zależności między państwami - dependencies between countries

pursue – ścigać

overeingty - suwerenność

proximate cause - bezpośrednia przyczyna

Underlying cause - przyczyna pośrednia

Outcomes - wyniki

Interdependent - współzależny

assumptions to ligically valid conclusions- założenia do logicznie uzasadnionych wniosków

Pitfalls- pułapki

Temptation – pokusa

Incentive – zachęta

how can individually rational behavior lead to collectivly bad outcomes? - w jaki sposób
racjonalne zachowanie jednostki może prowadzić do zbiorowych złych skutków

Origins - pochodzenie

Preempt - nabyć w drodze pierwokupu

Arms race - wyścig zbrojeń

Grim - ponury

Trigger - spust

Parallel - równoległy

Lawsuit- proces sądowy

Assumptions - założenia

It’s about we not me

Inevitable - nieunikniony

Settlement - osada

Bergaining - zdobywanie

Mutually - wzajemnie

Payoff - opłacać się

Reject - odrzucić

Assumptions - założenia

Preemptive war - wojna prewencyjna

Absolute gains (Zyski absolutne) - The overall benefit of a decision for a state or non-state actor
regardless of the gains made by others.

Accountability (Odpowiedzialność) - A situation in which those in power are held responsible

for their decisions. There is a distinction to be made between horizontal and vertical
accountability. The former requires a system of checks and balances between the three branches
of government. Vertical accountability entails a role for citizens in acting as a limit upon the
powers of government.

Adaptation (Dostosowanie) - Changes made in order to accommodate different circumstances

(such as living with the consequences of climate change). Strategies consistent with adaptation
include the relocation of settlements in areas most at risk from climate change. Adaptation
therefore entails changes within the processes, practices and structures dealing with
environmental degradation.

Anarchy (Anarchia) – A condition in which states are free to pursue their own interests
regardless of any wider obligations. towards other members of the international community.
Ultimately, there is no governing institution with the authority to resolve disputes between states
and non-state actors. The realist school of thought tends to emphasise the importance of anarchy
on the behaviour of states, whilst liberals claim the effects are somewhat exaggerated.

Annexation (Aneksja) - The acquisition of another state’s territory by force. Annexation is a

unilateral act in which territory is seized rather than via cession (given or sold via a Treaty).
Annexation can be legitimised via general recognition by international bodies (such as
intergovernmental institutions).

Anocracy (Anokracja) - A type of government that combines democratic and dictatorial features.
Anocracies enable some form of democratic participation within a broader dictatorial framework.
The number of anocracies has increased since the end of the Cold War.

Anthropocentrism (Antropocentryzm) - A worldview associated with the belief that humans are
custodians of the Earth’s resources. Anthropocentrism emphasises the elevated status of humans
within the animal kingdom.

Anti(alter)-globalisation (Anty(alter)globalizacja) - A political movement that campaigns for an

alternative form of globalisation to that of the Washington Consensus. Pressure groups,
academics and civil society favour another world built upon concepts such as equality and social
justice. The anti (or alter)-globalisation movement also seeks to promote an
environmentallyfriendly approach to economic development.

Arms Race (Wyścig zbrojeń) - A situation in which two or more nations increase their military
expenditure due to a shared mistrust. The arms race is a direct consequence of the security
dilemma (or spiral of insecurity)

Assimilation (Asymilacja) - A process in which different cultures are absorbed within the
broader culture of that society. Assimilation places social harmony above the diversity
championed by integration, and therefore offers a counter to the clash of civilisations thesis.

Asymmetrical development (Rozwój asymetryczny) - The disparity in economic development

between the industrialised ‘North’ and the underdeveloped ‘South.’

Authority (Władza) -– The legitimate right to author decisions and rule over others. When power
is exercised without legitimate authority, it can lead to conflict.

Autocracy (Autokracja) - A system of government in which a single leader or party is in

possession of supreme and absolute power. Once viewed in a favourable manner, the term
autocracy is often considered in a negative sense due to its association with dictatorial regimes.

Balance of power (Równowaga sił) - A concept which stipulates that states secure their survival
via forging alliances with other states. In doing so, an equilibrium can be maintained between
rival groups. The balance of power seeks to ensure a degree of stability compared to a system in
which a hegemonic power could dominate its weaker neighbours.

Bandwagoning (Podążanie za tłumem) - A situation in which a state is aligned with a stronger

adversary. Bandwagoning occurs when the weaker state decides that the cost of opposing the
stronger power exceeds the benefits.

