Fundamentals of Mixed Signals and Sensors Unit

Module No. 2
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Objectives

 Define operational amplifiers (op-amps) and highlight their key features and applications.

 Explain the fundamental principles governing op-amp functionality, including internal

circuitry, ideal behavior, and limitations.

 Differentiate between open-loop and closed-loop operation modes of op-amps, and

analyze the impact of feedback.

 Explore various op-amp configurations, such as inverting, non-inverting, and differential,

while evaluating their advantages and disadvantages.

 Develop skills for analyzing op-amp circuits using basic techniques, considering
feedback effects, and solving practical problems.

Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps)

What is an Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)?

Operational Amplifiers, also known as Op-amps, are basically a voltage amplifying

device designed to be used with components like capacitors and resistors, between its in/out
terminals. They are essentially a core part of analog devices. Feedback components like these are
used to determine the operation of the amplifier. The amplifier can perform many different
operations (resistive, capacitive, or both), giving it the name Operational Amplifier.

Figure 1: Operational Amplifier Schematic

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Operational amplifiers (op-amps) serve as linear devices ideal for DC amplification, frequently
employed in signal conditioning, filtering, and various mathematical operations like addition,
subtraction, integration, and differentiation.

Renowned as one of the most versatile components in analog electronic circuitry, op-amps can
fulfill a wide array of analog signal processing tasks with just a few external components.
Moreover, they are cost-effective, with general-purpose amplifiers typically priced under a
dollar. Modern designs prioritize durability, with certain op-amps engineered to withstand direct
short-circuits on their outputs without sustaining damage.

The paramount utility of op-amps lies in the application of feedback principles, particularly
negative feedback, forming the basis of nearly all automatic control processes. These principles
extend beyond the immediate realm of electronics, making it highly beneficial for electronics
students to thoroughly grasp and comprehend them.

Karl D. Swartzel Jr. invented the first op-amp in 1967, and he originally conceived them
to do mathematical operations in analog computers — thus the “operation” part of their
name. We now use op-amps in many other applications, and they form the basis of many
modern analog electronic circuits.

Open-loop gain

Open-loop gain: The open-loop gain (“A” in Figure 1) of an operational amplifier is the measure
of the gain achieved when there is no feedback implemented in the circuit. This means the
feedback path, or loop, is open. An open loop gain often must be exceedingly large (10,000+) to
be useful in itself, except with voltage comparators. Voltage comparators compare the input
terminal voltages. Even with small voltage differentials, voltage comparators can drive the
output to either the positive or negative rails. High open-loop gains are beneficial in closed-loop
configurations, as they enable stable circuit behaviors across temperature, process, and signal
variations.

Input impedance

Another important characteristic of op amps is that they generally have high input impedance
(“ZIN” in Figure 1). Input impedance is measured between the negative and positive input
terminals, and its ideal value is infinity, which minimizes loading of the source. (In reality, there
is a small current leakage.) Arranging the circuitry around an operational amplifier may
significantly alter the effective input impedance for the source, so external components and
feedback loops must be carefully configured. It is important to note that input impedance is not
solely determined by the input DC resistance. Input capacitance can also influence circuit
behavior, so that must be taken into consideration as well.

Output impedance

An operational amplifier ideally has zero output impedance (“ZOUT” in Figure 1). However, the
output impedance typically has a small value, which determines the amount of current it can
drive, and how well it can operate as a voltage buffer.

Frequency response and bandwidth (BW)

An ideal op amp would have an infinite bandwidth (BW), and would be able to maintain a high
gain regardless of signal frequency. However, all operational amplifiers have a finite bandwidth,
generally called the “-3dB point,” where the gain begins to roll as frequency increases. The gain
of the amplifier then decreases at a rate of -20dB/decade while the frequency increases. Op amps
with a higher BW have improved performance because they maintain higher gains at higher
frequencies; however, this higher gain results in larger power consumption or increased cost.

