Methods of Calculus Chapter 3 Review

Fall 2024 James Klinkenberg

Section 3.1 Antiderivatives

Definition of Antiderivatives
AN antiderivative of a function f (x) is any function F (x) such that F ′ (x) = f (x).

THE antiderivative of a function f (x) is a whole family of functions, written F (x) + C,

where F ′ (x) = f (x) and C represents any constant.

The antiderivative is also called the indefinite integral.

Notation: We write antiderivatives as

Z
f (x) dx
Z
is the integral sign, f (x) is the integrand, dx tells us the variable.

Basic Antiderivative Rules

Z Z
(a) Constant Multiple Rule: kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx
Z Z Z
(b) Sum and Difference Rule: f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx

xn + 1
Z
(c) Power Rule: xn dx = + C, provided that n ̸= −1
n+1
Z
Special Case: k dx = kx + C (because k = kx0 )
Z
(d) Exponential Functions: ex dx = ex + C
Z
1
(e) Natural Logarithm: dx = ln |x| + C
x
Examples
Example: Find the antiderivative of

x3 + 2
f (x) =
x2
Solution: This doesn’t look like a basic integral, but remember that we can break the
fraction up:
x3 + 2 x3 2
2
= 2
+ 2 = x + 2x−2 ,
x x x
and this is something we can just integrate using the sum rule and power rule!

x2 2x−1
Z 3
x2
Z
x +2 −2
dx = x + 2x dx = + + C = − 2x−1 + C.
x2 2 −1 2

Example: Find the antiderivative of

√ 3 9
f (x) = 2x5 − 7 3 x + 4 + 8ex +
x x
Solution: This looks intimidating, but remember that we have the sum rule. So, we can
just find the antiderivative of each piece individually and add those results. Let’s do that:

x6 x6
Z Z
2x dx = 2 x5 dx = 2 ·
5
= .
6 3

√ x4/3 21x4/3
Z Z
3
−7 x dx = −7 x1/3 dx = −7 ·
3
= −7 · · x4/3 = − .
4/3 4 4
x−3
Z Z
3 −4 1
4
dx = 3 · x dx = 3 · = −x−3 = − 3 .
x −3 x
Z Z
8ex dx = 8 ex dx = 8ex .
Z Z
9 1
dx = 9 = 9 ln |x|.
x x
Note that I omitted the +C on each of the terms since I will just add that in at the end
now. So in the end we have that
√ x6 21x4/3
Z
3 9 1
2x5 − 7 3 x + 4 + 8ex + dx = − − 3 + 8ex + 9 ln |x| + C.
x x 3 4 x

2
Section 3.2 Substitution
In this section we learned about substitution method, AKA u-sub for short. Essentially, it
allows us to take a complicated integral and transform it into one of the simple ones we
learned from the last section.

Substitution Method Step-by-Step

Z Z
Goal: Make f (g(x)) dx into f (u) du, where f (u) is less messy than f (g(x)).

1. Let u be some part of the integrand. Usually this is ”one step inside the messiest
bit.”
du
2. Compute and find dx in terms of du.
dx
3. Translate all the x’s into u′ s, including dx.

(a) If everything is in terms of u, keep going.

(b) If there are x’s left, then the substitution was unsuccessful. Go back to step 1
and pick a new u.

4. Integrate if possible. If you still can’t integrate it, go back to step 1 and try a new u.

5. Substitute back in for x in the final answer.

Examples
Z
Example: Evaluate e2x dx.

Solution: We can’t directly apply our basic ex antiderivative since we don’t have ex , we
have e2x . Really the only choice we have here is to make u = 2x. That means
du
= 2,
dx
so du = 2 dx. Unfortunately, we don’t have 2dx in our integral, we only have dx. That’s ok,
du
just divide the 2 over so we just have dx = .
2
du
Now we can make the substitution. Replace 2x with u and dx with and we get
2
Z Z
du
e dx = eu .
2x
2

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I don’t like having the constant on the inside so let’s kick it out with the constant multiple
rule: Z Z
u du 1
e = eu du.
2 2
Now, our integral is just the basic exponential, so we can integrate it using the rules from
the last section! Z
1 1
eu du = eu + C.
2 2
Of course, don’t forget to substitute back in for x. We said u = 2x, so just replace u with
2x:
1 u 1
e + C = e2x + C.
2 2
So what we have found is Z
1
e2x dx = e2x + C.
2
Of course, if you are ever in doubt, you can always take the derivative of your answer and see
if you get back the original integrand (this works based on the definition of antiderivatives).
Sometimes it might be difficult to take the derivative, but here we can see that the C will
go away and we’ll also multiply 12 e2x by 2 to just leave us with e2x , so we can be sure we are
correct.
Z
6x
Example: Evaluate dx.
3x2 + 1
Solution: Remember that we always want to pick u so that its derivative shows up some-
where in the integral already. Based on that, it is clear that we should let u = 3x2 + 1, since
then we have
du
= 6x,
dx
or in other words, du = 6x dx. This is great, since this already shows up inside our integral!

