Amantiiwwan Afriikaa

Traditional African religions

Nkisi nkondi of Bakongo; Nkisi is considered

holy
The beliefs and practices of African people are highly diverse, and
include various ethnic religions.[1][2] Generally, these traditions
are oral rather than scriptural and are passed down from one generation
to another through narratives, songs, and festivals.[3][4][5] They include
beliefs in spirits and higher and lower gods, sometimes including
a supreme being, as well as the veneration of the dead, use of magic,
and traditional African medicine. Most religions can be described
as animistic[6][7] with various polytheistic and pantheistic aspects.[1][8] The
role of humanity is generally seen as one of harmonizing nature with the
supernatural.[1][9]
Spread

An early-20th-century Igbo medicine man in

Nigeria, West Africa
Adherents of traditional religions in Africa are distributed among 43
countries and are estimated to number over 100 million.[10][11]
Christianity and Islam, having largely displaced indigenous African
religions, are often adapted to African cultural contexts and belief
systems. African people often combine the practice of their traditional
beliefs with the practice of Abrahamic religions.[12][13][14][15][16] These two
Abrahamic religions are widespread across Africa, though mostly
concentrated in different regions. Abrahamic religious beliefs, especially
monotheistic elements, such as the belief in a single creator god, were
introduced into traditionally polytheistic African religions rather early.
[17]
West African religions seek to come to terms with reality, and,
unlike Abrahamic religions, are not idealisations. They generally seek to
explain the reality of personal experience by spiritual forces which
underpin orderly group life, contrasted by those that threaten it.[18]
Followers of traditional African religions are also found around the
world. In recent times, religions, such as the Yoruba religion and
the Odinala religion (a traditional Igbo religion), are on the rise. The
religions of the Igbo and Yoruba are popular in the Caribbean and
portions of Central and South America. In the United States, Voodoo is
more predominant in the states along the Gulf of Mexico.[19]
Basics
[edit]

Local ceremony in Benin featuring a zangbeto

Highly complex animistic beliefs build the core concept of traditional
African religions. This includes the worship of tutelary deities, nature
worship, ancestor worship and the belief in an afterlife, comparable to
other traditional religions around the world. While some religions have
a pantheistic worldview with a supreme creator god next to other gods
and spirits, others follow a purely polytheistic system with various gods,
spirits and other supernatural beings.[6] Traditional African religions also
have elements of totemism, shamanism and veneration of relics.[20]

