Fundamentals of Mixed Signals and Sensors Unit

Module No. 1
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

Objectives

 Provide a foundational understanding of the principles governing the operation of

differential amplifiers.
 Develop the ability to analyze and interpret differential amplifiers performance
parameters such as gain, impedance, and common-mode rejection ratio.
 Develop the ability to design and optimize differential amplifier circuits for specific
applications.

Amplifier Circuit

Amplification of electrical signals is a crucial function of amplifiers in the field of

electronic circuits. One of the most utilized circuit building blocks in analog integrated circuits,
primarily operational amplifiers, is the differential amplifier. The differential amplifier is a
special kind of amplifier that can amplify the difference between two input signals among other
amplifier kinds. Because of this unique quality, differential amplifiers are essential in a variety of
applications where accuracy and precision are crucial. Both BJTs and MOSFETs can be used to
create the differential amplifier. The differential gain, or constant factor Ad, is multiplied by the
voltage difference between two inputs, Vin+ and Vin-, in a differential amplifier. It could have
two outputs, where the voltage difference between the two outputs is the signal of interest, or it
could have just one output.

An amplifier circuit is a basic electronic construction that is carefully designed to

increase the amplitude of an input signal. An amplifier circuit is made up of active components,
most commonly transistors, which work together to transform an input signal into a much-
enlarged output. An input signal source, an amplifier, and an output terminal that outputs an
amplified version of the original signal are the usual components of the architecture.

Audio Amplifier Circuit

The amount of difference an amplifier makes may be easily calculated using the gain of
the amplifier, which is the ratio of the output signal to the input signal (also known as the
amplification factor or gain factor). Thus, the gain of an amplifier that doubles the original
signal's size is 2. The gain of audio (sound) amplifiers is commonly represented in decibels; that
is, ten times the output power divided by the input power.

Differential amplifiers, although they fall under the larger category of amplifier circuits,
are distinguished by their exceptional ability to effectively bypass common-mode inputs in order
to enhance the voltage difference between two separate input signals. Because of this special
quality, differential amplifiers are essential in situations where maintaining the authenticity and
isolation of the signal cannot be compromised.

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Understanding the basic ideas underlying amplifier circuits is essential before delving
deeply into the study of differential amplifiers. A thorough grasp of these fundamental ideas not
only makes it easier to understand differential amplifiers in their entirety but also lays the
groundwork for exploring their numerous configurations, operational parameters, complex
analysis techniques, and the wide range of real-world uses they suit.

In the next sections of this module, we will explore the complex world of differential
amplifiers, revealing their internal mechanisms, clarifying their settings, examining operational
parameters, performing in-depth analyses, and describing the various applications in which their
power is applied. The goal of this module is to present a comprehensive picture of the essential
function and deep meaning that differential amplifiers have in the complex fabric of electronic
systems.

Introduction of Differential Amplifier

A differential amplifier is a fundamental electronic circuit that plays a crucial role in

signal processing, instrumentation, and communication systems. It is designed to amplify the
difference in voltage between two input signals while rejecting any common-mode signals that
are present on both inputs. This unique capability makes differential amplifiers particularly
useful in applications where the desired signal is accompanied by unwanted noise or
interference.

Basic Differential Amplifier

The basic configuration of a differential amplifier consists of two inputs and one output.
The inputs are connected to the non-inverting and inverting terminals, and the amplified output is
taken from the collector or drain of the active devices, usually transistors. The core principle
behind the operation of a differential amplifier lies in its ability to respond to the voltage
difference between the two inputs, enhancing the signal of interest, and attenuating common-
mode signals. This differential operation provides benefits such as improved signal-to-noise ratio
and increased immunity to external disturbances.

Their primary function lies in signal amplification with common-mode rejection, crucial
for applications where the desired signal is susceptible to interference. This characteristic
enhances the signal-to-noise ratio, making differential amplifiers fundamental in scenarios
demanding high precision and sensitivity.

