Reducing_Energy_Use_in_the_Buildings_Sector_Measur

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Reducing Energy Use in the Buildings Sector: Measures, Costs, and Examples
Article in Energy Efficiency · May 2009

DOI: 10.1007/s12053-009-9041-2
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Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:139–163
DOI 10.1007/s12053-009-9041-2
Reducing energy use in the buildings sector: measures, costs,

and examples
L. D. Danny Harvey
Received: 17 June 2008 / Accepted: 9 January 2009 / Published online: 6 February 2009
# Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2009
Abstract This paper reviews the literature concerning the savings available through better and alternative
the energy savings that can be achieved through energy-using systems (such as alternative heating,
optimized building shape and form, improved building ventilation, cooling, and lighting systems) are generally
envelopes, improved efficiencies of individual energy- much larger than the savings that can be achieved by
using devices, alternative energy using systems in using more efficient devices (such as boilers, fans,
buildings, and through enlightened occupant behavior chillers, and lamps). Because improved building
and operation of building systems. Cost information is envelopes and improved building systems reduce the
also provided. Both new buildings and retrofits are need for mechanical heating and cooling equipment,
discussed. Energy-relevant characteristics of the build- buildings with dramatically lower energy use (50–75%
ing envelope include window-to-wall ratios, insulation savings) often entail no greater construction cost than
levels of the walls and roof, thermal resistance and conventional design while yielding significant annual
solar heat gain coefficient of windows, degree of air energy-cost savings.
tightness to prevent unwanted exchange of air between
the inside and outside, and presence or absence of Keywords Buildings . Energy use . Energy efficiency .
operable windows that connect to pathways for passive Renovations
ventilation. Provision of a high-performance envelope
is the single most important factor in the design of low-
energy buildings, not only because it reduces the Introduction
heating and cooling loads that the mechanical system
must satisfy but also because it permits alternative (and The chapter on energy use in buildings of Working
low-energy) systems for meeting the reduced loads. In Group III of the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of
many cases, equipment with significantly greater the IPCC (Levine et al. 2007) outlines the broad
efficiency than is currently used is available. However, strategies for reducing energy use in buildings,
identifies the major technologies and systems that
can be used to reduce energy use, and extensively
discusses the policies that can be taken to realize the
L. D. D. Harvey (*) large energy-savings potential in the buildings sector.
Department of Geography, University of Toronto,
However, space permitted only a limited discussion of
100 St George Street,
Toronto M5S 3G3, Canada costs and of quantitative examples of the savings
e-mail: [email protected] potential for new buildings and in renovations. This
140 Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:139–163
paper reviews the main strategies for reducing energy The importance of a systems approach to building
use in new and existing buildings and presents design
additional quantitative examples of the savings that
have been achieved in real buildings based, in part, on The energy use of buildings depends to a significant
information that has been published since the text of extent on how the various energy-using devices
Levine et al. (2007) was finalized. This paper is (pumps, motors, fans, heaters, chillers, and so on)
complemented by Ürge-Vorsatz et al. (2009), which are put together as systems, rather than depending on
elaborates upon the policy discussion of Levine et al. the efficiencies of the individual devices. The savings
(2007). opportunities at the system level are generally many
The report of AR4 Working Group I (Solomon times what can be achieved at the device level, and
et al. 2007) confirms that the eventual global mean these system-level savings can often be achieved at a
warming for a doubling of the atmospheric carbon net investment-cost savings.
dioxide (CO2) concentration, or its radiative equivalent, The systems approach requires an Integrated
is highly likely to fall between 2°C and 4°C, while Design Process (IDP), in which the building perfor-
the report (Parry et al. 2007) of AR4 Working Group mance is optimized through an iterative process that
II (and the summary provided by Parry et al. 2008) involves all members of the design team from the
makes it quite clear that serious widespread negative beginning. However, the conventional process of
impacts are likely with only 2–3°C global mean designing a building is a largely linear process, in
warming relative to preindustrial times. From this, it which the architect makes a number of design
follows that greenhouse gas concentrations equiva- decisions with little or no consideration of their
lent to a doubling of preindustrial atmospheric CO2 energy implications and then passes on the design to
are dangerous, and that even the current CO2 the engineers, who are supposed to make the building
concentrations can be regarded as dangerous inter- habitable through mechanical systems. The design of
ference in the climatic system (see Harvey (2007a, b) mechanical systems is also largely a linear process
for a more thorough analysis). From this, it follows with, in some cases, system components specified
that emissions of CO2 need to be reduced with the without yet having all of the information needed in
utmost urgency. Given limits on how fast and to order to design an efficient system (given the
what extent carbon-free energy sources can be constraints imposed by the architect; Lewis 2004).
deployed, it is vital that significant absolute reduc- This is not to say that there is no integration or
tions in energy demand be achieved over the coming teamwork in the traditional design process but rather
decades. that the integration is not normally directed toward
A key conclusion of this paper is that reduc- minimizing total energy use through an iterative
tions in the energy intensity (annual energy use modification of a number of alternative initial designs
per unit of floor area) of new buildings by a factor and concepts so as to optimize the design as a whole.
of 3–4 relative to current local practice can be The steps in the most basic IDP are:
achieved and that reductions in the energy inten-
& to consider building orientation, form, and
sity of existing buildings by factors of 2–3 can be
thermal mass
achieved through comprehensive renovations. The
& to specify a high-performance building envelope
following sections provide an overview of how
& to maximize passive heating, cooling, ventilation,
this can be done, while much more detailed
and daylighting
information can be found in Harvey (2006). The
& to install efficient systems to meet remaining loads
final section of this paper presents scenarios to
& to ensure that individual energy-using devices are
illustrate the consequences for absolute energy use
as efficient as possible and properly sized
by buildings and for average building energy
& to ensure the systems and devices are properly
intensities through to 2050 of various magnitudes
commissioned
and rates of reduction in the energy intensity of
new and renovated buildings, in combination with By focusing on building form and a high-performance
different assumptions concerning the growth in envelope, heating, and cooling loads are minimized,
total floor area between now and 2050. daylighting opportunities are maximized, and me-
Energy Efficiency (2009) 2:139–163 141
chanical systems can be greatly downsized. This Standard requires a heating energy use of no more than
generates cost savings that can offset the additional 15 kWh/m2/year, but this is typically achieved by
cost of a high-performance envelope and the addi- reducing the heat loss to about 45 kWh/m2/year, with
tional cost of installing premium (high efficiency) one third of the heat loss offset by internal heat gains
equipment throughout the building. These steps and one third offset by passive solar heat gains. By
alone can usually achieve energy savings on the comparison, the maximum permitted heating load for
order of 35–50% for a new commercial building, new residential buildings in Germany was 65–
compared to standard practice, while utilization of 100 kWh/m2/year under the 1995 regulations, while
more advanced or less conventional approaches has the average heating requirement of existing buildings is
often achieved savings on the order of 50–80%. In estimated to be 220 kWh/m2/year in Germany and
the next section, the key envelope measures, techni- 250–400 kWh/m2/year in Eastern Europe (Krapmeier
ques for utilizing passive solar energy, and alterna- and Drössler 2001; Gauzin-Müller 2002). Thus, the
tive system-level designs are outlined. Passive House standard represents a reduction in
heating requirements by up to a factor of 25 compared
to typical existing buildings. More generally, a number
Reducing heating and cooling loads of advanced houses have been built in various cold-
climate countries around the world that use only 10–
At the early design stages, key decisions—usually 25% of the heating energy of houses built according to
made by the architect—can greatly influence the the local national building code (Badescu and Sicre
subsequent opportunities to reduce building energy 2003; Hamada et al. 2003; Hastings 2004).
use. These include building form, orientation, self- In countries with mild winters but still requiring
shading, height-to-floor-area ratio, window-to-wall heating (including many developing countries), modest
area ratios, insulation levels and window properties, (and therefore less costly) amounts of insulation can
use of thermal mass within the building, and decisions readily reduce heating requirements by a factor of 2 or
affecting the opportunities for and effectiveness of more, as well as substantially reducing indoor summer
passive ventilation and cooling. Many elements of temperatures, thereby improving comfort (in the
traditional building designs in both developed and absence of air conditioning) or reducing summer
developing countries were effective in reducing cooling energy use (Taylor et al. 2000; Florides et al.
heating and cooling loads, but have been discarded 2002; Safarzadeh and Bahadori 2005).
in modern designs.
Reducing the cooling load
High-performance thermal envelopes combined
with passive heating Reducing the cooling load requires (1) orienting a
building to minimize the wall area facing east or west
The term thermal envelope refers to the shell of the (which are the directions most difficult to shade from
building as a barrier to the transfer of heat between the sun); (2) clustering buildings to provide some
the inside and outside of the building. The effective- degree of self shading (as in many traditional
ness of the thermal envelope depends on (1) the communities in hot climates); (3) providing fixed or
insulation levels in the walls, ceiling, and other adjustable shading; (4) using highly reflective building
building parts; (2) the thermal properties of windows materials; (5) increasing insulation; (6) using win-
and doors; and (3) the rate of uncontrolled exchange dows that transmit a relatively small fraction (as little
of inside and outside air which, in turn, depends in at 25%) of the total (visible + invisible) incident
part on the air tightness of the envelope. solar energy while permitting a larger fraction of the
A high-performance thermal envelope can reduce visible radiation to enter for daylighting purposes;
heat losses to the point where a large fraction of the (7) utilizing thermal mass to minimize daytime
remaining heat loss can be offset by internal heat gain interior temperature peaks; (8) utilizing nighttime
(from people, lighting, appliances) and passive solar ventilation to remove daytime heat; and (9) mini-
heat gain, with the heating system required only for the mizing internal heat gains by using efficient lighting
residual. For example, the European Passive House and appliances. The combination of external insula-
tion, thermal mass, and night ventilation is particu- chimneys, and operable windows (Holford and Hunt
larly effective in hot-dry climates, as placing the 2003; Hawkes and Forster 2002). Passive ventilation
insulation on the outside exposes the thermal mass to not only reduces energy use, but can improve air
cool night air while minimizing the inward penetra- quality (if the outdoor air is not overly polluted) and
tion of daytime heat into the thermal mass. These gives people what they generally want (a connection
measures, alone or in combination, can typically to the outside).
reduce cooling loads by 50% or more (in many cases In buildings with good thermal mass exposed to
eliminating the need for mechanical cooling alto- the interior air, passive ventilation can continue right
gether). Low thermal mass and an open design with through the night, sometimes more vigorously than
plenty of cross ventilation is normally recommended during the day due to the greater temperature
in hot humid climates, although Tenorio (2007) finds difference between the internal and external air.
that in humid tropical areas of Brazil, thermal mass Nighttime ventilation, in turn, serves to reduce the
combined with night ventilation and selective use of cooling load by making use of cool ambient air to
air conditioning can reduce cooling energy use in a remove heat.
two-storey house by up to 80% compared to a fully
air-conditioned house. Evaporative cooling
Evaporation of water cools the remaining liquid water