We can do the substitution now. 6x dx will become du, and then 3x2 + 1 will become u.
Z Z
6x 1
2
dx = du
3x + 1 u
We can evaluate this using our natural log rule:
Z
1
du = ln |u| + C,
u
and don’t forget to substitute back in for x:
ln |u| + C = ln |3x2 + 1| + C.
So in the end we have Z
6x
2
dx = ln |3x2 + 1| + C.
3x + 1

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 Z
Example: Evaluate (x − 1)(x2 − 2x + 2)5 dx.

For this one, it is not as obvious what we should make u. Let’s try u = x2 − 2x + 2, as this
might let us make our integral look like u5 . In this case, that means
du
= 2x − 2,
dx
so du = (2x − 2) dx. We don’t have (2x − 2) dx in our integral though, we have (x − 1) dx.
However, we see that we can factor a 2 out and get

du = 2(x − 1) dx,

and dividing both sides by 2 gives us

du
= (x − 1) dx,
2
which is perfect!

Now we can do the substitution. Replace x2 − 2x + 1 with u, and replace (x − 1) dx with

du
. This gives us
2 Z Z
du
(x − 1)(x − 2x + 2) dx = u5 + .
2 5
2
Again, we don’t like constants inside the integral, so kick it out and then use the power rule:
Z Z
5 du 1
u = u5 du
2 2
1 u6
= +C
2 6
u6
= + C.
12
Of course, sub back in for x:

u6 (x2 − 2x + 2)6
+C = + C.
12 12
So in the end we have
(x2 − 2x + 2)6
Z
(x − 1)(x2 − 2x + 1)5 dx = + C.
12

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Section 3.3 The Definite Integral and Area
In this section we learned about definite integrals and their relationship to area under curves.
Importantly, we also saw the notion of “signed area”.

Definite Integrals
The definite integral of a function f (x) over an interval [a, b] is the signed area between
f , the x-axis, x = a, and x = b.

Notationally we write it as Z b
f (x) dx
a

and we read it as “the integral from a to b of f (x) dx”.

It is computed as
Z b
f (x) dx = (area above the x-axis) − (area below the x-axis)
a

Without any tools to help us compute these, we usually have to resort to graphing the
function and finding the area manually.

Examples
Example: Find the specified definite
Z 2 integrals based on the graph:
Z 8
1. g(x) dx 4. g(x) dx
0 0
Z 5 Z 8
2. g(x) dx 5. 3g(x) dx
2 5
Z 7 Z 2
3. g(x) dx 6. 2 + g(x) dx
3 0

Solution: Luckily, each piece of this graph is a geometric shape, so we can easily compute
the definite integrals given by just finding the correct areas.

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1. We are looking at the region

which we can see is a triangle with a base of 2 and a height of 1, so the area is 12 ·2·1 = 1.
The region is also above the x-axis, so our integral will be positive. Therefore
Z 2
g(x) dx = 1.
0

2. We are looking at the region

This is a trapezoid, or you can also think of it as a rectangle with two triangles on the
sides. The triangles both have a height of 1 and a base of 1, meaning their areas are
both 12 . The rectangle in the middle has a base of 1 and a height of 1, so its area is 1.
Adding that all up gives that the area of the trapezoid is
1 1
+ + 1 = 2.
2 2
Also note that the trapezoid is below the x-axis, so the integral will be negative.
Therefore Z 5
g(x) dx = −2.
2

7
3. We are looking at the region

From the previous example we saw that the whole trapezoid had an area of 2, but this
time it’s missing one of the triangles. Therefore we have to subtract off 12 to get that
the purple region in this case has an area of 2 − 21 = 32 . The green region is just a
triangle with a base of 2 and a height of 2, so its area is 21 ·2·2 = 2. Also remember that
the green region has positive area and the purple region has negative area in terms of
the integral. Therefore Z 7
3 1
g(x) dx = 2 − = .
3 2 2
4. We are looking at the region