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Figure 2: Operational Amplifier Open-Loop Frequency Response Curve

Gain bandwidth product (GBP)

As the name suggests, GBP is a product of the amplifier’s gain and bandwidth. GBP is a constant
value across the curve, and can be calculated with Equation (1):

GBP=GainxBandwidth=AxBW

The Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBP) of an operational amplifier is determined at the

frequency where its gain reaches unity. This feature is valuable as it enables users to compute the
open-loop gain of the device at varying frequencies. The GBP serves as a crucial metric for
assessing the utility and performance of an operational amplifier. Higher GBP values indicate
that the operational amplifier can deliver superior performance at higher frequencies. While
GBP, open-loop gain, and bandwidth are significant parameters for operational amplifier
selection, additional factors such as input offset voltage, noise, quiescent current, and supply
voltages should also be considered based on specific application and performance requirements.

For an example for the 10 Hz frequency,

The gain is 100 dB means we have a gain of 100,000 at 10 Hz frequency. The GBP will be

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100,000 x 10 = 1 MHz.

Basic Operation of Op-Amps

An operational amplifier (op-amp) serves as a versatile electronic component extensively

utilized in analog circuits for its fundamental role in amplifying input signals. With dual inputs –
the inverting (-) and non-inverting (+), the op-amp's output voltage is directly linked to the
disparity between these inputs in an open-loop configuration. In closed-loop scenarios, op-amps
find application in diverse setups, including inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, voltage
followers, summing amplifiers, and difference amplifiers, offering controlled gain and
customized circuit behavior. Op-amps showcase high input impedance, drawing minimal current
from input sources, coupled with low output impedance for effective load driving. Noteworthy
characteristics such as slew rate and common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) further delineate
their performance in swiftly responding to input changes and rejecting common-mode signals. A
grasp of the fundamental operations of op-amps is pivotal in the design and analysis of electronic
circuits, playing a crucial role in applications such as audio amplifiers, signal processing, and
instrumentation.

Inverting Operational Amplifier

In the inverting operational amplifier circuit, the input signal is introduced at the inverting input,
while the non-inverting input is tied to ground. In this configuration, the output signal is
characterized by an 1800 phase shift relative to the input; meaning, if a positive signal is
supplied to the circuit, the output will be negative. When operating under the assumption of an
ideal Op-Amp, the concept of a virtual short can be invoked at the Op-Amp's input terminals.
This implies that the voltage at the inverting terminal is effectively equal to the voltage at the
non-inverting terminal.

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Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier

When the signal is introduced at the non-inverting input, the configuration is referred to as a
Non-Inverting Op-Amp. In this amplifier, the output mirrors the phase of the input; hence, if a
positive voltage is applied to the circuit, the output will also be positive. Operating under the
ideal Op-Amp assumption allows for the application of the concept of a virtual short, meaning
that the voltage at both the inverting and non-inverting terminals is considered equal.

Difference between Inverting and Non-Inverting Op-Amps

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Examples of Inverting and Non-Inverting

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Op-Amps Operation Modes

The differential amplifier demonstrates three operational modes determined by the nature
of input (and/or output) signals. These modes encompass single-ended, double-ended or
differential, and common modes. As the input stage of the operational amplifier (op-amp) is
essentially a differential amplifier, the op-amp also showcases these same modes of operation.

Single-Ended Input

Single-Ended Input: Single-ended input operation results when the input signal is
connected to one input with the other input connected to ground. Fig. 1-4 shows the signals
connected for this operation. In Fig. 1-4(a), the input is applied to the plus input (with minus
input at ground), which results in an output having the same polarity as the applied input signal.
Fig. 1-4(b) shows an input signal applied to the minus input, the output then being opposite in
phase to the applied signal.