Passive and low-energy cooling techniques and air that comes into contact with it. The coldest
temperature that can be achieved through evaporation
Having reduced the thermal load through the above is called the wetbulb temperature and depends on the
measures, usually by a factor of 2 or more, a number initial temperature and humidity (the higher the initial
of purely passive cooling techniques (requiring no humidity, the less evaporation and cooling that can
mechanical energy input) are available. Other techni- occur). The wetbulb temperature is sufficiently low
ques involve small inputs of mechanical energy to (≤20°C) in most of the world most of the time for
enhance what are largely passive cooling processes. cooling purposes (see Harvey 2006, Tables 6.7 and
The major passive and passive or low-energy cooling 6.8). There are two methods of evaporatively cooling
techniques are discussed below. the air supplied to buildings. In a direct evaporative
cooler, water evaporates directly into the air stream to
Passive ventilation be cooled. In an indirect evaporative cooler, water
evaporates into and cools a secondary air stream,
Passive ventilation reduces the need for mechanical which cools the supply air through a heat exchanger
cooling by directly removing warm air when the without adding moisture. By appropriately combining
incoming air is cooler than the outgoing air, reducing direct and indirect systems, evaporative cooling can
the perceived temperature due to the cooling effect of provide comfortable temperature–humidity combina-
air motion and increasing the acceptable temperature tions most of the time in most parts of the world.
through psychological adaptation when the occupants Evaporative cooling is most effective in dry
have control of operable windows. With regard to the regions, but water may be a limiting factor in such
latter, when the outdoor temperature is 30°C, the regions. However, arid regions tend to have a large
average preferred temperature in naturally ventilated diurnal temperature range, so thermal mass with
buildings is 27°C, compared to 25°C in mechanically external insulation and night ventilation can be used
ventilated buildings (de Dear and Brager 2002). instead. Evaporative cooling is not effective in humid
Passive ventilation requires a driving force, and an climates, but it can be extended to such climates
adequate number of openings, to produce airflow. It through the use of desiccants (described below).
can be induced through pressure differences arising
from inside–outside temperature differences or from Desiccant dehumidification
wind. Design features, both traditional and modern,
that create thermal driving forces and/or utilize wind Desiccant dehumidification and cooling involves
effects include courtyards, atria, wind towers, solar using a material (desiccant) that removes moisture
from air and is regenerated using heat. Solid circulated, generally through radiators. Efficiencies
desiccants are a commercially available technology, (ratio of heat delivered to fuel use) range from 80% to
while liquid desiccants are nearing commercializa- 95%, not including distribution losses. Modern
tion. By over-drying the air, there is then room for residential furnaces, which are used primarily in
adding moisture back to the air as a byproduct of North America and produce warm air that is circulat-
evaporative cooling. Desiccants provide an efficient ed through ducts, have efficiencies ranging from 78%
means of air conditioning using solar thermal to 96% (again, not including distribution system
energy or waste heat. A 30–50% savings in the losses). Old equipment tends to have an efficiency
primary energy use for cooling and dehumidifica- in the range of 60–70%, so new equipment can
tion is possible in large centralized systems, with provide a substantial savings. Space heating and hot
first-costs comparable to those of multi-zone roof- water for consumptive use (e.g., showers) can be
top air conditioners (Harvey 2006, Sections 6.6.4 supplied with heat from small wall-hung boilers with
and 7.4.11). A 50–75% savings is possible if waste or an efficiency in excess of 90%.
solar heat can be used to regenerate the desiccant,
although costs will be greater due to the need for solar Heat pumps
thermal collectors.
A heat pump transfers heat from cold to warm
Earth-pipe cooling (against the macro-temperature gradient) although at
each point in the system, heat flow is from warm to
Ventilation air can be precooled by drawing outside cold. It relies on the fact that a liquid cools when it
air through a buried air duct. This is referred to as evaporates, and the cooling effect is greater the lower
earth-pipe cooling. Good performance depends on the the pressure of evaporation, while a gas releases latent
climate having a substantial annual temperature range heat as it condenses and is warmed to a greater
so that the ground temperature (which will be close to temperature the greater the pressure. A heat pump can
the mean annual temperature) is comparatively cool. transfer heat from outside to inside (during winter)
The ratio of the cooling obtained to fan energy and from inside to outside (during summer). An air
required to move air through the earth pipe (analo- conditioner is a heat pump that operates in only one
gous to the coefficient of performance (COP) of a direction. The efficiency of cooling equipment is
heat pump or air conditioner) in experimental studies indicated by its COP—the ratio of heat energy
ranges from a low as about 5 in Italy (Solaini et al. transferred to energy input.
1998) and 8 in India during the pre-monsoon hot The difference between the source temperature
period (Thanu et al. 2001) to 30–50 in Germany (from which heat is drawn) and the sink temperature
(Eicker et al. 2006). Up to a 70% reduction in the (to which heat is added) is referred to as the
cooling load in the northern US is possible with earth- temperature lift. By drawing heat from the warmest
pipe cooling (Lee and Strand 2008). By combining possible source temperature (such as the ground or
earth pipe cooling with solar chimneys or measures to exhaust air rather than cold outside air) and
exploit wind suction, both cooling and ventilation can distributing the heat at the lowest possible tempera-
be passively driven, with only occasional need for ture (as in radiant floors or ceilings) during heating
backup fans, an example being a school in Norway mode, the temperature lift can be minimized and the
(Schild and Blom 2002) COP increased. Similarly, during cooling mode, the
temperature lift is minimized and COP maximized if
coldness is distributed at the warmest possible
Heating and cooling equipment temperature and the heat rejected at the lowest
possible temperature. Figure 1 shows the variation in
Furnaces and boilers the COP of a heat pump in heating mode and in
cooling mode for various evaporator–temperature
Commercial buildings, multiunit residences, and combinations. There can easily be a factor of two
many single-family residences (especially in Europe) differences in the COP for best- and worst-case
use boilers, which produce steam or hot water that is systems.
a 10 Air conditioners and chillers

nc=0.65
8 Air conditioners used for houses, apartments, and
Condenser small commercial buildings have a nominal COP
Heating COP
6 Temperature: ranging from 2.2 to 3.8 in North America and Europe,

30oC
depending on operating conditions, whereas mini-
4 50oC split systems in Japan have COPs of up to 6.2.
70oC
90oC Chillers are larger cooling devices that produce
2 chilled water (rather than cooled air) for use in large
residential and commercial buildings. Chiller COP
0 generally increases with size, with the largest and
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 most efficient electric chillers having a COP of up to
Evaporator Temperature (°C)
8 under full-load operation and even higher under
b 12 part-load operation. This is a factor of 3 better than
nc=0.65
typical air conditioners. Although additional energy is
Evaporator used in chiller-based systems for circulating chilled
Temperature:
8 water and for operating a cooling tower, significant
Cooling COP
10oC energy savings are still possible through the choice of

5oC
0oC the most efficient cooling equipment in combination
-5oC
4
-10oC with efficient auxiliary systems.
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems

0
30 35 40 45 50
Condenser Temperature (°C) The term HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air condi-
tioning) refers to the system that produces and
Fig. 1 Variation in the COP of a heat pump in heating mode delivers coldness and warmth as well as fresh air
and in cooling mode for various evaporator–temperature
combinations, assuming a Carnot efficiency (ratio of actual to throughout a building.
ideal COP) of 0.64. Source, Harvey (2006)
Principles of energy-efficient HVAC design
If the heat pump COP is 3.0 and the efficiency In the simplest HVAC systems, heating or cooling is
in producing and delivering the electricity is only provided by circulating a fixed amount of air at a
33% (both being typical situations), then one unit sufficiently warm or cold temperature to maintain the
of energy to the power plant supplies one unit of desired room temperature. The rate at which air is
heat to the building—about the same as for a high circulated in this case is normally much greater than
efficiency furnace or boiler. However, if the COP that needed for ventilation to remove contaminants,
can be pushed higher, and as more efficient fossil and is constant. During the cooling season, the air is
fuel electricity generation comes on line, there will supplied at the coldest temperature needed in any
be a net savings in source energy. If the building is zone, and reheated as necessary just before entering
well insulated and has thermal mass exposed to the other zones.
interior, the heat pump could be used preferentially There are a number of changes in the design of
when intermittent carbon-free electricity sources HVAC systems that can achieve dramatic savings in
(such as wind) are available in surplus, with the energy use for heating, cooling, and ventilation.
temperatures freely drifting at other times. In this These include,
way, heat pumps can use carbon-free electricity
and, by serving as a flexible electricity load, can & using variable-air volume systems with variable-
facilitate a greater overall use of intermittent speed fans so as to minimize simultaneous heating
renewable energy sources for electricity. and cooling of air and to reduce fan energy use
& using heat exchangers to recover heat or coldness below), allows ceiling heat gains (from lighting or
from ventilation exhaust air and to supply it to the rising thermal plumes and constituting up to 30% of the
incoming fresh air total cooling requirement) to be directly vented to the
& separating the ventilation from the heating and outside rather than having to be removed by the chillers
cooling functions by using chilled or hot water for before the air is recirculated. This is one of the many
temperature control and circulating only the examples of system–level interactions that can lead to
volume of air needed for ventilation large energy savings (see Harvey 2008, for other such
& implementing a demand-controlled ventilation examples).
system in which ventilation airflow changes with An optimal combination of the measures listed
changing building occupancy here can reduce the HVAC energy use by 30% to
& separating cooling from dehumidification func- 75%. These savings are in addition to the savings
tions through the use of desiccant dehumidifica- arising from reducing heating and cooling loads.
tion, with the desiccant preferably regenerated Further information on two particularly advantageous
with solar heat features of an efficient HVAC system—chilled-
& correctly sizing all components ceiling cooling and displacement ventilation—is
& allowing the temperature maintained by the HVAC given below.
system to vary seasonally with outdoor conditions,
as a large body of evidence indicates that the Radiant chilled-ceiling cooling
temperature and humidity set-points commonly
encountered in air-conditioned buildings are signif- Chilled ceiling (CC) cooling refers to the circulation
icantly lower than necessary (de Dear and Brager of chilled water either through panels mounted
1998; Fountain et al. 1999). underneath the ceiling, or circulating through pipes
inside a concrete ceiling. The entire ceiling is chilled
Hydronic systems (in which water rather than air in this way, creating a cooling effect largely through
is circulated), especially floor radiant heating or the reduction in emission of infrared radiation. CC
cooling systems in residential buildings and chilled cooling has been used in Europe since at least the mid
ceiling heating or cooling in commercial buildings, 1970s. Significant energy savings arise because of the
require less energy than forced air systems to greater effectiveness of water than air in transporting
distribute a given amount of heat, have low distri- heat and because the chilled water is supplied at 16°C
bution heat losses, and do not induce infiltration of to 20°C rather than at 5°C to 7°C. This not only
outside air (as in poorly balanced air distribution allows a higher chiller COP when the chiller operates
systems). They allow heating and cooling to be but also allows more frequent use of water-side free
provided at temperatures closer to the desired room cooling, in which the chiller is bypassed altogether
temperature, which increases the efficiency of heating and evaporatively cooled water from a cooling tower
and cooling devices. is used directly for space cooling. Even in the absence
In many buildings, heating and cooling is provided of water-side free cooling, savings of 6–42% have
by circulating a volume of warm or cool air that is been calculated for systems in various US cities
several times that required for ventilation purposes. compared to all-air systems (Stetiu and Feustel 1999).
To reduce the volume of outside air that needs to be
conditioned, it is common to recirculate, say, 80% of Displacement ventilation
the internal air on each circuit and replace only 20%
with fresh outside air. This spreads contaminants Conventional ventilation relies on turbulent mixing to
throughout the building. If heating and cooling is dilute room air with ventilation air. A superior system
largely supplied hydronically, the airflow can be set is displacement ventilation in which air is introduced
equal to that required for ventilation purposes alone at low speed through many diffusers in the floor or
but then, of necessity, must be completely replaced along the sides of a room and is warmed by internal
with fresh air after each circuit through the building. heat sources (occupants, lights, plug-in equipment) as
This forms a dedicated outdoor air supply system and, it rises to the top of the room, displacing the air
if combined with displacement ventilation (described already present. This allows cooling to be supplied at
a warmer temperature (∼18°C vs. ∼13°C in a Integrated energy savings