In the first example we saw the red region had area 1, and in the second example we
saw the purple region had area 2. The green region has expanded this time, so let’s
just recompute that area. Now it is a triangle with a base of 3 and a height of 2, so it
has an area of 12 · 3 · 2 = 3. Therefore
Z 8
g(x) dx = 1 − 2 + 3 = 2.
0

8
5. We are looking at the region

Z 8
However, this time we want to compute 3g(x) dx, so how would we do that? Well,
5
even though this is a definite integral, we still have the constant multiple rule, so we
can kick the 3 to the outside
Z 8 Z 8
3g(x) dx = 3 g(x) dx,
5 5
Z 8
and we already know what g(x) dx is. We computed it in the last one, where we
5
saw the area of the green region was 3. Therefore
Z 8 Z 8
3g(x) dx = 3 g(x) dx = 3 · 3 = 9.
5 5

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6. We are looking at the region

We
Z 2 already know the area of this region is 1. However, now we are asked to find
2 + g(x) dx, so what do we do? Well, remember we have the sum rule, so we can
0
rewrite this as Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
2 + g(x) dx = 2 dx + g(x) dx
0 0 0
Z 2 Z 2
As I said, we know what g(x) dx is, but what is 2 dx? Well, we just need to
0 0
graph f (x) = 2 and see what the area is!

The red line is f (x) = 2, and here we see that the region is just a square with side
length 2. Therefore its area is 22 = 4. Therefore
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
2 + g(x) dx = 2 dx + g(x) dx = 4 + 1 = 5.
0 0 0

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Example: Find the specified definite integrals based
Z 3 on the graph of f (x):
1. g(x) dx
0

Z 5
2. g(x) dx
3

Z 7
3. g(x) dx
5

Z 7
4. g(x) dx
0

Solution: This one is more straightforward since you are given the areas. You basically just
need to remember that above the x-axis is positive area, and below the x-axis is negative
area.
Z 3
1. g(x) dx = 5
0
Z 5
2. g(x) dx = −3 (since the area is below the x-axis)
3
Z 7
3. g(x) dx = 2
5
Z 7
4. g(x) dx = 5 − 3 + 2 = 4
0

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Section 3.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Let f be a function and F be an antiderivative for f . Then
Z b b
f (x) dx = F (x) = F (b) − F (a).
a a

Examples
Z 1
Example: Evaluate x2 dx.
0

Solution: Find an antiderivative and plug in the upper and lower limits of integration:

1
1
x3
Z
2
x dx =
0 3
0
13 03
= −
3 3
1
= −0
3
1
= .
3
Z 6
3
Example: Evaluate dx.
1 x
Solution: Find an antiderivative and plug in the upper and lower limits of integration:

Z 6 Z 6
3 1
dx = 3 dx
1 x 1 x
h i6
= 3 ln |x|
1
= 3[ln |6| − ln |1|]
= 3[ln 6 − 0]
= 3 ln 6.

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Substitution Method and Definite Integrals
When we want to do a definite integral where we need to use u-substitution, we have two
methods to deal with the bounds.

1. Figure out the bounds in terms of u and leave everything in terms of u.

2. Find the antiderivative as a side problem and translate it back into x so that we can
keep the bounds the same.

I usually do method 2, but sometimes method 1 can avoid messy algebra.

Examples
Z 3
Example: Evaluate e5x dx.
0

Solution: Let’s do method 2 on this one. So, we need an antiderivative of e5x , so let u = 5x,
du
so du = 5 dx. I only have dx, so divide the 5 over to get dx = . Then we get
5
Z 3
1 3 u
Z
5x
e dx = e dx
0 5 0
1 h i3
= eu
5 0
1 h 5x i3
= e
5 0
1 5(3)
= [e − e5(0) ]
5
1
= [e15 − 1]
5
e15 − 1
= .
5
Note that I slightly abused notation when I kept the bounds the same when I had u substi-
tuted in. Since I know I’m going to switch back to x, I’m okay with just leaving them there
even though it’s technically wrong.

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 Z 1
Example: Evaluate 2(2x + 1)3 dx.
0

Solution: I’ll be doing method 2 here. Let u = 2x + 1. Then du = 2 dx. Then

Z 1 Z 1
3
2(2x + 1) dx = u3 dx
0 0
1
u4
=
4
0
1
(2x + 1)4
=
4
0
1
4
(2x + 1)
=
4
0
(2(1) + 1)4 (2(0) + 1)4
= −
4 4
34 14
= −
4 4
81 1
= −
4 4
80
=
4
= 20.

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