to guess by a hacker. One of the most
widely used passwords - you guessed it - 'password, definitely, not a good password to use.
So what makes for a strong password?

 Longer is better - A long password is much harder to break. The minimum length should
be 8 characters, but many security experts have started recommending 12 characters or
more.
 Avoid the obvious - A string like '0123456789' is too easy for a hacker, and so is
'LaDyGaGa'. You should also avoid all words from the dictionary.
 Mix it up - Use a combination of upper and lowercase and add special characters to make
a password much stronger. A password like 'hybq4' is not very strong, but 'Hy%Bq&4$'
is very strong.

Remembering strong passwords can be challenging. One tip from security experts is to come up
with a sentence that is easy to remember and to turn that into a password by using abbreviations
and substitutions. For example, 'My favorite hobby is to play tennis' could become something
like Mf#Hi$2Pt%.
Regular users of computer systems have numerous user accounts. Just consider how many
accounts you use on a regular basis: email, social networking sites, financial institutions, online
shopping sites and so on. A regular user of various computer systems and web sites will have

Page 57 of 66
dozens of different accounts, each with a username and password. To make things a little bit
easier on computer users, a number of different approaches have been developed.

Class Activity:
How would you protect computer systems from invasion by virus?

Page 58 of 66
 MODULE 5
PRINCIPLES OF DATA COMMUNICATION AND ITS APPLICATION

Telecommunication

Telecommunications, also known as telecom, is the exchange of information over significant

distances by electronic means and refers to all types of voice, data and video transmission. This
is a broad term that includes a wide range of information-transmitting technologies and
communications infrastructures, such as wired phones; mobile devices, such as cellphones;
microwave communications; fiber optics; satellites; radio and television broadcasting; the
internet; and telegraphs. A complete, single telecommunications circuit consists of two stations,
each equipped with a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter and receiver at any station may
be combined into a single device called a transceiver. The medium of signal transmission can be
via electrical wire or cable -- also known as copper -- optical fiber, electromagnetic fields or
light. The free space transmission and reception of data by means of electromagnetic fields is
called wireless communications.

Methods of Data Transmission

Parallel transmission
Within a computing or communication device, the distances between different subunits are too
short. Thus, it is normal practice to transfer data between subunits using a separate wire to carry
each bit of data. There are multiple wires connecting each sub-unit and data is exchanged using a
parallel transfer mode. This mode of operation results in minimal delays in transferring each
word.

• In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously on separate
communication lines.

• In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own line.
• All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to
another i.e. multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.
• Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.

Page 59 of 66
• As shown in the fig, eight separate wires are used to transmit 8 bit data from sender to
receiver.

Advantage of parallel transmission

 It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously with
a single clock pulse.
Disadvantage of parallel transmission

 It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n lines to transmit n bits at the same
time.

Serial Transmission
When transferring data between two physically separate devices, especially if the separation is
more than a few kilometers, for reasons of cost, it is more economical to use a single pair of
lines. Data is transmitted as a single bit at a time using a fixed time interval for each bit. This
mode of transmission is known as bit-serial transmission.

• In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after the other.
• It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data from sender to
receiver.
• Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.
• In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
• As shown in fig., suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source to destination. Then
least significant bit (LSB) that is 0 will be transmitted first followed by other bits. The most
significant bit (MSB) i.e. 1 will be transmitted in the end via single communication line.
• The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in order to change this
parallel data into serial data, conversion devices are used.
• These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the sender side so that it
can be transmitted over single line.
• On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so that the interval
circuitry of computer can accept it.

Page 60 of 66
• Serial transmission is used for long distance communication.

Advantage of Serial transmission

 Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the factor of n as
compared to parallel transmission.

Disadvantages of Serial transmission

 Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to increase in overall
transmission cost.
 This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are transmitted serially
one after the other.

Types of Serial Transmission

There are two types of serial transmission-synchronous and asynchronous both these
transmissions use ‗Bit synchronization‗

Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the beginning and end of
the data transmission occurs. Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know when
data begin and end during a transmission. Therefore bit synchronization provides timing control.

Asynchronous Transmission
• Asynchronous transmission sends only one character at a time where a character is either a
letter of the alphabet or number or control character i.e. it sends one byte of data at a time.