conventional mixing ventilation system) and permits
smaller airflows. Savings of 40–60% in cooling There are numerous examples of buildings of all
energy use occur in US cities compared to a standard types, and in all climate zones, that have achieved
system (Sodec 1999; Mumma 2001; Bourassa et al. energy savings of 50% to 75% or more compared to
2002; Howe et al. 2003). the energy use of buildings built under current local
practice.
Control systems and commissioning
Advanced residential buildings
Building Energy Management Systems are control
systems for individual buildings or groups of buildings Hamada et al. (2003) summarize the characteristics
that use computers and distributed microprocessors and energy savings for 66 advanced houses in 17
for monitoring, data storage, and communication countries. For the 28 houses where the savings in
(Levermore 2000). Building commissioning is a heating energy use is reported, the savings compared
quality control process that begins with the early to the same house built according to conventional
stages of design. It helps ensure that the design standards ranges from 23% to 98%, with eight houses
intent is clear and readily tested, that installation is achieving a savings of 75% or better.
subjected to on-site inspection, and that all Several hundred houses that meet the Passive
systems are tested and functioning properly before House Standard—a house with an annual heating
the building is accepted. Savings typically range requirement of no more than 15 kWh/m 2/year
from 15% to 30% at a cost of 1–3% of the HVAC irrespective of the climate and a total energy
system and a payback time of 2 years or less consumption of no more than 42 kWh/m2/year—
(Claridge et al. 2001; Roth et al. 2003; Liu et al. have been built in Europe. By comparison, the
2003; Poulos 2007). average heating load of new residential buildings is
about 60–100 kWh/m2/year in Switzerland and
Germany but about 220 kWh/m 2 /year for the
Lighting average of existing buildings in Germany and 250–
400 kWh/m2/year in Central and Eastern Europe.
Strategies to reduce lighting energy use focus on Thus, Passive Houses represent a reduction in
(1) efficient lighting systems; (2) efficient lighting heating energy use by a factor of 4–5 compared to
devices (ballasts, lamps, luminaires); and (3) optimal new buildings and by a factor of 10–25 compared to
use of daylighting (taking into account additional the average of existing buildings. Technical details,
cooling loads if excess daylight is supplied). An measured performance, design issues, and occupant
example of an efficient lighting system would be one response to Passive Houses in various countries can
with separate controls for different lighting zones be found in Krapmeier and Drössler (2001), Feist et
and use of task or ambient lighting (relatively low al. (2005), Schnieders and Hermelink (2006), and
background light levels where appropriate, supple- Hastings and Wall (2007a, b), with full technical
mented with greater lighting when and where reports available at www.cepheus.de.
needed). Space limitations do not permit a substan- Parker et al. (1998) shows how a handful of very
tial discussion of lighting energy use; an extensive simple measures (attic radiant barriers; wider and
review in Harvey (2006, Chapter 9) indicates that, in shorter return-air ducts; use of the most efficient air
retrofits, a 30–50% savings in electricity use can be conditioners with variable speed drives; use of solar
routinely achieved, while a savings of 70–75% is hot water heaters; efficient refrigerators, lighting, and
sometimes possible with considerable effort. Day- pool pumps) can reduce total energy use by 40–45%
lighting can provide 40–80% savings in lighting in single-family houses in Florida compared to
energy use in perimeter offices, 20–33% savings conventional practices. These savings are achieved
in combined lighting + cooling energy use, and while still retaining black asphalt shingle roofs that
up to 90% savings deep in rooms using fiber produce roof surface temperatures of up to 82°C!
optics. Holton (2002), Gamble et al. (2004), and Rudd et al.
(2004) have shown how a series of modest insulation Second, in the UK, energy consumption guidelines
and window improvements can lead to energy savings indicate that energy use for office buildings is typically
of 30–75% in a wide variety of US climates. In all about 300–330 kWh/m2/year for standard mechanically
three studies, alterations in building form to facilitate ventilated buildings, 173–186 kWh/m2/year with good
passive solar heating, use of thermal mass combined practice (a savings of about 40–45%), and 127–
with night ventilation to meet cooling requirements 145 kWh/m2/year for naturally ventilated buildings
(where applicable), or use of features such as earth- with good practice (Walker et al. 2007)—a savings of
pipe cooling, evaporative coolers, or exhaust-air heat 55–60%.
pumps are not considered. Thus, the full potential is Third, Voss et al. (2007) present data on the
considerably greater. Demirbilek et al. (2000) find, measured energy use in 21 passively cooled commer-
through computer simulation, that a variety of simple cial and educational buildings in Germany. The
and modest measures can reduce heating energy passive cooling techniques involve earth-to-air heat
requirements by 60% compared to conventional exchangers (nine cases), slab cooling directly
designs for two-storey single-family houses in connected to the ground via pipes in boreholes or
Ankara, Turkey. connected to the groundwater (nine cases), and some
form of night ventilation (16 cases), along with a
Commercial buildings limited window-to-wall ratio (0.27–0.43) and external
sun shading. The buildings also have a high degree of
Table 1 gives documented examples of new commer- insulation and many have triple-glazed windows.
cial buildings in North America, Europe, and Asia Nine of the buildings have total onsite energy use of
that achieved a minimum of a 50% reduction in 25–55 kWh/m2/year and ten had 55–110 kWh/m2/year
overall energy use compared to current conventional energy use, compared to 175 kWh/m2/year for con-
practice. Several surveys indicate that these are not ventional designs, so the savings is up to a factor of
unrepresentative examples, but rather, that energy seven. Three buildings have a heating energy use less
savings of 50–75% can be routinely achieved in new than 20 kWh/m2/year and eight have a heating energy
commercial buildings through maximal implementa- use of 20–40 kWh/m2/year compared to a typical
tion of the measures reviewed in this paper. heating energy use of 125 kWh/m2/year.
First, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory Large savings potentials (compared to recent
in the US extracted the key energy-related parameters practice) are not restricted to mid-latitude climates or
from a sample of 5,375 buildings in the 1999 to industrialized countries. As indicated in Table 1,
Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey, simulation studies for typical office buildings in
and then used energy models to simulate their energy Malaysia and Beijing indicate a potential savings
performance (Torcellini and Crawley 2006). The using simple techniques of about 65–70%, while the
results of this exercise are as follows, Torrent Pharmaceutical Research Centre in Ahmeda-
bad, India achieved an electricity savings of 64% and
& average energy use as built is 266 kWh/m2/year
a demonstration office building in Beijing achieved a
& average energy use if complying with the ASH-
savings of 60%.
RAE 90.1-2004 standard is 157 kWh/m2/year, a
savings of 41%
& average energy use would be 92 kWh/m2/year
First-cost of deep energy savings in buildings
with improved electrical lighting, daylight, over-
hangs for shading, and elongation of the buildings
High performance residential buildings generally cost
along an east–west axis (applicable only to new
a few percent more than conventional residential
buildings; a savings of 65%)
buildings, whereas high-performance commercial
With implementation of technological improve- and institutional buildings can sometimes cost slightly
ments expected to be available in the future, the gross less. In the case of commercial buildings, there is a
energy use is so small that PV panels can generate greater opportunity to offset the cost of a high-
more energy than the buildings consume, so that the performance envelope with lower costs of mechanical
buildings would serve as a net source of energy. systems, as mechanical systems are a greater fraction
Table 1 Summary of exemplary (in terms of energy use) new commercial buildings where baseline and reference energy use have been published
148
Building and location Energy use Energy Reference for Key features Reference
savings comparison of
energy use
Canadian examples
Green on the Grand 81.2 kWh/m2/year (design 50.4% ASHRAE 90.1-1989 Double-stud manufactured wood-frame wall; fibreglass- C-2000 Internal
(offices), Kitchener, total) Natural Gas: 43.1 frame, triple-glazed, double-low-e, argon- filled, Program Reporta
Ontario kWh/m2/year Electricity: 38 insulating-spacer windows; reduced lighting power
kWh/m2/year densities; radiant heating and cooling panels, DOAS w/
heat recovery, natural gas fired absorption chiller;
outdoor pond replaces conventional cooling tower
Crestwood Corporate Centre 62.6 kWh/m2/year (design 51.7% ASHRAE 90.1-1989 Tilt-up concrete walls with upgraded air tightness and C-2000 Internal
Building No.8 total) Natural Gas 14.2 kWh/ insulation; thermally broken Al-framed DG low-e Program Reporta,b
m2/year Electricity 48.4 windows; reduced lighting power densities; high
kWh/m2/year efficiency boiler and chiller; 4-pipe fan coil system w/
DOAS
MEC Retail Store Ottawa 202.8 kW/m2 annual (design) 56% MNECB Upgraded wall and roof insulation, DG low-e argon- CBIP Internal
Natural Gas 110.3 kWh/m2/ filled, warm edge spacer windows in clad wood or TB Technical Review
year Electricity 92.5 kWh/ Al frames; TG low-e windows on north faces; roof Reporta,b
m2/year monitors for daylighting and greatly reduced connected
lighting power; high efficiency boiler, mid efficiency
rooftop ventilation unit, ventilation heat recovery,
upgraded chiller efficiency, CO2 DCV, variable speed
fan drives
SC3 Smith Carter Office, 142.8 kW/m2/year (design) 55% MNECB Upgraded insulation in walls and roof; DG low-e argon- CBIP Internal
Winnipeg Electricity 142.8 kWh/m2/ filled warm edge spacer windows in TB Al frames; Technical Review
year daylighting w/ wireless digital and occupancy sensor Reporta
controls; exterior solar shading, reduced connected
lighting power, combination boiler and ground source
heat pump w/ GSHP sized for cooling, DOAS w/
UFAD
MEC Retail Store Winnipeg 101.5 ekW/m2 annual (design) 56% MNECB Upgraded insulation in walls and roof, low fenestration- C-2000 Internal
Natural Gas 41.9 kW/m2 to-wall ratio, DG low-e argon-filled warm edge spacer Program Reporta
Electricity 59.6 kWh/m2 windows in TB aluminum frames; daylighting w/
occupancy sensor controls and reduced connected
lighting power; mid efficiency boiler, DOAS, radiant
slab and panel heating with ground water cooling
Father Michael McGivney 148 kWh/m2/year 58% 352 kWh/m2/year GSHP, heat pipe type heat recovery unit Genest and Minea
Secondary School (2006)
Table 1 (continued)
energy use
MEC Retail Store, Montreal 147.3 kW/m2/year (design) 68% MNECB (466 kWh/ High-performance envelope, daylighting, GSHP, DOAS, Genest and Minea
133 kW/m2/year (actual m2/year) radiant slab heating and cooling, earth coupled outside (2006)
2004) air tempering.
Centre for Interactive 56 kWh/m2/year without 84% Typical existing High-performance envelope, adjustable atrium shading, Hepting and Ehret
Research on Sustainability, BiPV and solar thermal (47 building (353 kWh/ hybrid ventilation, daylighting, VSDs, DCV, 90% heat (2005)
Vancouver (proposed kWh/m2/year with solar) m2/year) recovery effectiveness
design)
S examples
NREL offices and labs, 45% and ASHRAE 90.1 Murphy (2002)
Golden, Colorado 63% (two
buildings)
Environmental Center, 87 kWh/m2/yearb 48% ASHRAE 90.1-2001 High-performance envelope, GSHP, daylighting Pless et al. (2006)
Oberlin College, Ohio 60 kWh/m2/year with 64% (169 kWh/m2/year)
recommended changes
Federal Courthouse, Denver 50% ASHRAE 90.1-1989 Triple glazing, modest insulation, sunshading, Mendler and Odell
daylighting, T5 lamps, VAV displacement ventilation, (2000)
direct and indirect evaporative cooling, VSD on all air
handlers and pumps, BiPV
Home improvement store, 124 kWm/m2/year 54% ASHRAE 90.1-2001 Higher-performance envelope, hydronic radiant floor Torcellini et al.
Silverthorne, Colorado (296 kWh/m2/year) heating, reducing lighting load and daylighting, solar (2004a)
thermal collectors.
SC Johnson Wax <218 kWh/m2/year total 54% Ave new buildings Daylighting with automatic controls, fixed and adjustable Mendler and Odell
Headquarters, Racine (WI) 69% Existing SJC shading, demand-controlled desktop personal air supply (2000)
buildings
Academic building, U. of 60% Wisconsin energy Wall U value 0.16 W/m2/K Roof U value 0.11 W/m2/K Mendler and Odell
Wisconsin, Green Bay code Skylights with suspended reflectors and motorized (2000)
blackout panels BiPV
Center for Health and 60% ASHRAE 90.1-1999 Hybrid ventilation, solar preheating of ventilation air, heat Interface
Healing at the Oregon recovery, radiant heating/cooling, demand-controlled Engineering
Health and Science displacement ventilation, PV modules as exterior (2005)
University, River Campus shading, commissioning.
Zion National Park Visitor 85 kWh/m2/year 62% Code-compliant Modestly better insulation and windows, high thermal Long et al. (2006)
Centre building at 222 kWh/ mass, daylighting with controls, downdraft evaporative
m2/year cooling
Cambria Office Building, 124 kWh/m2/year 64% Reference buildings at High-performance envelope, Underfloor air distribution, Torcellini et al.
Ebensburg, Pennsylvania 322 kWh/m2/year heat recovery ventilators, GSHP, daylight and motion (2004b)
sensors
Federal Reserve Bank, <134 kWh/m2/year total 9.1 74% ASHRAE 90.1 Window U value 0.74 W/m2/K Wall U value 0.2 W/m2/K Mendler and Odell
Minneapolis W/m2 connected lighting Conventional VAV HVAC (2000)
load 7.0 W/m2 average
149
150
Table 1 (continued)
energy use
lighting load
Iowa Association of 107 kWm/m2/year simulated 65% Iowa building code 19% window:wall ratio, high-performance envelope, McDougall et al.
Municipalities office 88–91 measured 75% daylighting, GSHP, enthalpy wheel for heat recovery. (2006)
Judson College Library, 69% fans, Mechanically Design study to illustrate effectiveness of hybrid Short and Lomas
Illinois 78% ventilated building ventilation in reducing cooling and fan energy use in a (2007)
cooling continental climate
Science Museum of 64 kWh/m2/year gross, <0 78% 290 kWh/m2/year for Passive solar design, daylighting, GSHP for heating and Steinbock et al.
Minnesota kWh/m2/net using PV arrays code-compliant cooling (with respective COPs of 3.1 and 3.7) (2007)
building
Environmental Technology 80% California Title 24 Beeler (1998)
Centre, Sonoma State
University, California
European examples
Brundtland Centre, Denmark 50 kWh/m2/year 70% Typical comparable Prasad and Snow
building (170 kWh/ (2005)
m2/year)
Center for Sustainable 16.5 kWh/m2/year heating 73% 1995 German Wall U value 0.11 W/m2/K, window U value 0.8 W/m2/ Schmidt (2002) and
Building, Kassel, Germany 32–42 kWh/m2/year total 76–82% Building Code K, radiant slab heating and cooling, ground heat Schmidt (personal
energy use Typical office exchanger (COP=23), hybrid ventilation, daylighting communication
building 2006)
Debis Building, Potsdamer 75 kWm/m2/year total 80% Double-skin façade and passive ventilation Grut (2003)
Platz, Berlin
Ionica Building, UK 64 kWm/m2/year total 46% Good-practice air Hybrid ventilation Hybvent website
conditioned building (hybvent.civil.auc.
dk)
Solar Bau program, 10 25–140 kWh/m2/year primary 50–90% Typical office Mechanical night ventilation with exposed thermal mass Wagner et al.
buildings in Germany energy excluding office buildings, 300–600 or hydronic cooling integrated with groundwater, (2004)
equipment kWh/m2/year external shading, reduced glazing area, minimal internal
primary energy heat gains, efficient lighting.
Solar Office, Doxford 85 kWh/m2/year 80% Typical new air- Passive ventilation and cooling; BiPV functioning as Prasad and Snow
International Business Park, conditioned partial shading devices. (2005)
UK buildings in the UK
(400 kWh/m2/year)
Table 1 (continued)
energy use
Elizabeth Fry Building and 30–37 kWh/m2/year heating High-performance envelope, concrete hollow-core ceiling Cohen et al. (2007),
Zuckerman Building, 93–100 kWh/m2/year total slab with night-time ventilation, high air tightness Turner and Tovey
University of East Anglia (2006)
Asian examples
Kier Building, South Korea 68 kWm/m2/year electricity, Double-skin façade, ground coupled heat exchanger, solar Prasad and Snow
18 kWm/m2/year heat thermal and PV. (2005)
Liberty Tower, Meiji 48% Japanese building Hybrid ventilation Hybvent website
University, Japan code (hybvent.civil.auc.
dk)
Tokyo Earth Port 380 kWm/m2/year primary 45% Typical office Hybrid ventilation Baird (2001)
energy building in Japan