Traditional Vodun dancer enchanting gods and

spirits, in Ganvie, Benin
Traditional African religion, like most other ancient traditions around
the world, were based on oral traditions. These traditions are not
religious principles, but a cultural identity that is passed on through
stories, myths and tales, from one generation to the next. The
community, one’s family, and the environment, play an important role in
one's personal life. Followers believe in the guidance of their ancestors
spirits. Among many traditional African religions, there are spiritual
leaders and kinds of priests. These individuals are essential in the
spiritual and religious survival of the community. There are mystics that
are responsible for healing and 'divining' - a kind of fortune telling and
counseling, similar to shamans. These traditional healers have to be
called by ancestors or gods. They undergo strict training and learn many
necessary skills, including how to use natural herbs for healing and
other, more mystical skills, like the finding of a hidden object without
knowing where it is. Traditional African religions believe that ancestors
maintain a spiritual connection with their living relatives. Most ancestral
spirits are generally good and kind. Negative actions taken by ancestral
spirits are to cause minor illnesses to warn people that they have gotten
onto the wrong path.[21]
Native African religions are centered on ancestor worship, the belief in
a spirit world, supernatural beings and free will (unlike the later
developed concept of faith). Deceased humans (and animals or
important objects) still exist in the spirit world and can influence or
interact with the physical world. Forms of polytheism was widespread in
most of ancient African and other regions of the world, before the
introduction of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. An exception was the
short-lived monotheistic religion created by Pharaoh Akhenaten, who
made it mandatory to pray to his personal god Aten (see Atenism).
[22]
This remarkable change to traditional Egyptian religion was however
reverted by his youngest son, Tutankhamun.[23][24][25][26] High gods, along
with other more specialized deities, ancestor spirits, territorial spirits,
and beings, are a common theme among traditional African religions,
highlighting the complex and advanced culture of ancient Africa. [26][27]
[28]
Some research suggests that certain monotheistic concepts, such as
the belief in a high god or force (next to many other gods, deities and
spirits, sometimes seen as intermediaries between humans and the
creator) were present within Africa, before the introduction of
Abrahamic religions. These indigenous concepts were different from the
monotheism found in Abrahamic religions.[26][29][30][27]
 Traditional Koku dancer
Traditional African medicine is also directly linked to traditional African
religions. According to Clemmont E. Vontress, the various religious
traditions of Africa are united by a basic Animism. According to him,
the belief in spirits and ancestors is the most important element of
African religions. Gods were either self-created or evolved from spirits
or ancestors which got worshiped by the people. He also notes that most
modern African folk religions were strongly influenced by non-African
religions, mostly Christianity and Islam and thus may differ from the
ancient forms.[7]
Traditional African religions generally hold the beliefs of life after death
(a spirit world or realms, in which spirits, but also gods reside), with
some also having a concept of reincarnation, in which deceased humans
may reincarnate into their family lineage (blood lineage), if they want to,
or have something to do.[31]
There are often similarities between traditional African religions located
in the same subregion. Central Africa, for instance, has similar religious
traditions in countries of the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
the Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, and Malawi.
[32]
The people in these countries who follow traditional religious
practices often venerate ancestors through rituals and worship the land
or a "divinity" through "regional cults" or "shrine cults", respectively.[32]
Jacob Olupona, Nigerian American professor of indigenous African
religions at Harvard University, summarized the many traditional
African religions as complex animistic religious traditions and beliefs of
the African people before the Christian and Islamic "colonization" of
Africa. Ancestor veneration has always played a "significant" part in the
traditional African cultures and may be considered as central to the
African worldview. Ancestors (ancestral ghosts/spirits) are an integral
part of reality. The ancestors are generally believed to reside in an
ancestral realm (spiritworld), while some believe that the ancestors
became equal in power to deities.[33]
The defining line between deities and ancestors is often contested, but
overall, ancestors are believed to occupy a higher level of existence than
living human beings and are believed to be able to bestow either
blessings or illness upon their living descendants. Ancestors can offer
advice and bestow good fortune and honor to their living descendants,
but they can also make demands, such as insisting that their shrines be
properly maintained and propitiated. A belief in ancestors also testifies
to the inclusive nature of traditional African spirituality by positing that
deceased progenitors still play a role in the lives of their living
descendants.
Olupona rejects the western/Islamic definition of monotheism and says
that such concepts could not reflect the complex African traditions and
are too simplistic. While some traditions have a supreme being (next to
other deities), others have not. Monotheism does not reflect the
multiplicity of ways that the traditional African spirituality has
conceived of deities, gods, and spirit beings. He summarizes that
traditional African religions are not only religions, but a worldview, a
way of life.[33]
Ceremonies
West and Central African religious practices generally manifest
themselves in communal ceremonies or divinatory rites in which
members of the community, overcome by force (or ashe, nyama, etc.),
are excited to the point of going into meditative trance in response to
rhythmic or driving drumming or singing. One religious ceremony
practiced in Gabon and Cameroon is the Okuyi, practiced by
several Bantu ethnic groups. In this state, depending upon the region,
drumming or instrumental rhythms played by respected musicians (each
of which is unique to a given deity or ancestor), participants embody a
deity or ancestor, energy or state of mind by performing distinct ritual
movements or dances which further enhance their elevated
consciousness.[34]
When this trance-like state is witnessed and understood, adherents are
privy to a way of contemplating the pure or symbolic embodiment of a
particular mindset or frame of reference. This builds skills at separating
the feelings elicited by this mindset from their situational manifestations
in daily life. Such separation and subsequent contemplation of the nature
and sources of pure energy or feelings serves to help participants
manage and accept them when they arise in mundane contexts. This
facilitates better control and transformation of these energies into
positive, culturally appropriate behavior, thought, and speech. Also, this
practice can give rise to those in these trances uttering words which,
when interpreted by a culturally educated initiate or diviner, can provide
insight into appropriate directions which the community (or individual)
might take in accomplishing its goal.[35]

Religious couvent in south Ghana.

Spirits
Main article: List of African mythological figures
Followers of traditional African religions pray to various spirits as well
as to their ancestors.[36] This includes also nature, elementary, and animal
spirits. The difference between powerful spirits and gods is often
minimal. Most African societies believe in several “high gods” and a
large amount of lower gods and spirits. There are also some religions
with a single supreme being (Chukwu, Nyame, Olodumare, Ngai, Roog,
etc.).[37] Some recognize a dual god and goddess such as Mawu-Lisa.[38]
Traditional African religions generally believe in an afterlife, one or
more Spirit worlds. Ancestor worship is an important basic concept in
nearly all African religions. Some African religions adopted different
views through the influence of Islam or even Hinduism.[39][40]
Practices and rituals
[edit]