• Bit synchronization between two devices is made possible using start bit and stop bit.

• Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the receiver to the arrival of new group of
bits. A start bit usually 0 is added to the beginning of each byte.
• Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the receiver know that byte is finished, one or more
additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually 1s are called stop bits.

Page 61 of 66
• Addition of start and stop increase the number of data bits. Hence more bandwidth is consumed
in asynchronous transmission.

• There is idle time between the transmissions of different data bytes. This idle time is also
known as Gap

• The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals. This mechanism is called Asynchronous,
because at byte level sender and receiver need not to be synchronized. But within each byte,
receiver must be synchronized with the incoming bit stream.

Application of Asynchronous Transmission

1. Asynchronous transmission is well suited for keyboard type-terminals and paper tape devices.
The advantage of this method is that it does not require any local storage at the terminal or the
computer as transmission takes place character by character.

2. Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in which information is transmitted

in short bursts. This type of transmission is used by modems.

Advantages of Asynchronous transmission

1. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to synchronous e.g. If lines
are short, asynchronous transmission is better, because line cost would be low and idle time will
not be expensive.

2. In this approach each individual character is complete in itself, therefore if character is

corrupted during transmission, its successor and predecessor character will not be affected.

3. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.

2. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted becomes available.
3. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.
Page 62 of 66
Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission
1. This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission due to the overhead of
extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.

2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits. These bits can
be missed or corrupted.

Synchronous Transmission
• Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.

• In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain multiple bytes.

• There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream.

• In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established between sender & receiver
by ‗timing‘ the transmission of each bit.

• Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the responsibility of
receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes so as to reconstruct the original information.

• In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at the same clock
frequency.

Application of Synchronous transmission

• Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between computers.

Advantage of Synchronous transmission

1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits (start bit & stop
bit) and also there is no gap between the individual data bytes.
• In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established between sender & receiver
by ‗timing‘ the transmission of each bit.
• Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the responsibility of
receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes so as to reconstruct the original information.

Page 63 of 66
• In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at the same clock
frequency.

Application of Synchronous transmission

• Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between computers.

Advantage of Synchronous transmission

1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits (start bit & stop
bit) and also there is no gap between the individual data bytes.

Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission

1. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer storage at the two
ends of line to assemble blocks and it also requires accurately synchronized clocks at both ends.
This lead to cost increase.

2. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This requires proper
synchronization which makes the system complicated.

Comparison between Serial and Parallel transmission

Page 64 of 66
Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous

NATURE OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS

The terms internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably, but they are not exactly
the same thing; the internet refers to the global communication system, including hardware and
infrastructure, while the web is one of the services communicated over the internet. The internet
is a globally connected network system facilitating worldwide communication and access to data
resources through a vast collection of private, public, business, academic and government
networks. It is governed by agencies like the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (or IANA)
that establish universal protocols. The terms internet and World Wide Web are often used
interchangeably, but they are not exactly the same thing; the internet refers to the global
communication system, including hardware and infrastructure, while the web is one of the
services communicated over the internet. The internet is a globally connected network system
facilitating worldwide communication and access to data resources through a vast collection of
private, public, business, academic and government networks. It is governed by agencies like the
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (or IANA) that establish universal protocols.

E-MAIL, in full electronic mail, messages transmitted and received by digital computers
through a network. An e-mail system allows computer users on a network to send text, graphics,
sounds, and animated images to other users. On most networks, data can be simultaneously sent
to a universe of users or to a select group or individual. Network users typically have an
electronic mailbox that receives, stores, and manages their correspondence. Recipients can elect
to view, print, save, edit, answer, forward, or otherwise react to communications.

Electronic Commerce (Ecommerce) The term electronic commerce (ecommerce) refers to a

business model that allows companies and individuals to buy and sell goods and services over
the Internet. Ecommerce operates in four major market segments and can be conducted over
computers, tablets, smartphones, and other smart devices. Nearly every imaginable product and
service is available through ecommerce transactions, including books, music, plane tickets, and
financial services such as stock investing and online banking. As such, it is considered a very
disruptive technology.

Page 65 of 66
Mini Project: Carry out a visit to a standard internet café.

Page 66 of 66