Torrent Pharmaceutical 64% for Conventional modern Evaporative cooling and hybrid ventilation (passive Ford et al. (1998)
Research Centre in electricity building downdraught cooling)
Ahmedabad, India
Demonstration office in 65 kWm/m2/year electricity 60% Similarly equipped Optimized building form and orientation, improved Xu et al. (2007)
Beijing 78 kWm/m2/year total office in Beijing with windows and chillers, reduced window area, simple
central air daylighting scheme
conditioning
Ministry of Energy, Water & 100 kWh/m2/year total on-site 64% Conventional design Daylighting, insulation in walls and roof, energy efficient Roy et al. (2005)
Communications Building, energy use based on (275 kWh/m2/year) equipment, energy management, room temperature 24°C
Putrajaya, Malaysia computer simulation instead of 23°, tight building
Shangai Eco-Building, 48 kWh/m2/year heating + 69% Conventional design Window shading devices, advanced glazing, highly Zhen et al. (2005)
National Construction cooling on-site energy use (155 kWh/m2/year) insulated envelope, natural ventilation
Department based on computer
simulations
a
Available from Stephen Pope, Natural Resources Canada
b
Gross energy use, excluding contribution from PV
COP coefficient of performance, DCV demand-controlled ventilation, DG double-glazed, DOAS dedicated outdoor air supply, GSHP ground-source heat pump, TB thermally-
broken, TG triple-glazed, UFAD underfloor air distribution, VAV variable air volume, VSD variable-speed drive
151
of the overall cost in the case of commercial buildings. greater than currently required are substantially less
For both commercial and residential buildings, the cost that at required insulation levels. Absolute costs are
of achieving a given energy performance will be lower different in other countries, but the broad features of
in new buildings than in existing buildings, and the the cost curves highlighted here are still applicable.
achievable energy performance is much better for new Window performance can be chosen so as to
buildings (as certain design decisions cannot be permit elimination of perimeter heating on the coldest
reversed). Thus, failure to rapidly implement vastly winter days, down to temperatures of −40°C while
better building performance requirements in building serving as a net heat source over the course of the
codes represents a significant lost opportunity. heating season (due to passive solar gains exceeding
heat losses). The elimination of perimeter heating in
Cost of deep savings in residential buildings turn reduces costs and amplifies the savings in heating
energy use by shifting the warmest temperatures away
Increasing the amount of insulation entails greater from the window area (Harvey and Siddall 2008).
insulation costs and hence greater annual mortgage Figure 3 shows the window heat loss-coefficient (U
costs but reduced heating costs. Figure 2 shows the value) below which perimeter heating units can be
tradeoff between these two for residential buildings in eliminated, as a function of the coldest anticipated
Canada. There is a very broad minimum in the total outdoor temperature.
cost, and total costs at insulation levels substantially Figure 4 shows the progressive decline in the cost
of the additional investment required to meet the
70 Passive House standard (which requires 4–8 times
Extra incremental heating cost, $20/GJ vs $15/GJ
Extra incremental heating cost, $15/GJ vs $10/GJ less heating energy use than in conventional new
60
Incremental heating cost at $10/GJ housing) in central Europe. Through learning, costs
Incremental construction cost
have fallen to the point where the incremental cost
50
Life-cycle cost ($/m2)
R20 walls R40 walls can be justified based on 2005 energy prices and
40 interest rates. Schnieders and Hermelink (2006) report
that the additional cost averaged over 13 Passive
30 House projects in Germany, Sweden, Austria, and
Switzerland is 8% of the cost of a standard house but
20 that when amortized over 25 years at 4% interest and
divided by the saved energy, the cost of saved energy
10 averages 6.2 eurocents/kWh (the range is 1.1–
11 eurocents/kWh). This is somewhat more than
0
0.476 0.370 0.323 0.286 0.256 0.233 0.213 0.196 0.182 0.149 the present cost of natural gas to residential
U-value (W/m2/K) consumers in most European countries, which ranges
Fig. 2 Comparison of incremental lifecycle costs of walls in
from 2–8 cents/kWh (IEA 2004). Audenaert et al.
Canada with increasing amounts of insulation (successively (2008) estimate extra costs of 4% for low-energy
smaller U values). The lowest part of each bar is the houses and 16% for Passive Houses in Belgium
incremental construction cost relative to the least-insulated (having energy savings of 35% and 72% relative to
wall, the second part of each bar is the incremental heating
cost relative to the best-insulated wall for a heating fuel cost
current standard houses in Belgium).
of $10/GJ, the third part of each bar is the additional An analysis of the cost of reducing energy use in
incremental heating cost if the heating fuel costs $15/GJ single-family houses in the US indicates that total
instead of $10/GJ, and the top part of each bar is the financial costs (annual mortgage costs plus energy
additional incremental heating cost if the heating fuel costs
$20/GJ instead of $15/GJ. Incremental heating costs and/or
costs) are minimized at an energy savings of only
construction financing costs were computed assuming HDD= 40% (Anderson et al. 2006), but this analysis did not
5000 K-day, 6%/year interest, 3%/year energy-cost inflation, consider the savings arising from elimination of
and financing over a 30-year period. Not included in this cost perimeter heating units when high-performance win-
comparison are the reduction in cooling energy use and the
downsizing of heating and cooling equipment that occurs with
dows are specified nor did it consider simple
higher-performance thermal envelopes. Source: Harvey measures such as overhangs for shading to reduce
(2006) cooling loads.
Maximum Permitted U-Value (W/m2/K) 3.0
high-performance building is 9% less expensive to
Indoor Air Temperature = 20 oC build than a comparable conventional building,
2.5
while using about half the energy.
Inner glazing T = 15 oC
2.0 Another example of a building with large energy
Inner glazing T = 16 oC savings costing less than if built according to code is
1.5 Inner glazing T = 17 oC provided by one of the first buildings built on the new
Oregon Health and Science University, River Campus
1.0
in 2006. This 16-storey building is expected to
0.5 achieve an energy savings of 60% relative to
ASHRAE 90.1-1999 through such measures as hybrid
0.0 ventilation using the stack effect in stairwells, solar
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
preheating of office ventilation air, heat recovery on
Outdoor Design Temperature ( oC)
laboratory ventilation, radiant heating or cooling,
Fig. 3 Window U value below which perimeter heating is not demand-controlled displacement ventilation, PV mod-
needed as a function of the minimum expected winter outdoor ules as exterior shading, accurate equipment sizing,
temperature and of the minimum permitted temperature of the
and commissioning. Incremental costs or upfront
innermost glazing surface. Source, Harvey and Siddall (2008)
savings are given in Table 3. Cost savings due to
downsizing of the mechanical systems permitted by
Cost of deep savings in commercial buildings the efficiency measures exceeded the cost of the
efficiency measures. A further credit arises from the
As an example of the savings in first-cost that is possible space saved due to more efficient and downsized
for commercial buildings with advanced, energy- mechanical systems. The net result is a construction
efficient designs, Table 2 gives a breakdown of capital cost savings of about $3.5 million out of an original
costs for commercial buildings in Vancouver, Canada, budget of $145.4 million (a 2.4% savings) and
having conventional windows (double-glazed, air- operating cost savings of $600,000/year.
filled, low-e) and a conventional heating/cooling In other cases, highly efficient buildings have cost
system, and for buildings with moderately high- more, but the time required to pay back the additional
performance windows (triple-glazed, low-e, argon- cost with energy-cost savings has been short. As an
filled) and radiant-slab heating and cooling. The example, the recently completed science building at
Fig. 4 Learning curve 350