Differential amplifiers are widely used in many different types of electronic circuits
forming the backbone of versatile analog signal processing. Instrumentation amplifiers utilize
differential amplifiers for accurate measurements in sensor-based systems, while communication
systems benefit from their common-mode rejection capabilities, ensuring reliable signal
processing. In analog-to-digital converters, differential amplifiers condition signals before
conversion, contributing to improved precision. Biomedical applications, particularly in ECG
and EEG amplifiers, leverage differential amplifiers to enhance the detection of biomedical
signals amidst common-mode noise. Additionally, in audio processing, these amplifiers play a
vital role in amplifying audio signals while minimizing unwanted noise. Overall, the flexibility
and common-mode rejection capability of differential amplifiers make them indispensable
components in electronic systems across a diverse range of industries.

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Differential amplifiers present distinct advantages over single-ended amplifiers, with

their foremost strength lying in common-mode rejection. This inherent capability allows them to
effectively cancel out common-mode signals, which are prevalent in environments with
substantial noise or interference. The rejection of common-mode noise enhances the signal-to-
noise ratio, making differential amplifiers particularly adept in applications demanding high
precision. Furthermore, their superior noise performance contributes to improved overall signal
quality. Furthermore, differential amplifiers can handle a wider range of input voltages due to
their greater dynamic range when compared to their single-ended counterparts. This adaptability
is especially useful in situations where there may be large amplitude variations in the signals. In
a variety of applications, from delicate instrumentation systems to reliable communication,
differential amplifiers are the favored option due to their combined common-mode rejection and
improved noise performance.

Differential amplifier history began in the early 1900s, when advancements in

amplification technology were spurred by the necessity for dependable long-distance
communication. Signal degradation and interference presented problems for engineers as
telephone systems grew and attempted to send messages over longer distances. It became clear
that traditional amplification techniques were not up to the task of preserving signal integrity
over long communication connections. Early differential amplifiers often utilized vacuum tubes
and discrete components, paving the way for more sophisticated designs. These amplifiers
played a vital role in improving the fidelity of telecommunication signals, contributing to the
establishment of reliable long-distance communication networks.

Basic Differential Amplifier using Transistor

The subsequent evolution of electronic components, particularly the advent of transistors

in the mid-20th century, further advanced the field of differential amplifiers. Solid-state
differential amplifiers became more prevalent, offering benefits such as reduced size, power
consumption, and improved reliability compared to their vacuum tube counterparts.

Today, differential amplifiers are ubiquitous in electronic circuits, finding applications in

fields ranging from telecommunications to audio processing and biomedical instrumentation.
The historical journey of differential amplifiers reflects their crucial role in addressing challenges
related to signal integrity, noise rejection, and the advancement of communication technologies.

Configuration of Differential Amplifier

A crucial component of differential amplifier design is its configuration, which usually

revolves around two transistors: metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors, or
MOSFETs, and bipolar junction transistors, or BJTs. The differential input is formed by
connecting the emitters of BJTs or the sources of MOSFETs in a differential pair of transistors.
Next, the collector or drain terminals are used to obtain the output. The foundational framework
for differential signal amplification is established by this structure.

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Emitter-coupled Differential Amplifier Circuit

The emitter-coupled differential amplifier is one common design. Two transistors in this
configuration, Q1 and Q2, share an emitter resistor. These transistors receive input signals
supplied to their bases, and the output is taken from the collectors. High input impedance
balanced differential operation, and superior common-mode rejection are all provided by this
configuration. For applications where a low input impedance is preferred, the less common
common-base differential amplifier connects the transistor bases directly to the input signals.

A crucial component in differential amplifier configurations is the load on the collector or

drain side, often implemented using a current source. The current source helps maintain a
constant biasing for the differential pair, contributing to stable and linear operation. This feature
enhances common-mode rejection and overall performance. To further refine performance,
feedback networks may be incorporated, with resistive feedback networks commonly used to set
the gain and tailor the frequency response of the amplifier.