Belt and Road Initiative (Inicjatywa Pasa i Szlaku) - A global infrastructure development
strategy adopted by the Chinese government. It is the centrepiece of contemporary Chinese
foreign policy with a target date for completion by the middle of the century

Billiard ball model (Model kuli bilardowej) - A realist conception in which the state is analogous
to an independent and unitary billiard-ball. According to this state-centric assumption, domestic
politics ends at the water’s edge and engagements with other states may be calculated. In
contrast, liberals claim that International Relations is characterised via the cobweb model.

Bipolarity (Dwubiegunowość) - The distribution of power within international relations

characterised by two superpowers each with their own sphere of influence. The term can be
applied in a global or regional sense. Bipolarity often entails proxy wars rather than direct
confrontation.

Bourgeoisie (Burżuazja) - A Marxist term used to describe the owners of capital. According to
the Marxist perspective, those who own the means of production exploit those who sell their
labour for a wage (the proletariat). Dependency theorists adopt a neo-Marxist understanding of
the global economic system.

Brazilification (Brazylifikacja) - The hollowing-out of the middle class combined with an

increase in the level of inequality. According to Ulrich Beck, ‘Brazilification’ can be attributed
to the process of globalisation.

Brandt line (linia Brandta) - The demarcation between the developed ‘North’ and the
underdeveloped ‘South.’ The line was proposed by the former West German Chancellor Willy
Brandt.

Bretton Woods System (System Bretton Woods) -An economic system of governance created
shortly before the end of the Second World War. The Bretton Woods system was based upon a
fixed exchange rate system.
Buck passing (Przekazywanie jelenia) - A situation in which a state assumes that another state
(or group of states) will deal with an emerging threat.

Buffer state (strefa buforowa) -A relatively weak and neutral state situated between two larger
hostile countries. The buffer state therefore prevents the outbreak of regional conflict (such as
Iraq acting as a buffer between Iran and Saudi Arabia)
Bush doctrine (Doktryna Busha) -The foreign policy strategy of George W. Bush (2001 – 2009).
The main feature of the Bush doctrine was the use of pre-emptive strikes. The Bush doctrine was
also characterised by a singular pursuit of American interests rather than the globally-minded
multilateral approach of Bush’s predecessor (Clinton) and successor (Obama)

Capitalism (Kapitalizm) -An economic system based on market forces, private ownership and
minimal state intervention. The end of the Cold War marked the triumph of Capitalism over
Communism.

Carter Doctrine (Doktryna Cartera) - The pledge from the Carter administration (1977-1981) to
employ military force in order to defend American interests in the Persian Gulf. The aim was to
deter the Soviets from seeking hegemony in a region of strategic importance to Washington.

Cession (Cesja) -An understanding under international law by which territory is transferred from
one state to another with the consent of both parties (such as the Louisiana purchase).

Chain Ganging (Łańcuchowe łączenie) - A term used to describe how, in a balance of power
scenario, alliance partners must follow the lead when another goes to war. If a partner does not
participate, it endangers the security of its allies.

Chauvinism (Szowinizm) - An exaggerated sense of national superiority. It is associated with

jingoist rhetoric and an aggressive pursuit of the national interest(s).

Civil War (wojna domowa) - An intra-state conflict between groups, be they ethnic, political,
religious, etc. Unlike conventional warfare, it is conflict within rather than between states.

Clash of Civilisations (Zderzenie Cywilizacji) -A term associated with the American political
scientist Samuel Huntington. He predicted that conflict in the twenty-first century would be
characterised via tensions between rival cultures. Having said this, most contemporary warfare
occurs between members of the same civilisation.

Class conflict (konflikt klasowy) - A Marxist term used to describe the political struggle between
the bourgeoisie and the proletariat

Classical realism (Klasyczny realizm) - A theoretical perspective which offers an explanation of

International Relations based upon assumptions concerning human nature. Classical realists
adopt a pessimistic view of human behaviour and the primordial forces that shape us. Classical
realism gained in popularity during the post-Second World War era, but has been eclipsed by the
emergence of Structural (Neo)Realism

Cleft Countries (Kraje Rozpadu) - States which contain large groups of people who identify with
other civilisations (such as Ukraine, Sri Lanka and Sudan). This forms part of the broader clash
of civilisations thesis.

Climate Change (Zmiana klimatu) - Man-made changes to the natural environment that result in
global warming and consequently global climate adaptations. Although there have been moves to
address climate change, global governance has proved problematic.