Bakongo masks from the Kongo Central

There are more similarities than differences between all traditional
African religions,[41] although Jacob Olupona has written that it is
difficult to truly generalize them because of the sheer amount of
differences and variations between the traditions. [42] The deities and
spirits are honored through libation or sacrifice of animals, vegetables,
cooked food, flowers, semi-precious stones, or precious metals. The will
of the gods or spirits is sought by the believer also through consultation
of divinities or divination.[43] Traditional African religions embrace
natural phenomena – ebb and tide, waxing and waning moon, rain and
drought – and the rhythmic pattern of agriculture. According to Gottlieb
and Mbiti:
The environment and nature are infused in every aspect of traditional
African religions and culture. This is largely because cosmology and
beliefs are intricately intertwined with the natural phenomena and
environment. All aspects of weather, thunder, lightning, rain, day, moon,
sun, stars, and so on may become amenable to control through the
cosmology of African people. Natural phenomena are responsible for
providing people with their daily needs.[44]
For example, in the Serer religion, one of the most sacred stars in the
cosmos is called Yoonir (the Star of Sirius).[45] With a long farming
tradition, the Serer high priests and priestesses (Saltigue) deliver yearly
sermons at the Xooy Ceremony (divination ceremony) in Fatick before
Yoonir's phase in order to predict winter months and enable farmers to
start planting.[46]
Traditional healers are common in most areas, and their practices
include a religious element to varying degrees.
Divination

Early-20th-century Yoruba divination board

Main article: African divination
Since Africa is a large continent with many ethnic groups and cultures,
there is not one single technique of casting divination. The practice of
casting may be done with small objects, such as bones, cowrie shells,
stones, strips of leather, or flat pieces of wood.
 Traditional healer of South Africa performing
a divination by reading the bones
Some castings are done using sacred divination plates made of wood or
performed on the ground (often within a circle).
In traditional African societies, many people seek out diviners on a
regular basis. There are generally no prohibitions against the practice.
Diviners (also known as priests) are sought for their wisdom as
counselors in life and for their knowledge of herbal medicine.
Ubuntu
Main article: Ubuntu philosophy
Ubuntu is an Nguni Bantu term meaning "humanity". It is part of a
concept sometimes translated as "I am because we are" (also "I am
because you are"), or "humanity towards others" (in Zulu, umuntu
ngumuntu ngabantu). In Xhosa, the latter term is used, but is often
meant in a more philosophical sense to mean "the belief in a universal
bond of sharing that connects all humanity". It is a collection of values
and practices that people of Africa or of African origin view as making
people authentic human beings. While the nuances of these values and
practices vary across different ethnic groups, they all point to one thing –
an authentic individual human being is part of a larger and more
significant relational, communal, societal, environmental and spiritual
world.[47]
Virtue and vice
Virtue in traditional African religion is often connected with carrying
out communal obligations. Examples include social behaviors such as
the respect for parents and elders, raising children appropriately,
providing hospitality, and being honest, trustworthy, and courageous.
In some traditional African religions, morality is associated with
obedience or disobedience to God regarding the way a person or a
community lives. For the Kikuyu, according to their primary
supreme creator, Ngai, acting through the lesser deities is believed to
speak to and be capable of guiding the virtuous person as one's
conscience.
In many cases, Africans who have converted to other religions have still
kept up their traditional customs and practices, combining them in
a syncretic way.[48]
Sacred places
Some sacred or holy locations for traditional religions include but not
limited to Nri-Igbo, the Point of
Sangomar, Yaboyabo, Fatick, Ife, Oyo, Dahomey, Benin
City, Ouidah, Nsukka, Kanem-Bornu, Igbo-Ukwu, and Tulwap Kipsigis,
among others.
Relations with other faiths
Main article: Traditional African religion and other religions
Traditional African religions have interacted with other major world
religions in various ways, ranging from syncretism and coexistence to
conflict and competition. These interactions have significantly shaped
the religious landscape in Africa.
Interaction with Christianity
The introduction of Christianity by European missionaries brought
profound changes to the religious practices in Africa. While some
communities fully embraced Christianity, others blended Christian
teachings with their traditional beliefs, leading to syncretic practices. For
example, in parts of West Africa, certain Christian denominations
incorporate traditional rituals and symbols into their worship, reflecting
the enduring influence of traditional African religions.[49]
Interaction with Islam
Islam's spread across North and West Africa also had a significant
impact on traditional African religions. Traditional African religions and
Islam have coexisted for centuries, often blending elements of Islamic
belief with traditional practices. In regions like Senegal and Mali, Sufi
Islam often integrates aspects of local spiritual practices, reflecting a
deep synergy between traditional African religions and Islamic
mysticism.[50]
Coexistence, Syncretism, and Conflict
In contemporary Africa, many people identify with both traditional
African religions and either Christianity or Islam, practicing elements of
both in a form of religious duality. This syncretism is evident in rituals,
festivals, and the spiritual lives of individuals who draw on the strengths
of both their indigenous traditions and the newer religions. However,
tensions have arisen, particularly where aggressive proselytism by
Christian or Islamic groups has sought to replace traditional African
religions entirely. These tensions have sometimes led to the
marginalization of traditional African religions, though it continues to
play a vital role in the cultural and spiritual life of many African
communities.[51]
Religious persecution
Main article: Persecution of traditional African religions
Traditional African religions have faced persecution from Christians and
Muslims.[52][53] Adherents of these religions have been forcefully
converted to Islam and Christianity, demonized and marginalized.[54] The
atrocities include killings, waging war, destroying of sacred places, and
other atrocities.[55][56]
Because of persecution and discrimination, as well as incompatibility
with traditional society, culture and native beliefs, the Dinka
people largely rejected or ignored Islamic and Christian teachings.[57]
Science and traditional worldviews
Bandama and Babalola (2023) states:[58]
The view of science as "embedded practice," intimately connected with
ritual, for example, is considered "ascientific," "pseudo-science," or
"magic" in Western perspective. In Africa, there is a strong connection
between the physical and the terrestrial worlds. The deities and gods are
the emissaries of the supreme God and the patrons in charge of the
workability of the processes involved. In the Ile-Ife pantheon, for
example, Olokun – the goddess of wealth – is considered the patron of
the glass industry and is therefore consulted. Sacrifices are offered to
appease her for a successful run. The same is true for ironworking.
Current scholarship has reinforced the contributions of ancient Africa to
the global history of science and technology.[58]
Traditions by region
This list is limited to a few well-known traditions.
Central Africa

 Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa)

 Bushongo mythology (Congo)
 Kongo religion (Congo)
 Lugbara mythology (Congo)
 Baluba mythology (Congo)
 Mbuti mythology (Congo)
 Hausa animism (Chad, Gabon)
 Lotuko mythology (South Sudan)

East Africa

 Kushite mythology (central parts of Sudan with origins in kerma

culture)
 Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa)
 Gikuyu mythology (Kenya)
 Akamba mythology
 Abaluhya mythology (Kenya)
 Dinka religion (South Sudan)
 Malagasy mythology (Madagascar)
 Maasai mythology (Kenya, Tanzania, Ouebian)
 Kalenjin mythology (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania)
 Dini Ya Msambwa (Bungoma, Trans Nzoia, Kenya)
 Waaqeffannaa (Ethiopia and Kenya)
 Somali mythology (Somalia)

Northern Africa

 Ancient Egyptian religion (Egypt, Sudan)

 Kemetism
 Kushite mythology (along the Nile valley in Egypt and Sudan)
 Punic religion (Tunisia, Algeria, Libya)
 Traditional Berber religion (Morocco (including Western Sahara),
Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad,
Burkina Faso)

Southern Africa

 Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa)

 Lozi mythology (Zambia)
 Tumbuka mythology (Malawi)
  Zulu traditional religion (South Africa)
 Badimo (South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho)
 San religion (Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa)
 Traditional healers of South Africa
 Indigenous religion in Zimbabwe

West Africa
Further information: West African religion

 Abwoi religion (Nigeria)

 Akan religion (Ghana, Ivory Coast)
 Dahomean religion (Benin, Togo)
 Efik religion (Nigeria, Cameroon)
 Edo religion (Benin kingdom, Nigeria)
 Hausa animism (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Gana/Ghana,
Ivory Coast, Niger, Nigeria, Togo)
 Ijaw religion (Ijo people, Nigeria)
 Godianism (a religion that is purported to encompass all traditional
religions of Africa, primarily based on Odinala)
 Odinala (Igbo people, Nigeria)
 Asaase Yaa (Bono people (Gana/Ghana and Ivory Coast)
 Serer religion (A ƭat Roog) (Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania)
 Yoruba religion (Nigeria, Benin, Togo)
 Vodou (Gana/Ghana, Benin, Togo, Nigeria)
 Dogon religion (Mali)
 Ifa religion(Nigeria)
African diaspora
Main article: African diaspora religions
Afro-American religions involve ancestor worship and include a creator
deity along with a pantheon of divine spirits such as
the Orisha, Loa, Vodun, Nkisi and Alusi, among others. In addition to
the religious syncretism of these various African traditions, many also
incorporate elements of Folk Catholicism including folk saints and other
forms of folk religion, Native American
religion, Spiritism, Spiritualism, Shamanism (sometimes including the
use of Entheogens) and European folklore.
Various "doctoring" spiritual traditions also exist such
as Obeah and Hoodoo which focus on spiritual health.[59] African
religious traditions in the Americas can vary. They can have non-
prominent African roots or can be almost wholly African in nature, such
as religions like Trinidad Orisha.[60]