In the pursuit of balanced operation, balancing resistors may be added to match the
characteristics of the transistors in the differential pair. This ensures that both sides contribute
equally to the amplification process, promoting symmetry. Additionally, practical applications
often involve converting the differential output to a single-ended one using additional
components like load resistors or active loads. This conversion facilitates seamless interfacing
with single-ended devices or subsequent stages in a circuit.

Common Emitter Differential Amplifier

Another type of differential amplifier configuration is the common emitter configuration.

It is a common and vital component in the design of a differential amplifier, especially when

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utilizing bipolar junction transistors. In a differential amplifier, the common emitter
configuration involves connecting the emitters of the transistor pair together, forming the
differential input. This arrangement provides several advantages, making it a popular choice in
practical applications.

In the common emitter configuration of a differential amplifier, two transistors, usually

NPN-type for a positive supply voltage share a common emitter resistor. The input signals are
applied to the bases of these transistors, and the amplified output is taken from the collectors.
This configuration offers inherent advantages such as high voltage gain, good linearity, and
straightforward implementation. The emitter resistor serves multiple purposes in this
configuration. It stabilizes the DC operating point of the transistors, providing a degree of
temperature stability. Additionally, it introduces negative feedback, improving the linearity and
reducing distortion in the amplifier's response.

One notable feature of the common emitter configuration is its ability to provide a large
voltage gain. The transistors operate in the active region, and the voltage across the collector
resistors (connected to the power supply) is amplified by the transistor's beta (current gain). This
inherent gain makes the common emitter configuration suitable for applications where
significant signal amplification is required.

All in all, the configuration of a differential amplifier involves a thoughtful arrangement

of active devices and passive components to achieve a balanced differential input, high common-
mode rejection, and desired gain characteristics. The specific configuration chosen depends on
the application requirements and the desired performance parameters, showcasing the versatility
and adaptability of differential amplifiers in various electronic systems.

Parameters of Differential Amplifier

Differential amplifiers are characterized by several crucial parameters that define their
performance characteristics. Understanding these parameters is essential for designing and
analyzing the behavior of a differential amplifier in practical applications. These parameters are:

1. Gain
Gain is a pivotal parameter in the analysis of differential amplifiers, defining their ability
to amplify specific components of input signals. The differential gain or Ad quantifies the
amplification applied to the difference between the two input signals at the inverting and
non-inverting terminals. This parameter is crucial for accentuating the desired signal while
minimizing the impact of common-mode noise. A higher differential gain is often sought for
applications requiring accurate and efficient signal amplification.

In contrast, the common-mode gain represents the amplification of signals common to

both input terminals. Ideally, differential amplifiers are designed to have a low common-
mode gain, effectively rejecting signals that are present identically on both inputs. The
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) complements these measures, expressing the ratio
of the differential gain to the common-mode gain. A higher CMRR signifies superior
rejection of common-mode signals, highlighting the amplifier's proficiency in isolating and
amplifying only the differential input. These gain parameters are integral in tailoring
differential amplifiers to specific applications, ensuring optimal performance and reliability
in diverse electronic systems.

2. Input and Output Impedance

The input impedance of a differential amplifier refers to the resistance seen by the input
signals at the amplifier's input terminals. A high input impedance is often desired as it
minimizes the loading effect on the preceding stages and allows for efficient signal transfer.
A high input impedance ensures that the differential amplifier draws minimal current from
the source, preventing signal distortion and maintaining signal integrity. It is particularly
important in applications where the source impedance is relatively high, such as sensors or
transducers.

