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Tutorial 1

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7 views13 pages

Tutorial 1

Uploaded by

yarawael6665
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Probability

U: finite set (e.g. U={0,1}n) {0,1}2 = {00,01,10,11}

Probability distribution P over U is a function P:U→[0,1] such that

For example:

● Uniform distribution: for all x ∊U: P(x)= 1/|U|

P(00)=¼ P(01)=¼ P(10)=¼ P(11)=¼

● Point distribution at x0: P(x0)=1, ∀ x≠x0: P(x)=0

Distribution vector: (P(000), P(001), ..., P(111))


Events:

● For a set A ⊆ U:

● The set A is called an event.


● Example:

U={0,1}8

A={all x in U such that lsb2(x)=11} ⊆ U

for the uniform distribution on {0,1}8:

Pr(A)=
Def: a random variable X is a function X:U⟶V

X takes values in V and defines a distribution on V

Example: X(y) = lsb(y) ∈{0,1}

For the uniform distribution on U:

Pr[ X=0 ] = 1/2 , Pr[ X=1 ] = ½


The uniform random variable

Let r be a uniform random variable on {0,1}2

Define the random variable X = r1 + r2

Then Pr[X=2] =
Independence:

events A and B are independent if Pr[ A and B ] = Pr[A] ∙ Pr[B]

Same goes for random variables, random variables X,Y taking values in V are
independent if ∀a,b∈V: Pr[ X=a and Y=b] = Pr[X=a] ∙ Pr[Y=b]

Example:

U = {0,1}2 = {00, 01, 10, 11} and

Define r.v. X and Y as: X = lsb(r) , Y = msb(r)

Pr[ X=0 and Y=0 ] = Pr[ r=00 ] = ¼ = Pr[X=0] ∙ Pr[Y=0]


Y is a random variable over {0,1}n, X is an independent uniform variable on {0,1}n

Then Z:=Y⊕X is a uniform variable on {0,1}n

Proof:

For n=1

pr(Z=0)=
Modular arithmetic
Modular arithmetic/clock arithmetic: A system of arithmetic for integers.

Wrap around after reaching the modulus

15≡3(mod 12) 38≡2(mod 12)

27≡3(mod 12) 38≡14(mod 12)

23≡11(mod 12) 2≡ -3(mod 5)

33≡3(mod 10)

10≡ -2(mod 12)

a≡b(mod m)

a=km+b
Properties of modular arithmetic:

● ((a mod n)土(b mod n)) mod n = (a土b) mod n

For example:

((15 mod 8) + (11 mod 8)) mod 8 = (15+11) mod 8 = 2

((15 mod 8) - (11 mod 8)) mod 8 = (15-11) mod 8 = 4

● ((a mod n) x (b mod n)) mod n = (a x b) mod n

For example:

((15 mod 8) x (11 mod 8)) mod 8 = (15x11) mod 8 = 5


Groups
A group is a collection of elements G, together with one operation ⬤ which has the
following properties:

1. Closure: for a, b ∈G, a⬤b ∈G


2. Associativity: a⬤(b⬤c)=(a⬤b)⬤ c
3. Identity: there is an element e∈G such that

e⬤g=g⬤e=g for all g∈G

4. Inverse: for every g∈G there exists g-1∈G such that g⬤g-1=g-1⬤g=e

5. Commutativity for an Abelian group only: for a, b ∈G, a⬤b=b⬤a


Example:

Additive integer mod 6 {0,1,2,3,4,5}

● 1+3=4 4 mod 6=4


● (a+b)+c=a+(b+c)
● I=0
● a=1

1+5=6, 6 mod 6=0

a=3

3+3=6, 6 mod 6=0

● a+b=b+a Abelian group

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