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Double-Ended (Differential) Input

Double-Ended (Differential) Input: In addition to using only one input, it is possible to

apply signals at each input-this being a double-ended operation. Fig. 1-5(a) shows an input, Vd,
applied between the two input terminals (recall that neither input is at ground), with the resulting
amplified output in phase with that applied between the plus and minus inputs. Fig. 1.5(b) shows
the same action resulting when two separate signals are applied to the inputs, the difference
signal being Vi1 − Vi2.

Double-Ended Output

Double-Ended Output: While the operation discussed so far had a single output, The
operational amplifier (op-amp) can be configured with double-ended output, where inputs
applied to either terminal produce outputs of opposite polarity. In this setup, Fig. 1-6(b)
illustrates a single-ended input leading to a double-ended output. The signal applied to the plus
input generates two amplified outputs with opposite polarities. Fig. 1-6(c) demonstrates a
difference in output, Vo1 − Vo2, measured between the output terminals without reference to
ground. This difference output is also called a floating signal, as neither output terminal is
grounded. Notably, the difference output has twice the amplitude of Vo1 or Vo2, as subtracting
the outputs amplifies the signal. Finally, Fig. 1-6(d) showcases fully differential operation, where
the input is applied between the two input terminals, and the output is taken from between the
two output terminals.

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Common-Mode Operation

Common-Mode Operation: When the same input signals are applied to both inputs,
common-mode operation results, as shown in Fig. 1-7. Ideally, the two inputs are equally
amplified, and since they result in opposite polarity signals at the output, these signals cancel,
resulting in 0-V output. Practically, a small output signal will result.

Common-Mode Rejection

Common-Mode Rejection: A significant feature of a differential connection is that the

signals which are opposite at the inputs are highly amplified, while those which are common to
the two inputs are only slightly amplified-the overall operation being to amplify the difference
signal while rejecting the common signal at the two inputs. Since noise (any unwanted input
signal) is generally common to both inputs, the differential connection tends to provide
attenuation of this unwanted input while providing an amplified output of the difference signal
applied to the inputs. This operating feature, referred to as common-mode rejection.

Common-Mode Reject Ratio (CMRR)

A notable characteristic of a differential circuit connection in an operational amplifier

(op-amp) is its capability to significantly amplify signals that differ at the two inputs, while only
mildly amplifying signals that are identical at both inputs. In an op-amp, the output comprises
two components: one resulting from the amplification of the difference between signals applied
to the plus and minus inputs, and the other arising from signals common to both inputs. The
amplification of opposite input signals is much greater than that of common input signals. This
property leads to a common mode rejection, quantified by a numerical measure known as the
common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR).

Differential Inputs

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When separate inputs are applied to the op-amp, the resulting difference signal is the
difference between the two inputs.

Common Inputs

When both input signals are the same, a common signal element due to the two zinputs
can be defined as the average of the sum of the two signals.

Output Voltage

Since any signals applied to an op-amp in general have both in-phase and out-of phase
components, the resulting output can be expressed as:

where Ad = differential gain, and Ac = common-mode gain of the amplifier.

Having obtained Ad and Ac, we can now calculate a value for the common-mode rejection ratio
(CMRR), which is defined by the following equation:

The value of CMRR can also be expressed in logarithmic terms as:

Configurations on Op-Amps

The Inverting Op-Amp

Consider the configuration shown in Fig. 1-9(a). In this very useful application of an operational
amplifier, the noninverting input is grounded, vin is connected through R1 to the inverting input,
and feedback resistor Rf is connected between the output and vi‾. Since we are using the
amplifier in an inverting mode, we denote the voltage gain by −A, vin ≠ vi‾ , we define v0 = − A
Avi‾

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In Eqn. [1-6] the gain is negative, signifying that the configuration is an inverting amplifier, also
the magnitude of vo/vin depends only on the ratio of the resistor values. The gain vo/vin is a
closed-loop gain of the amplifier, while A is called the open-loop gain.

The Noninverting Op-Amp

Fig. 1-11(a) shows another useful application of an operational amplifier, called the noninverting
configuration. The input signal vin is connected directly to the noninverting input and R1 is
connected from the inverting input to ground. Under the ideal assumption of infinite input
impedance, no current flows into the inverting input, so i1 = if .

