1 Lecture 1.

1.1 Real Numbers:

The real numbers can be represented geometrically as points on a number line called the real
line.

The following useful rules can be derived from the real line principles, where the symbol ⇒
means "implies."

1.2 Rules for Inequalities:

If 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are real numbers, then:

1. 𝑎 < 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑐 < 𝑏 + 𝑐
2. 𝑎 < 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑐 < 𝑏 − 𝑐
3. 𝑎 < 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 > 0 ⇒ 𝑎𝑐 < 𝑏𝑐
4. 𝑎 < 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 < 0 ⇒ 𝑎𝑐 > 𝑏𝑐

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎 < 𝑏 ⇒ −𝑎 > −𝑏

5. 𝑎 > 0 ⇒ >0

6. If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are both positive or both negative, say 𝑎 <𝑏⇒ >

Remark: we distinguish four special subsets of real numbers

1. Natural numbers, N = {1,2,3,4, … . }

2. The integers, 𝑍 = {… . , −4, −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3,4, … . }

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 3. The rational numbers, 𝑄 = : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ≠ 0

4. The irrational numbers, 𝑄 . Where 𝑅 = 𝑄⋃𝑄

Rational Numbers (𝑄) are numbers that can be expressed as a ratio of two integers (like , 3, 𝑜𝑟 −

7)

irrational numbers (𝑄 ) are numbers that cannot be expressed as a fraction of two integers, such
as √2, 𝜋.

1.2.1 Intervals
A subset of the real line is called an interval if it contains at least two numbers and contains all
the real numbers lying between any two of its elements.

A finite interval is said to be closed if it contains both of its endpoints, half-open if it contains one
endpoint but not the other, and open if it contains neither endpoint. The endpoints are also called
boundary points; they make up the interval’s boundary. The remaining points of the interval are
interior points and together comprise the interval’s interior. Infinite intervals are closed if they
contain a finite endpoint, and open otherwise. The entire real line is an infinite interval that is both
open and closed.

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Example:

Solve the inequality 2𝑥 − 1 < 𝑥 + 3 and show the solution set on the real line

Solution:

2𝑥 − 1 < 𝑥 + 3

2𝑥 − 𝑥 < 1 + 3

𝑥<4

The solution can be expressed in the following notations:

Interval notation: (−∞, 4)

Set notation: {𝑥: 𝑥 < 4}

Real line notation:

Example:

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Solve the inequality:

𝑥
− < 2𝑥 + 1
3

−𝑥 < 6𝑥 + 3 ⇒ −7𝑥 < 3

3 3
7𝑥 > −3 ⇒ 𝑥 > − , − , ∞
7 7

1.3 The absolute Value

The absolute value of a number 𝑥, denoted by |𝑥| is defined by the formula

𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| =
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0

|𝑥| = 𝑥

Examples:

|3| = 3 |−2| = 2 |0| = 0

Geometrically, the absolute value of 𝑥 represents the distance from 𝑥to 0 on the real number line.
Since distances are always non-negative, we know that |𝑥| ≥ 0 for every real number 𝑥, with
|𝑥| = 0 only when 𝑥 = 0. Additionally,

|𝑥 − 𝑦| =The distance between 𝑥 and 𝑦

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Absolute value properties:

The following statements are direct consequences of the definition of absolute value and can be
useful when solving equations or inequalities that involve absolute values.

Example: Solving equations |2𝑥 − 3| = 7

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Solution:

|2𝑥 − 3| = 7

2𝑥 − 3 = 7 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 − 3 = −7

2𝑥 = 10 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 = −4

𝑥=5 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2

1.4 Cartesian Coordinates

A rectangular, or Cartesian, * coordinate system may be introduced in a plane by considering two
perpendicular coordinate lines in the plane which intersect in the origin O on each line. Unless
specified otherwise, the same unit of length is chosen on each line. Usually, one of the lines is
horizontal with positive direction to the right, and the other line is vertical with positive direction
upward. The two lines are called coordinate axes and the point O is called the origin. The horizontal
line is often referred to as the x-axis and the vertical line as the y-axis, and they are labeled x and
y, respectively. The plane is then called a coordinate plane or, with the preceding notation for
coordinate axes, an xy-plane. The coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts called the first,
second, third, and fourth quadrants and labeled I, II, III, and IV.