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The output impedance of a differential amplifier is the resistance seen by the load
connected to its output. A low output impedance is desirable as it allows the amplifier to
deliver power to the load more effectively and minimizes signal degradation due to
impedance mismatches. A low output impedance ensures that the differential amplifier can
drive external components, such as subsequent amplifier stages or transmission lines, without
significant signal loss. This characteristic is crucial for maintaining the overall system
performance and fidelity of the amplified signal.

3. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

CMRR quantifies how well a differential amplifier discriminates between differential

input signals and common-mode signals that are present identically on both input terminals.
It is calculated using the formula CMRR = Ad / Acm. Ideally, the common-mode gain should
be minimized, leading to a higher CMRR. A high CMRR is desirable in applications where
the differential signal of interest is relatively small compared to common-mode noise or
interference.

A high CMRR ensures that the amplifier predominantly amplifies the intended
differential signal while attenuating undesired common-mode components. This is crucial in
scenarios where maintaining signal fidelity in the presence of noise is paramount, such as in
communication systems, biomedical applications, or precision measurement instruments.
CMRR is particularly important when the common-mode signals are significant, and efficient
rejection is required to prevent distortion or degradation of the desired signal.

4. Voltage Offset
Input Offset Voltage arises from imperfections and mismatches in the components of the
differential amplifier, particularly in the transistors of the differential pair. It manifests as an
undesired voltage that is present at the input terminals when no differential signal is applied.
This offset can introduce errors in the amplified signal and impact the overall accuracy of the
amplifier. It is typically measured in millivolts and is an important consideration in
applications where precision is paramount. Voltage offset can lead to output voltages even
when there is no differential input signal. This offset voltage may result in distortion of the
amplified signal and affect the linearity of the amplifier's response. In applications such as
data acquisition systems, instrumentation, or sensor interfacing, where small signals must be
accurately measured, minimizing Vos is crucial to avoid errors in the output.

5. Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the frequency range over which the differential amplifier maintains a
relatively constant and high level of amplification. It is a critical parameter in applications
where the amplifier needs to accurately process signals across a broad spectrum of
frequencies. The bandwidth of a differential amplifier is influenced by various factors,
including the design of the circuit, component values, and the characteristics of the active
devices used. In practical applications, the bandwidth of a differential amplifier is chosen
based on the frequency content of the signals it is expected to process. Applications in
communication systems, audio amplification, or instrumentation may have different
bandwidth requirements, and engineers must tailor the design accordingly. Additionally,
bandwidth considerations become crucial in high-frequency applications, such as radio
frequency systems, where the amplifier needs to operate over a wide range of frequencies.

Analysis of Differential Amplifier

Analyzing a differential amplifier involves delving into its internal workings, small-
signal models, and understanding its response to both differential and common-mode input
signals. In this analytical part of this module about differential amplifiers we will be focusing on
the usage of Small Signal Model.

The small-signal model is a one method used to understand the behavior of the amplifier
when subjected to small variations around its operating point. This model allows us to analyze
the linear response of the differential amplifier to small changes in input signals and provides

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valuable insights into key parameters such as voltage gain, input impedance, and output
impedance. The steps for small signal analysis are the following:

Step 1. Differential Pair Configuration

The differential pair of transistors in the amplifier circuit is first represented in the small-
signal model. A small-signal equivalent circuit comprising transconductance (gmgm), early
voltage (VAVA), and output conductance (goutputgoutput) is modeled for each transistor. The
transistor's linear behavior around its operating point is captured by these properties.

Step 2. Input Stage Modeling

Small alterations in the input signals are the main emphasis of the small-signal model.
Small-signal analysis for the differential pair entails introducing small-signal AC voltage
fluctuations (vidvid) to the non-inverting and inverting inputs. The small-signal differential
voltage (vdvd) across the transistor pair is the outcome.

Step 3. Gain in Voltage and Transconductance (gmgm)

The transistors' transconductance (gmgm) is the ratio of the input voltage change to the
output current change. Gmgm is a crucial parameter in the small-signal model that affects the
differential amplifier's voltage gain. Often, the voltage gain is given as the result of multiplying
the load resistance by gmgm.