Additional Investment (E/m2) of Passive Row Houses
showing the progressive de- 1991 Prototype: experimental house,

crease in the incremental 4 dwellings in Kranichstein using
cost of meeting the Passive 300 handicraft batch production
House standard for the cen-
tral unit of row houses.
250 PH in Groß-Umstadt:
Source, Feist (2005)
Reduced costs by
simplification
200
150 Row houses in Darmstadt,

Settlement in Wiesbaden: 80 C/m2
Serially produced windows
100 & structural elements
Settlements in Wuppertal,
50 Stuttgart, Hanover Profitability with
contemporary
interest rates & energy prices
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Table 2 Comparison of component costs for a building with a radiant slab heating and cooling and high-performance (triple-
conventional VAV mechanical system and conventional (dou- glazed, low-e, argon-filled) windows, assuming a 50% glazing
ble-glazed, low-e) windows with those for a building with area/wall area ratio
Building component Conventional building High-performance building
Glazing $140/m2 $190/m2

Mechanical System $220/m2 $140/m2
Electrical System $160/m2 $150/m2
Tenant finishings $100/m2 $70/m2
Floor-to-floor height 4.0 m 3.5 m
Total $620/m2 $550/m2
Energy use 180 kWh/m2/year 100 kWh/m2/year
Costs are in 2001 Canadian dollars for the Vancouver market in 2001, are given per m2 of floor area, and are based on fully costed
and built examples over a 3-year period. Source, Geoff McDonell (Omicron Consulting, Vancouver), personal communication,
December 2004, and McDonell (2003).
Concordia University, Montreal, with offices, class- than 2% of the cost of the reference building and are
rooms, and 250 fume hoods, achieved a 45% smaller on average for buildings with 50% savings in
reduction in energy use relative to ASHRAE 90.1- net energy use than for buildings with 30% savings.
1999 at an incremental cost of 2.3% ($1,356,000 out Measured performance information on ten buildings
of $59,500,000) while yielding an annual energy cost in the German SolarBau program where at least 1 year
savings of $854,000, for a payback time of 19 months of data were available by 2003 is given in Wagner et
(Lemire and Charneux 2005). al. (2004). Five of the ten buildings achieved the
Table 4 provides information on the incremental 100 kWh/m2/year primary energy target (compared to
cost and energy savings for 32 buildings in the USA 300–600 kWh/m2/year for conventional designs), but
that met various levels of the Leadership in Energy and no building used more than 140 kWh/m2/year of
Environmental Design (LEED) standard. The energy primary energy.1 Additional costs are reported to be
savings are broken into reductions in gross energy comparable to the difference in cost between alterna-
demand, and reductions in net energy demand includ- tive standards for interior finishing.
ing on-site generation (by, for example, PV modules), In addition to energy-cost savings, high performance
which tends to be expensive. The cost premium is the buildings—especially buildings with daylighting, task
total cost premium required to meet the various LEED lighting, and natural ventilation that can be controlled by
standards and so includes the cost of non-energy the occupants—have difficult-to-quantify but important
features as well. Nevertheless, average costs are less additional savings. These include improved worker
productivity, improved retention of workers, and im-
proved competitiveness in hiring skilled workers.
Table 3 Economics of the new Oregon Health and Science
University building
Item Cost Energy savings through retrofits of existing