Eqn. [1-7] shows that the closed-loop gain of the noninverting amplifier, like that of the inverting
amplifier, depends only on the values of external resistors. Fig. 1-11(b) shows a special case of
noninverting amplifier, used in applications where power gain and impedance isolation are of
primary concern. When Rf = 0 and R1 = ∞, so the closed-loop gain is
. This configuration is called a voltage follower because vo has
the same magnitude and phase as vin. It has large input impedance and small output impedance,
and is used as a buffer amplifier between a high-impedance source and a low-impedance load.

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Analysis of Op-Amps

Given that certain analyses have been addressed within the preceding topics, I will now cover
those analyses that have not been included in the discussions above.

Op Amp Golden Rules (memorize these rules)

1.) The op amp has infinite open-loop gain.

2.) The input impedance of the +/− inputs is infinite. (The inputs are ideal voltmeters). The
output impedance is zero. (The output is an ideal voltage source.)
3.) No current flows into the +/− inputs of the op amp. This is really a restatement of golden rule
2.
4.) In a circuit with negative feedback, the output of the op amp will try to adjust its output so
that the voltage difference between the + and − inputs is zero (V+ = V−).

IDEAL OP AMP BEHAVOIR.

The relationship between the input ant the output of an ideal op amp (assumptions: infinite open
loop gain, unlimited voltage).

Voltage Follower

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This is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier with Rin → ∞ and Rf = 0. The follower has
a very high input impedance. Voltage follower has application when the source voltage can not
supply very much current, a pH meter for example.

Here, the voltage divider is in the middle of two 10 KΩ resistors and the Op-amp. This Op-amp
will offer input resistance of some hundreds of megaohm. Now, we can assume it to be 100 MΩ.
So the equivalent parallel resistance will be 10 KΩ || 100 KΩ.

So, we get 10KΩ || 10KΩ. We know that the voltage divider, which comprises two similar
resistances, will offer exactly half of the power source voltage.

We can prove it using the voltage divider formula as follows:

Thus, this 5V will drop across the 10KΩ resistance in the top and 5V drop across the resistance
10KΩ in the bottom and the load resistance 100Ω (since 10 KΩ||100 Ω, the same voltage will
drop in resistors which are in parallel).

We have seen how the Op-amp works as a buffer for getting the desired voltage to the connected
load. In the same circuit with the absence of a voltage follower, it will not work due to the lack
of sufficient voltage across the load.

Mainly, the voltage follower is implemented in circuits for two reasons. One is isolating purpose,
and the other is for buffering the output voltage from an electrical or electronic circuit to get the
desired voltage to the connected load.

Current-to-Voltage Converter (AKA, I-V Converter, Transimpedance Amplifier).

This circuit takes an input current and converts it to an output voltage. The input impedance of
the ideal current to voltage converter is zero (the ideal current meter).

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Analysis of the current-to-voltage converter starts with our op amp golden rules. From rule #4
we know that + − =V V and that V− = 0 because V+ is connected to ground. From rule #3 we
know that f in I I = because no current flows into the inverting input.

Then we can find the relationship between Vin and Vout using Ohm’s law (OL) and Kirchhoff’s
voltage law (KVL).

The current-to-voltage converter has transimpedance gain. Transimpedance gain is not unitless,
it has units of impedance (Ohms). The transimpedance gain AZ is the derivative of Vout with
respect to Iin. When the amplifier has only one input and Vout = 0 when Iin = 0, we will make
the assumption that AV = Vout/Iin.