Step 4. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

The small-signal model is instrumental in understanding the CMRR of the differential

amplifier. CMRR quantifies the ability of the amplifier to reject common-mode signals. In the
small-signal model, the analysis involves evaluating the common-mode gain, which is the ratio
of the change in output voltage to the change in common-mode input voltage.

Step 5. Input and Output Impedances

The small-signal model facilitates the calculation of input and output impedances. The
input impedance is determined by the impedance looking into the amplifier's input terminals
when AC signals are applied. The output impedance is similarly calculated for the output
terminals. These parameters are crucial for matching the amplifier with external components and
ensuring efficient signal transfer.

Step 6. Load Lines and Biasing Stability

Small-signal analysis helps engineers evaluate the stability of the amplifier's biasing.
Load lines on the small-signal transistor characteristic curves aid in determining the operating
point and ensuring that the amplifier remains within the linear region for small variations in input
signals.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio

The Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is a pivotal parameter in the realm of
differential amplifiers, serving as a quantitative measure of an amplifier's ability to reject
common-mode signals. This section delves into the intricacies of CMRR, exploring its
definition, calculation, significance, and methods for enhancing this critical aspect of differential
amplifier performance.

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CMRR Formula

This formula quantifies the ability of the differential amplifier to favorably amplify the
intended differential signals while attenuating unwanted common-mode signals.

CMRR is a numerical representation of a differential amplifier's capacity to suppress

signals that are common to both of its input terminals. It is defined as the ratio of the differential
gain to the common-mode gain, typically expressed in decibels. A high CMRR is imperative in
applications where maintaining signal fidelity in the presence of common-mode noise is
paramount, such as in data transmission and biomedical instrumentation.

Summary

Differential amplifiers serve as the cornerstone in electronic circuits, providing a

sophisticated means to amplify the voltage difference between two input signals while
effectively rejecting common-mode noise. The module commenced with an exploration of
amplifier circuits, elucidating their fundamental role in signal processing. Within this context,
the unique attributes of differential amplifiers were introduced, highlighting their ability to
enhance signal fidelity by isolating and amplifying specific voltage differentials. This
introductory section laid the groundwork for a more in-depth understanding of differential
amplifiers.

The module delved into the broader introduction of differential amplifiers, defining them
as electronic devices designed to amplify voltage discrepancies between two input signals. The
discussion underscored their versatile applications across various fields, emphasizing advantages
over single-ended amplifiers. Historical context was provided, illustrating the evolutionary
journey of differential amplifiers from analog computing to their pivotal role in modern
electronics.

The exploration then turned to the configurations of differential amplifiers, dissecting

their basic structure and components. Different configurations, including common emitter,
common base, and common collector, were outlined, each offering distinct advantages and
applications. This section provided insights into the intricate details of how differential
amplifiers are physically constructed and configured.

Parameters of differential amplifiers, such as gain, input/output impedance, CMRR,

voltage offset, and bandwidth, formed the crux of the subsequent discussion. Understanding
these parameters is crucial for tailoring differential amplifiers to specific applications and
optimizing their performance. A deeper analysis ensued, focusing on small signal analysis,
which offers a methodical approach to predict and understand the amplifier's behavior under
varying conditions.

The Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) emerged as a central theme in the module,
representing a quantitative measure of a differential amplifier's ability to reject common-mode
signals. The discussion not only defined CMRR but also delved into its calculation, significance,
and practical methods for improvement. This parameter, essential in applications where noise
rejection is critical, was explored in detail, providing engineers with tools to enhance the
performance of differential amplifiers in real-world scenarios.

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This module has navigated through the realm of differential amplifiers, spanning their
introduction, configurations, parameters, analysis techniques, and the critical aspect of common-
mode rejection. This knowledge equips practitioners with the insights needed to design, analyze,
and optimize differential amplifiers, solidifying their foundational role in contemporary
electronic systems.