commercial and residential buildings
Total project cost $145.4 million
Energy efficiency features $975,000
and associated costs
PV system $500,000
Solar thermal system $386,000 To achieve significant reductions in overall energy
Commissioning $150,000 use by buildings, considerable effort will need to be
Total $2,011,000 directed at existing buildings due to the fact that most
Savings in mechanical systems $3,500,000
Value of saved space $2,000,000
Net cost −$3,489,000
1
Estimated annual operating cost savings $600,000 Primary energy in the case of electricity is the energy used by
the power plant and is about three times the energy content of
Source, Interface Engineering (2005) the electricity used by the building.
Table 4 Energy savings relative to ASHRAE 90.1-1999 and cost premium for buildings meeting various levels of the LEED standard
in the USA
LEED level Sample size % Energy savings, based on Cost premium (%)
Gross energy use Net energy use
Certified 8 18 28 0.66
Silver 18 30 30 2.11
Gold 6 37 48 1.82
Source, Kats et al. (2003)
of the buildings that will exist in 2030 and even in achieved through some passive technologies that
2050 in some countries already exist today. However, required the cooperation of the occupants (Balaras
even long-lived buildings require periodic major (2001)
renovations (and certainly at least once between now & A projected savings of more than 50% of heating
and 2050), which provide opportunities for achieving and cooling energy for restaurants in cities
deep (50–75%) reductions in energy use. throughout the USA by simply optimizing the
ventilation system (Fisher et al. 1999)
Commercial buildings & A projected 51% savings in cooling + ventilation
energy use in an institutional building complex in
Measures that can be taken to reduce energy use in Singapore through simple upgrades to the existing
existing commercial buildings include upgrades to the system (Sekhar and Phua 2003)
thermal envelope (such as reduction in air leakage, or & A realized savings of 74% in cooling energy use
complete replacement of curtain walls), replacement in a one-storey commercial building in Florida
of heating and cooling equipment, reconfiguration of through duct sealing, chiller upgrade, and fan
HVAC systems, implementation of better control controls (Withers and Cummings 1998)
systems, lighting improvements, and implementation & Realized savings of 50–70% in heating energy use
of measures to reduce the use of hot water. The through retrofits of schools in Europe and Aus-
quantitative savings from specific measures depends tralia (described in the March 1997 issue of the
on the preexisting characteristics, climate, internal CADDET Energy Efficiency Newsletter, published
heat loads, and occupancy pattern for the particular by the International Energy Agency)
building in question. However, large (50–70% or & Realized fan, cooling, and heating energy savings
more) savings in energy use have been achieved of 59%, 63%, and 90%, respectively, in buildings
through retrofits of commercial buildings throughout at a university in Texas, roughly half due to a
the world. standard retrofit and half due to adjustment of the
Some examples from the literature of savings control-system settings (which were typical for
achieved through relatively simple measures are: North America) to optimal settings (Claridge et al.
2001)
& A projected savings of 30% of total energy use in & Average realized savings of 68% in natural gas
80 office buildings in Toronto through lighting use after conversion of ten US schools from non-
upgrades alone (Larsson 2001); condensing boilers producing low-pressure steam
& A realized savings of 40% in heating + cooling + to condensing boilers producing low-temperature
ventilation energy use in a Texas office building hot water, and an average savings of 49% after
through conversion of the ventilation system from conversion of ten other US schools from high- to
one with constant airflow to one with variable air low-temperature hot water and from non-condens-
flow (Liu and Claridge 1999); ing to condensing boilers (Durkin 2006)
& A realized savings of 40% of heating energy use & Projected savings of 30–60% in cooling loads in
through the retrofit of an 1865 two-storey office an existing Los Angeles office building simply by
building in Athens, where low energy was operating the existing HVAC system in a manner
so as to make maximum use of night cooling of a second façade can also be undertaken as a
opportunities (Armstrong et al. 2006) measure to preserve original facades that are deteri-
& Projected savings of 48% from a typical 1980s orating due to moisture problems related to defects in
office building in Turkey through simple upgrades the original construction.
to mechanical systems and replacing existing
windows with low-e windows having shading Residential buildings
devices, with an overall economic payback time
of about 6 years (Çakmanus 2007) Energy use of residential buildings can be reduced
& Projected savings of 36–77% through retrofits of a through upgrading of windows, adding internal
variety of office types in a variety of European insulation to walls during renovations, adding exter-
climates, with payback times generally in the 1– nal insulation to walls, adding insulation to roofs at
30-year range (Hestnes and Kofoed 1997, 2002; the time that roofs need to be replaced, and through
Dascalaki and Santamouris 2002) measures to reduce uncontrolled exchange of inside
and outside air. Some documented examples of
It should be emphasized that comprehensive retro- comprehensive retrofit measures and the energy
fits of buildings are generally done for many reasons savings are:
in addition to reducing energy costs. Thus, measures
& sealing of ductwork alone in US houses saving an
that are extensive enough to significantly reduce
average of 15–20% of annual heating and air
energy use may not pay for themselves in terms of
conditioning energy use (Francisco et al. 1998)
energy cost savings alone, but this does not mean that
& a retrofit of 4,003 homes in Louisiana, including
they should not be carried out.
the switch from natural gas to a ground source
A significant potential area for reduced energy
heat pump for space and water heating, thereby
use in existing buildings is through replacement of
eliminating natural gas use and still decreasing
existing curtain walls or upgrades of existing
electricity use by one third (Hughes and Shonder
insulation and windows. Given the current frenzy
1998)
constructing nearly all-glass buildings but not even
& upgrade of multiunit housing in Germany using,
using high-performance glazing, replacing existing
among other measures, External Insulation and
glazing systems and curtain walls will be an
Finishing Systems to achieve a factor of 8 reduc-
essential future activity if deep reductions in
tion in heating energy use (see www.3lh.de)
heating and cooling energy use are to be achieved.
& an envelope upgrade of an apartment block in
Recently, the curtain walls were replaced on the
Switzerland reduce the heating requirement by
24-storey 1952 Unilever building (Lever House) in
almost factor of 3 (Humm 2000)
Manhattan (see http://www.som.com/content.cfm/
& reduction of heating energy use in retrofits of
lever_house_curtain_wall_replacement), so there
houses in the York region (UK) by 35% through
seems to be no major technical problems in under-
air sealing and modest insulation upgrades and a
taking complete curtain wall replacements on high-
projected 70% savings with more extensive
rise office buildings.
measures (Bell and Lowe 2000)
In the case of brick or cement façades, one option
& comprehensive retrofit of old apartment block in
is to construct a second glazed façade over the first—
Zurich, including replacement of roof, achieving
creating a double-skin façade—which opens up
an 88% savings in heating energy use measured
opportunities for passive ventilation and reduced
over a 2-year period (Viridén et al. 2003)
cooling loads through the provision of adjustable
external shading devices. This has often been done in In apartment buildings with balconies, the bal-
Europe. A North American example of the construc- cony slabs are a conduit for heat loss. Glazing the
tion of a second façade over the original façade is balconies so that they serve to preheat ventilation
provided by the Telus headquarters building in air, and integrating the balcony with the ventilation
Vancouver. In this case, the second façade was system of the apartments, can turn a thermal
constructed as part of measures to increase the liability into an asset. Transpired solar air collectors
earthquake resistance of the building. Construction over vertically extensive equatorward-facing walls
are another solar option, as well as transparent solar Older buildings on average are more energy
insulation, construction of a second (glass) façade intensive than more recent buildings. In Canada,
over the original façade, and installation of con- for example, new commercial buildings on average
ventional solar-air thermal collectors. Savings of have an energy intensity about 16% less than the
60–70% in old (per-1950) buildings and 30–40% in stock average, while the most energy-intensive
new (1970 or later) buildings in Europe have been buildings (those built in the 1960s) have an energy
obtained in these ways (Boonstra et al. 1997; Haller intensity about 16% greater than the stock average. Let
et al. 1997; Voss 2000). ΔE be the deviation in the energy intensity of new
Studies for the European Mineral Wool Manufac- buildings from the stock average. ΔE=0.16 for total
turers Association by the Dutch consulting firm average energy use applied to all buildings across
Ecofys indicate that the energy consumption in old Canada but would be different in other countries and
buildings in western Europe (EU-15) can be reduced for different building types within any given country
by more than 50% with no additional cost over a 30- or region.
year lifetime, and by up to 75% in new countries of To illustrate the challenges in achieving large
the EU-27 (Petersdorff et al. 2005a, b). absolute reductions in the total energy use by building
A number of single-family and multiunit residen- stock, even as far in the future as 2050, the following
tial buildings have been upgraded to the Passive accounting procedure was used to calculate the
Standard in Europe. In the case of an old detached variation in total building use and in the average
house (documented at www.hausderzukunft.at/ energy intensity from 2005 to 2050 relative to the
results.html/id3955), the renovation reduced the values in 2005,
heating energy use from 280 to 14.6 kWh/m2/year
at 16% greater cost than a conventional renovation, & the entire building stock is divided into 45 equal
but the impact of the extra cost on mortgage cohorts of size fstart (fstart is given as a fraction of
payments is less than the energy cost savings. In the floor area in 2005, so fstart =1/45);
the case of a 50-unit residential building (docu- & the initial energy intensity Estart of each cohort
mented at www.hausderzukunft.at/results.html/ relative to the average initial energy intensity is
id3951), heating energy use was reduced from 179 assumed to vary across the cohorts from 1+ΔE
to 13.3 kWh/m2/year at 27% greater renovation cost. to 1−ΔE, with an equal fraction of the building
stock in energy-intensity intervals of equal width
& the cohorts are replaced or renovated in order of
Construction of a generic scenario for future decreasing energy intensity (so in 2006, some
energy use and energy intensity portion of the most energy-intensive cohort is
renovated and some portion is replaced, while in
The energy use for a given building sector with a 2007 the second most energy-intensive cohort is
given fuel in a given region at a given time in the renovated or replaced, and so on)
future will depend on: & the portions of the total building stock that are
renovated and replaced by 2050 are Freno and
& the fraction of the existing floor space that has Freplaced, respectively, so the floor areas renovated
been renovated by the given time or replaced in a given year (as a fraction of the
& the difference between the energy intensity before total floor area in 2005) are freno =Freno/45 and
and after renovation freplaced =Freplace/45, respectively (if Freno +Freplaced
& the fraction of the existing floor space that has =1.0, then freno +freplaced =fstart)
been replaced by the given time & in addition, the building floor area, as a fraction of
& the difference between the energy intensity of the the initial floor area, is assumed to grow by some
old and replacement floor space specified amount between 2005 and 2050
& the net addition of new floor space each year & the energy intensity of a new building, or of a
between the present and the year in question renovated building after the renovation, depends
& the energy intensity of the new floor space added on the year in which it is built or renovated, and
each year does not change once built or renovated
& the energy intensity of successive cohorts of new & The energy intensity of new buildings decreases
buildings decreases over time from Enew-0 to Enew-f, from 84% of the 2005 stock average in 2010 to
and the energy intensity of renovated buildings 21% in 2050 (i.e., a factor of four reduction
decreases over time from Ereno-0 to Ereno-f (all these compared to average current practice for new
energy intensities are relative to the initial stock buildings), while the energy intensity of renovated
average) buildings decreases from 84% of the 2005 stock
& the initial energy intensities Enew-0 and Ereno-0 average in 2010 to 33% in 2050.
persist until year I1, then decrease linearly to their & Deep and fast
final values by year I2, and are held constant Same as Deep, except that the intensity levels
thereafter. achieved by 2005 in Deep are achieved by 2020
instead
Thus, the total energy use of the building stock in
year n, E(n), relative to energy use in 2005, is given
As can be seen from Fig. 5a, the combination of a
by
doubling in floor area and even a factor of four
8 9
>
> >
>
reduction in the energy intensity of new buildings and
Xn < = a factor of three reduction in the energy intensity of
E ðnÞ¼ frepl ðiÞ þ fnewðiÞ Enew ðiÞ þ freno ðiÞEreno ðiÞ
>
i¼1 >
>
> renovated buildings, gradually achieved by 2050, is
: ;
þfremain ðiÞEstart ðiÞ not sufficient to prevent absolute energy use from
increasing (albeit by only 22% before declining
X
45
þ fstart ðiÞEstart ðiÞ slightly). This is because many existing buildings
i¼nþ1 have been renovated and many new buildings
ð1Þ constructed before most of the eventual reductions
where n is the number of years since 2005 (and so runs in energy intensity are achieved. Conversely, if the
from 1 to 45), Enew(i) is the energy intensity of new assumed final energy intensities are reached by 2020,
buildings built in year i (Enew(i) runs from Enew-0 to then a 25% reduction in absolute energy use by 2050
Enew-f, as explained above), Estart(i) is the energy occurs. For countries where only a 25% further
intensity prior to renovation of buildings renovated in increase in total floor area occurs, absolute energy
year i (Estart(1)=1.0+ΔE and Estart(45)=1.0−ΔE), use by buildings can be reduced by almost a factor of
Ereno(i) is the energy intensity after renovation of two with deep and fast reductions in the energy
buildings that are renovated in year i (Ereno(i) runs from intensities of new and renovated buildings.
Ereno-0 to Ereno-f), and fremain(i)=1.0−frepl(i)−freno(i). It Figure 5b shows the variation in average energy
is assumed that the most recently built existing intensity (relative to 2005) for the above scenarios.
buildings (those built in 2005) have an energy intensity Average energy intensity is smaller for the scenario
equal to 1.0−ΔE, and it is also assumed that new with high growth in floor area because a larger fraction
buildings in 2006 (and up to year I1) have the same of the future building floor area is relatively new (and,
energy intensity. Thus, we set Enew-0 =1.0−ΔE. therefore, has lower than average energy intensity)
Figure 5 shows the variation in the average energy when there is greater growth in the total floor area.
intensity and in total energy use by the building stock, The results presented here are merely illustrative
relative to the average and total in 2005, for low (25% but serve to underline the importance of rapidly
growth) and high (100% growth) scenarios of floor area, reducing the energy intensity of new and renovated
for ΔE=0.16, and for the following technology cases: buildings in order to achieve modest (25%) to
substantial (50%) reductions in absolute energy use
& Moderate from the buildings sector.
The energy intensity of new and renovated
buildings decreases from 84% of the 2005 stock
average in 2010 to 42% in 2050 (i.e., a factor of 2 Implications for CO2 emissions
reduction compared to average current practice
for new buildings). We have not explicitly considered the impacts of
& Deep energy efficiency measures on CO2 emissions. The
Fig. 5 Variation in the av-
erage energy intensity and a 1.4
in total energy use by the
building stock, relative to
the average and total in 1.2
2005, for scenarios of low
(25%) and high (100%)
1.0
growth in the total building
Relative Energy Use