Summary

Op-amps, or operational amplifiers, are highly adaptable electronic components known for their
high gain, differential inputs (inverting and non-inverting), and a singular output. They can be
arranged in open or closed-loop configurations, where ideal op-amps possess infinite
characteristics, while real op-amps closely approach these ideals. Common configurations
encompass inverting/non-inverting amplifiers, differential amplifiers, integrators, and
differentiators, applied in signal amplification, filters, voltage comparators, and summing
amplifiers. Op-amps often necessitate dual power supplies and are available in various packages
like dual in-line (DIP) or surface-mount (SMD), meeting diverse electronic circuit design
requirements. A comprehensive understanding of op-amps is essential for analog signal
processing, playing a crucial role in a broad spectrum of electronic applications.

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References
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/semiconductors/chpt-8/introduction-operational-
amplifiers/

https://www.arrow.com/en/research-and-events/articles/what-is-an-op-amp#:~:text=Karl
%20D.,many%20modern%20analog%20electronic%20circuits.

https://www.monolithicpower.com/en/operational-amplifiers#:~:text=An%20operational
%20amplifier%20(op%20amp,a%20low%2Dimpedance%20output%20port.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/inverting-and-non-inverting-operational-amplifiers

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/opamp/opamp_2.html

https://www.elprocus.com/non-inverting-op-amp/

https://uotechnology.edu.iq/dep-eee/lectures/3rd/Electronic/Analog%20electronic/part1.pdf

https://www.electrical4u.com/voltage-follower/

Exercises:

Exercise 1-1: Calculate the CMRR and express it in decibel for the circuit measurements shown
in Fig. 1-8.

[Answers: 666.7, 56.48 dB]

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Exercise 1-2: Determine the output voltage of an op-amp for input voltages of Vi1 = 150 µV,
Vi2 = 140 µV. The amplifier has a differential gain of Ad = 4000 and the value of CMRR is: (a)
100, and (b) 10^5.

[Answers: (a) 45.8 mV, (b) 40.006 mV]

Exercise 1-3: Assuming that the operational amplifier in Fig. 1-10 is ideal, find (a) the rms value
of vo when vin is 1.5 V rms, (b) the rms value of the current in the 25-kΩ resistor when vin is 1.5
V rms, and (c) the output voltage when vin = − 0.6 V dc.

[Answers: (a) 8.25 V rms, (b) 60 µA rms, (c) 3.3 V dc]

Exercise 1-4: In a certain application, a signal source having 60 kΩ of source impedance, RS,
produces a 1-V-rms signal. This signal must be amplified to 2.5 V rms and drive a 1-kΩ load.
Assuming that the phase of the load voltage is of no concern, design an operational amplifier
circuit for the application. Hint: Choose, arbitrarily, input resistor, R1 = 100 kΩ and find
feedback resistor, Rf . Since phase is of no concern and the required voltage gain is greater than
1, we can use either an inverting or noninverting amplifier.

[Answers: Rf (inverting) = 400 kΩ, Rf (noninverting) = 150 kΩ]

Exercise 1-5: Find the closed-loop gain of the amplifier in Fig. 1-13 when (a) A = ∞, (b) A =
10^6, and (c) A = 10^3 . [Answers: (a) 10, (b) 9.9990, (c) 9.90099]

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1. Which of the following statements about an ideal op-amp is false?

a. Infinite Input Impedance

b. Zero Output Impedance

c. Infinite Voltage Gain

d. Finite CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio)

2. In an inverting amplifier configuration using an op-amp, if the input resistor is increased

while keeping the feedback resistor constant, what will happen to the gain?

a. Increase

b. Decrease

c. Remain constant

d. Cannot be determined

3. What is the purpose of a voltage follower (buffer) circuit using an op-amp?

a. Voltage amplification

b. Current amplification

c. Impedance matching

d. Phase inversion

4. For an ideal inverting amplifier with a gain of -5, if the input voltage is 2V, what will be the
output voltage?

a. 10V

b. -10V

c. -2V

d. 2V

5. When an op-amp is configured as an integrator, what type of input signal does it respond best
to?

a. Constant DC signal

b. Sine wave

c. Square wave

d. Ramp or step input

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