References

Chourasiya, S. (2023, March 30). Differential amplifier | Common-mode rejection ratio |

Common and differential-mode signals. M-Physics Tutorial.

https://www.mphysicstutorial.com/2021/01/differential-amplifier-common-mode-

rejection-ratio-common-differential-mode-signals.html

Ciciora, W., Farmer, J., Large, D. R., & Adams, M. E. (2004). Digital Set-Top terminals and

consumer interfaces. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 847–902). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-

155860828-3/50024-2

Libretexts. (2022, May 22). 1.6: the differential amplifier. Engineering LibreTexts.

https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Electrical_Engineering/Electronics/

Operational_Amplifiers_and_Linear_Integrated_Circuits_-

_Theory_and_Application_(Fiore)/01%3A_Introductory_Concepts_and_Fundamentals/

1.6%3A_The_Differential_Amplifier

Libretexts. (2022b, May 22). 7.3: THE DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER. Engineering LibreTexts.

https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Electrical_Engineering/Electronics/

Operational_Amplifiers%3A_Theory_and_Practice_(Roberge)/07%3A_Direct-

Coupled_Amplifiers/7.03%3A_THE_DIFFERENTIAL_AMPLIFIER

Matan. (2023, October 26). Differential Amplifiers | How it works, Application & Advantages.

Electricity - Magnetism. https://www.electricity-magnetism.org/differential-amplifiers/

Teja, R. (2021, October 5). Differential amplifier. ElectronicsHub.

https://www.electronicshub.org/differential-amplifier/

WatElectronics. (2022, October 25). Differential Amplifier : Design, working, Configurations &

its applications. WatElectronics.com. https://www.watelectronics.com/differential-

amplifier/

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Exercises:

1. What is the primary function of a differential amplifier?

a) To amplify a single input signal

b) To amplify the difference between two input signals
c) To amplify common-mode noise
d) To reject differential signals

2. In a differential amplifier, what does CMRR stand for?

a) Common Mode Rejection Ratio

b) Circuit Mode Resistance Range
c) Capacitance Model Resonance Ratio
d) Current Modulation Range

3. Which configuration is commonly used in the input stage of operational amplifiers for
differential amplification?

a) Common Emitter
b) Common Base
c) Common Collector
d) None of the above

4. What is the purpose of small-signal analysis in the context of differential amplifiers?

a) To analyze large input signals

b) To calculate power consumption
c) To understand linear response to small variations around the operating point
d) To design power supplies

5. What does the common-mode gain of a differential amplifier measure?

a) The amplification of differential signals

b) The rejection of common-mode signals
c) The ratio of input to output impedance
d) The bandwidth of the amplifier

6. Which parameter characterizes how effectively a differential amplifier rejects common-

mode signals?

a) Gain
b) CMRR
c) Bandwidth
d) Voltage Offset

7. What is the primary advantage of a differential amplifier over a single-ended amplifier?

a) Higher voltage gain

b) Lower power consumption
c) Rejection of common-mode noise
d) Simplicity in design

8. How is the Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) calculated for a differential
amplifier?

a) CMRR = Common-Mode Gain / Differential Gain

b) CMRR = Differential Gain - Common-Mode Gain

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c) CMRR = 10 × log10(Differential Gain / Common-Mode Gain)
d) CMRR = 20 × log10(Differential Gain / Common-Mode Gain)

9. What does the input impedance of a differential amplifier affect?

a) Output signal strength

b) Rejection of common-mode signals
c) Loading on the preceding circuit
d) CMRR

10. Which configuration is commonly used in the input stage of a differential amplifier for
high input impedance?

a) Common Emitter
b) Common Base
c) Common Collector
d) All of the above

Answer Key:

1. B
2. A
3. B
4. C
5. B
6. B
7. C
8. D
9. C
10. B

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