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Each point P in an xy-plane may be assigned a unique ordered pair. If vertical and horizontal lines
through P intersect the x- and y-axes at points with coordinates a and b, respectively (see (i) of
Figure 1.8), then P is assigned the ordered pair (a, b). The number a is called the x-coordinate (or
abscissa) of P, and b is called the y-coordinate (or ordinate) of P.

We sometimes say that P has coordinates (a,b). Conversely, every

ordered pair (a,b) determines a point P in the xy-plane with coordinates
a and b. Specifically, P is the point of intersection of lines
perpendicular to the x-axis and y-axis at the points having coordinates
a and b, respectively. This establishes a one-to-one correspondence
between the set of all points in the xy-plane and the set of all ordered
pairs. It is sometimes convenient to refer to the point (a,b) as the point
with x-coordinate a and y-coordinate b. The symbol P(a,b) will denote
the point P with coordinates (a,b). To plot a point P(a,b) means to
locate, in a coordinate plane, the point P with coordinates (a,b). This
point is represented by a dot in the appropriate position.

1.5 Distance formula:

1. Distance Formula for points in one dimension:
The distance between two points 𝑥 and 𝑥 in one dimension is
𝑑(𝑥 , 𝑥 ) = |𝑥 − 𝑥 |
2. Distance formula for points in a plane:
The distance between 𝑃 (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and 𝑄 (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) is

𝑑 (𝑃, 𝑄) = (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦 )

Example: Calculating Distance between 𝑃 (−1,2) and 𝑄 (3,4)

Solution:
𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = (3 + 1) + (4 − 2) = √20 = 4.472

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1.5.1 Midpoint Formula:
The midpoint of the line segment from 𝑃 (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) 𝑡𝑜 𝑃 (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) is
𝑥 +𝑥 𝑦 +𝑦
𝑀= ,
2 2

Example: The midpoint of the line segment from 𝑃 (4,2) to 𝑃 (6, −2) is
4+6 2−2
𝑀= , = (5,0)
2 2

1.6 Circles:
If 𝐶 (ℎ, 𝑘) represents a point in a coordinate plane, a circle centered at 𝐶 with radius 𝑟 >
0 can be described as the set of all points in the plane that are 𝑟 units away from 𝐶. aA point
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the circle if and only if 𝑑(𝐶, 𝑃) = 𝑟 or, using the Distance Formula, if and
only if
(𝑥 − ℎ) + (𝑦 − 𝑘) = 𝑟
The equivalent equation is
(𝑥 − ℎ) + (𝑦 − 𝑘) = 𝑟
is an equation of a circle of radius 𝑟 and center 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘). if ℎ = 0 and 𝑘 = 0, this equation
reduces to 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑟 , which represents the equation of a circle with radius 𝑟 and
centered at the origin. If 𝑟 = 1, the graph is called a unit circle.

Examples:
1. The standard equation for the circle of radius 2 centered at (3,4) is
(𝑥 − 3) + (𝑦 − 4) = 2 = 4

2. The circle (𝑥 − 1) + (𝑦 + 5) = 3 has ℎ = 1 and 𝑘 = −5 and a radius of 𝑎 = √3.

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1.7 Lines:

1.7.1 Slope:
Let l be a line that is not parallel to the y-axis and let 𝑃 (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and 𝑃 (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) be distinc points
on 𝑙. The slope 𝒎 of 𝑙 is given by:

𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚=
𝑥 −𝑥

if 𝑙 is parallel to the y-axis, then the slope is not defined.

Example: Calculate the slope of the line through the points 𝑝 (1,2) and 𝑝 (2,5)

Solution:

5−2
𝑚= =3
2−1

Notes:

1. Vertical lines have undefined slopes because they are parallel to the y-axis (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 = 𝑥 ).
2. Horizontal lines have a slope of 0 because they are parallel to the x-axis (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑦 = 𝑦 ).

1.7.2 Parallel and perpendicular lines:

For lines that are neither horizontal nor vertical, it is important to remember

a. Two lines 𝑙 and 𝑙 are parallel if their slopes 𝑚 and 𝑚 satisfy 𝑚 =𝑚

b. Two lines 𝑙 and 𝑙 are perpendicular if their slopes 𝑚 and 𝑚 satisfy
1
𝑚 =−
𝑚

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Example: find the slope of the line determined by the following points and find which of them
are perpendicular or parallel

1) 𝐴 (1, −2), 𝐵 (2,1)

2) 𝐴 (−1,2), 𝐵 (−2, −1)
3) 𝐴 (−2, −1), 𝐵 (1, −2)

Solution: Let 𝑙 the segment 𝐴 𝐵 , 𝑙 the segment 𝐴 𝐵 , and 𝑙 the segment 𝐴 𝐵 .