floor area by 2050, and for
moderate or deep and slow 0.8
or fast reductions in the
energy intensity of new and
renovated buildings, as 0.6
computed using Eq. 1. See
High Growth, Moderate
text for details 0.4 High Growth, Deep
High Growth, Deep & Fast
Low Growth, Moderate
0.2 Low Growth, Deep
Low Growth, Deep & Fast
0.0
b 1.2
1.0
Relative Energy Intensity
0.8
0.6
0.4 High Growth, Moderate

High Growth, Deep
High Growth, Deep & Fast
Low Growth, Moderate
0.2 Low Growth, Deep
Low Growth, Deep & Fast
0.0
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Year
reduction in relative CO2 emissions depends on (1) well as the magnitude will affect the resulting change
the relative importance of fuels and electricity as end- in CO2 emissions. Conversely, any measures that
use energy in the buildings sector; (2) the relative increase flexibility in electricity demand (such as
changes in demand for electricity and for fuels higher performance envelopes or thermal energy
(including any shift between fuels and electricity as storage) may permit shifting electricity demand to
overall end use demand decreases); and (3) the mix of times when only non-fossil energy sources supply the
energy sources used to supply electricity on the grid, thereby permitting CO2 emission reductions, or
margin (that is, supplying the next increment of more permit greater use of variable non-fossil
increased or decreased electricity use). The sources electricity sources (such as wind energy). Thus,
of electricity on the margin (and the efficiency of relative CO2 emission could, with well-designed
marginal fossil fuel sources) often vary with time of packages of efficiency measures, be larger than the
day and season, so the timing of electricity savings as relative savings in electricity demand.
Concluding comments houses compared with standard houses. Energy Policy,

36, 47–55.
Badescu, V., & Sicre, B. (2003). Renewable energy for passive
Significant savings in energy use in new buildings of house heating Part 1. Building description. Energy and
all types and in all climate zones, compared to current Buildings, 35, 1077–1084.
practice, are possible using existing technologies. For Baird, G. (2001). The Architectural Expression of Environmen-
tal Control Systems p. 264. London: Spon Press.
commercial buildings, a 25% reduction should be Balaras, C. A. (2001). Energy retrofit of a neoclassic office
easily achievable by most design firms; a 50% building—Social aspects and lessons learned. ASHRAE
reduction requires a higher degree of skill during the Transactions, 107(Part 1), 191–197.
design process but normally does not require uncon- Beeler, A. G. (1998). Integrated design team management
within the context of environmental systems theory.
ventional systems; a 75% reduction normally requires
Proceedings of the 1998 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy
unconventional systems (such as displacement venti- Efficiency in Buildings, 10, 19–30 American Council for
lation and chilled-ceiling cooling in commercial an Energy Efficient Economy, Washington.
buildings) and an enlightening occupant behavior Bell, M., & Lowe, R. (2000). Energy efficient modernisation of
housing, a UK case study. Energy and Buildings, 32, 267–280.
but, has been achieved in many buildings around the
Boonstra, C., Thijssen, I., & Vollebregt, R. (1997). Glazed
world. In residential buildings, heating loads can be Balconies in Building Renovation p. 16. London: James &
largely eliminated with high levels of insulation, high- James.
performance windows, and construction of a close to Bourassa, N., Haves, P., & Huang, J. (2002). A computer
simulation appraisal of non-residential low energy cooling
airtight envelope with mechanical ventilation and heat
systems in California. Proceedings of the 2002 ACEEE
recovery. Passive techniques can greatly reduce cool- Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, 3, 41–53
ing requirements in both commercial and residential American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy,
buildings. The main obstacles to achieving these high Washington.
Çakmanus, I. (2007). Renovation of existing office buildings in
energy savings in new buildings is the lack of
regard to energy economy, An example from Ankara,
knowledge and motivation within the design profes- Turkey. Building and Environment, 42, 1348–1357.
sion. Extensive training programs in the integrated Claridge, D. E., Liu, M., Deng, S., Turner, W. D., Haberl, J. S.,
design process and in the techniques for reducing Lee, S. U., et al. (2001). Cutting heating and cooling use
almost in half without capital expenditure in a previously
hearting, cooling, ventilation, and lighting loads in
retrofit building. European Council for an Energy Efficient
buildings as well as training of all the trades involved Economy, 2001 Summer Proceedings, 4, 74–85.
in building construction are urgently required, even Cohen, R., Bordass, W., & Leaman, A. (2007). Evaluations and
with a significant strengthening of building codes. comparisons of the achieved energy and environmental
performance of two library buildings in England and
Given the long lifetimes of the building stock and the
Sweden. ASHRAE Transactions, 113(Part 2), 14–26.
urgency of the global warming problem (see Risbey Dascalaki, E., & Santamouris, M. (2002). On the potential of
2008), an appropriate target would be to achieve a retrofitting scenarios for offices. Building and Environ-
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de Dear, R. J., & Brager, G. S. (1998). Developing an adaptive
buildings by 2020 and programs to achieve (on
model of thermal comfort and preference. ASHRAE
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intensity of existing buildings whenever significant de Dear, R. J., & Brager, G. S. (2002). Thermal comfort in
renovations are carried out. naturally ventilated buildings, revisions to ASHRAE
Standard 55. Energy and Buildings, 34, 549–561.
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Article in Energy Efficiency · May 2009

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Reducing energy use in the buildings sector: measures, costs,

Evaporation of water cools the remaining liquid water

a 10 Air conditioners and chillers

6 Temperature: ranging from 2.2 to 3.8 in North America and Europe,

10oC energy savings are still possible through the choice of

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems

a warmer temperature (∼18°C vs. ∼13°C in a Integrated energy savings

energy building in Japan

Fig. 4 Learning curve 350

showing the progressive de- 1991 Prototype: experimental house,

150 Row houses in Darmstadt,

Building component Conventional building High-performance building

Glazing $140/m2 $190/m2

Item Cost Energy savings through retrofits of existing

Gross energy use Net energy use

Source, Kats et al. (2003)

Relative Energy Use

0.4 High Growth, Moderate

Concluding comments houses compared with standard houses. Energy Policy,

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