Climate Change Denial (Zaprzeczanie zmianom klimatu) - Those who refuse to acknowledge the
scientific evidence behind climate change. Donald Trump once called climate change a ‘hoax’.

Clinton Doctrine (Doktryna Clintona) - The philosophical and strategic basis of foreign policy
directed by the Clinton administration (1993–2001). The Clinton doctrine was characterised as
liberal interventionism on a selective basis. Clinton’s administration intervened in the former
Yugoslavia, Kosovo and Somalia in order to promote humanitarian aims and defend American
interests.

CNN factor (Współczynnik CNN)– A phenomenon by which the media compels decision-
makers to intervene in order to address a particular issue. The CNN factor creates a mindset
amongst decision-makers in which ‘something must be done.’ The term can also be applied
towards the proliferation of new media.

Cobweb Model (Model pajęczyny) - A liberal notion that claims global politics can be
understood on the basis of complex interdependence. The cobweb model explicitly rejects the
realist contention of the Billiard Ball model. Liberals claim that relations between states and non-
state actors reflect a system of mutual dependence.

Cold War (Zimna Wojna) - A situation in which two rival states engage in proxy wars rather
than direct conflict. The term is commonly applied towards the ideological dispute between the
United States and the Soviet Union from 1945 to 1991. However, the term can also be applied
towards current tensions between Washington and Beijing.

Colonialism (Kolonializm) - The settlement of a foreign country via an imperial power.

Colonialism is characterised by exploitation of resources, and the separation of the indigenous
population from settlers. The term is often used interchangeably with imperialism.

Commercial Peace Theory (Teoria pokoju handlowego) - A liberal perspective which claims that
the spread of capitalism creates a more peaceful global system. There is a clear economic
incentive for states to avoid warfare.

Communism (komunizm) - An economic and political system which is based on the common
ownership of the means of production. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union implemented a
state-centric economic system based upon common ownership

Communitarian View (Pogląd wspólnotowy) - A perspective on human rights which claims that
social cohesion and communal norms should take a higher priority over the rights of the
individual. The communitarian approach is more prevalent within Asian and Muslim-majority
countries.

Complex Interdependence (Złożona współzależność) - A liberal notion which claims that states
and non-state actors are interconnected via commerce and global norms, such as human rights.
Whilst states remain the most significant institutions, intergovernmental and supranational
bodies also play a role. Decisions are therefore reached via a process of interaction between
various officials shaped by a shared space and a habit of cooperation.

Constructivism (Konstruktywizm) - A theoretical perspective built upon the assumption that

elements of International Relations are historically and socially constructed. According to
Alexander Wendt (1992), even the realist concept of power politics is a social construct. In other
words, anarchy is itself a social construct of the state system and can therefore be transformed.
Constructivism has emerged as a major school of thought within International Relations with a
number of different strands.

Containment (Powstrzymywanie) - A foreign policy objective implemented by the United States

during the Cold War. The aim was to prevent the spread of communism. Associated often with
Truman, containment was based on the assumption that the Soviet regime was expansionist
(Kennan 1947).

Conquest (Podbój) - The acquisition of territory on the basis of force

Core States (Państwa główne) - According to the World Systems Theory, the global economy is
divided into three distinct areas: Core, Semi-Periphery and Periphery. The exploitative economic
system is structured in order to maintain the dominance of core countries such as the United
States over those within the periphery.

Corruption (korupcja) - Dishonest and fraudulent behaviour amongst those in a position of power
who use their position for personal benefit. Corrupt leaders often divert economic resources
towards a privileged few in order to strengthen their own grip on power.

Cosmocracy (Kosmokracja) - A world government characterised by the three branches of

governance (legislature, executive and judiciary). The term Cosmocracy may be contrasted with
global governance in which a quasi-system of governance operates.

Cultural Backlash (Reakcja kulturowa) - Opposition towards the Western-bias of cultural

globalisation

Cultural Flattening (Spłaszczanie kulturowe) - The process in which information, commodities

and images produced in one part of the world enter into a global village. Cultural flattening is
associated with a homogenising monocultural set of Western values that tends to undermine
cultural differences.

Cultural Globalisation (Globalizacja kulturowa) - The transmission of ideas, meanings and

values around the world in a manner that extends the scope and scale of transnational relations.
The process is characterised by the consumption of a common culture via the media.

Cultural Homogenisation (Homogenizacja kulturowa) - The decline in cultural diversity through

the popularisation of cultural symbols. Cultural homogenisation has contributed towards a
cultural backlash, a rise in ethnic nationalism and the spread of religious fundamentalism.