1+2
𝑚 = =3
2−1

−1 − 2
𝑚 = =3
−2 + 1

∴ 𝑙 is parallel to 𝑙

−2 + 1 1
𝑚 = =−
1+3 3

∴ 𝑙 is perpendicular to 𝑙

1.7.3 Equations of Lines

1. Vertical lines:

The graph of the equation 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a 𝑥- intercept a.

2. Horizontal lines:
The graph of the equation 𝑦 = 𝑏 is a horizontal line with 𝑦-intercept 𝑏.
3. Point-slope equation: The ′′𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒′′ is an equation of a line 𝑙 through a point
𝑃 (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) with slope 𝑚 (only one such line exists). If 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is any point where 𝑥 ≠ 𝑥 ,
then 𝑃 lies on 𝑙 if and only if the slope of the line passing trough 𝑃 and 𝑃 is 𝑚. That is
𝑦−𝑦
=𝑚
𝑥−𝑥
𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥 )

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 Example: Find the equation of a line that passes through the point (1,2) with a slope of
𝑚=−

Solution:
3
𝑦−2= − (𝑥 − 1)
4
3 3
𝑦−2=− 𝑥+
4 4
4𝑦 − 8 = −3𝑥 + 3
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 11

Example: write an equation of the line through points (−2, −1) and (3,4)
Solution:
4+1
𝑚 = =1
3+2
𝑦 + 1 = 1(𝑥 + 2)
𝑦−𝑥 = 1

4. The Slope-intercept equation: it is a form of the Point-slope equation

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
The value 𝑏 represents where the line crosses the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, determined by setting 𝑥 = 0.

Example: Determine the equation of a line with a slope of 𝑚 = − and a 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of

𝑏 = 5.

Solution:

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏

3
𝑦 =− 𝑥+5
4

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 4𝑦 + 3𝑥 = 20

Example: Determine the slope and 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 of the line given by 8𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 20

Solution: Rearrange the equation to solve for 𝑦 and express it in the slope-intercept form.

5𝑦 = −8𝑥 + 20

8
𝑦 =− 𝑥+4
5

The slope is 𝑚 = − and the 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 is 𝑏 = 4

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Exercise:

Q.1- Find the distance between A and B

1. 𝐴(−3,2), 𝐵(−1, −2) 2. 𝐴(−3.2, −2), 𝐵(−8.1, −2)

Q.2- Find the slope (if any) of a line that need to be determined. Also find the slope (if any) of the
lines perpendicular to line AB

1. 𝐴(−1,2), 𝐵(−2, −1) 2. 𝐴(2,3), 𝐵(−1, −3)

Q.3- Find an equation for (a) the vertical line and (b) the horizontal line through the given points

1. 𝐴(−1,4/3) 2. 𝐵 (0, −√2)

Q.4- Write an equation for each line described below:

1. pass through (−1,1) with slope -1

2. pass through (3,4) and (−2,5)
3. has a slope of -5/4 and y-intercept of 6.
4. pass through (−12, −9) and has a slope of 0.
5. has y-intercept 4 and x intercept -1.
6. pass through (5, −1) and is parallel to the line 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 15
7. pass through (4,10) and is perpendicular to the line 6𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5

Q.5- Find an equation for the circle with the given center 𝐶 = (ℎ, 𝑘) and radius 𝑎. Then, sketch
the circle in the 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒. Show the circles’ center in your sketch.

1. 𝐶(0,2), 𝑎 = 2
2. 𝐶(−1,5), 𝑎 = √10
3. 𝐶 −√3, −2 , 𝑎 = 2

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Q.6- Graph the circles represented by the following equations:

1. 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 0
2. 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑦 − 4 = 0
3. 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 0

Q.7- Describe the regions defined by the given inequalities and pairs of inequalities.

1. 𝑥 + 𝑦 > 7
2. 𝑥 + 𝑦 < 5
3. (𝑥 − 1) + 𝑦 ≤ 4
4. 𝑥 + 𝑦 > 1, 𝑥 + 𝑦 < 4

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