Cultural Imperialism (Imperializm kulturowy) - A process by which dominant states impose their
own values and mindset. As a consequence of cultural imperialism, cultures are presented in a
hierarchical manner.

Cyberwarfare (Wojna cybernetyczna) - The use (or threat) of cyber weapons against another
with the intention of causing digital harm. Cyber hostilities may lead towards conventional
warfare between two or more states. For instance, Israel and Iran have been victims (and
perpetrators) of cyberwarfare operations.

De Facto - A Latin term meaning ‘in fact’.

De Jure - A Latin term meaning ‘in law’.

Defensive realism (Realizm obronny) - The strand of realist thought which claims the anarchic
structure of global politics encourages states to prioritise their own national security. Defensive
realism is associated with theorists from the neorealist perspective such as Kenneth Waltz.
Defensive realism emphasises the centrality of the security dilemma and that military
expansionism undermines the primary objectives of the state.
De Lege Ferenda (Prawo Fernanda) - A legal phrase meaning ‘what the law ought to be’. The
term is often contrasted with what the law is.

De Lege Lata - A legal term meaning ‘what the law is’, in contrast to de lega ferenda

Dell Theory of Conflict Prevention (Teoria zapobiegania konfliktom firmy Dell) - An updated
version of the commerce (or capitalist) peace theory. According to Thomas Friedman (2005), no
two countries that are both part of a major global supply chain (like Dell’s) will ever fight a war
against each other. Although not a complete guarantee, mutual dependence within the economic
sphere tends to maintain peaceful relations between the countries involved.

Democratic Peace Theory (Demokratyczna teoria pokoju) - A liberal perspective that claims that
the spread of democratic values leads towards a more peaceful, stable and harmonious
international system. This is based on the assumption that democratic leaders are held to account
by the electorate. Democratic countries are therefore incentivised to establish and maintain
diplomatic institutions in order to resolve disputes between them.

Dependency Culture (Kultura zależności) -A situation in which recipients of aid become reliant
upon the provision of aid. Critics claim that the provision of financial assistance undermines
individual responsibility and self-reliance.

Dependency Theory (Teoria zależności) - A theoretical perspective which claims that the global
economic system is characterised by the exploitation of those living in the periphery. It is a neo-
Marxist perspective which claims that the imperialism of the past has been replaced by a form of
neocolonialism implemented via the Washington Consensus.

Diplomatic Immunity (Immunitet dyplomatyczny) - The legal principle in which a diplomat is

exempt from certain laws within the state in which they are working.

Double Standards (Podwójne standardy) - Where one group (or state) is treated differently to
another. Western nations ignore crimes committed by strategic allies whilst punishing those
whose interests are contrary to their own. The hypocrisy is particularly evident in the context of
American foreign policy in the Middle East. The US has defended Israel from the charge of
violating international law and traded with authoritarian regimes that undermine human rights

Doves (Gołębie) - A term used to describe an individual who favours peaceful means by which
to resolve a dispute. A dove is traditionally portrayed as a symbol of peace. The term is usually
contrasted with a hawk who favours a militaristic approach.

Dyadic Peace (Pokój dyadyczny) - The liberal argument that democracies tend not to fight one
another. Dyadic peace is a key element of the democratic peace theory.

Ecocentrism (Ekocentryzm) – A belief-system associated with the environmental movement that

advocates an equal relationship between human beings and the environment. According to their
outlook, humans are part of a wider whole with no particular elevated status. Ecocentrism is
associated with deep green ecology.

Economic Globalisation (Globalizacja gospodarcza) - The process by which national economies

have, to a greater or lesser extent, been absorbed into an interlocking global economy. Economic
globalisation is characterised by mutual dependence amongst state and non-state actors.

Emerging power (Rodząca się moc) - Those states recognised as rising powers on the world
stage (such as the BRICS).

Erga Omnes - The principle upon which legislation is applicable towards everyone regardless of
social background. Within international law, the term depicts the legal obligations of states.

Ethnic Cleansing (czystka etniczna) - – The forced removal of ethnic, racial and religious groups
from any given territory by another ethnic group. Ethnic cleansing may occur on the basis of
forced migration, ethnic dilution and intimidation. The term has become more prevalent since the
mid-1990s.

Exploitation (Eksploatacja) - A situation in which a dominant group manipulates another. The

term is associated with dependency theorists who emphasise the role of a transnational social
class, and the world systems perspective which highlights the role played by powerful states
within the global economy