SRI CHAITANYA SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

PHYSICS PROJECT

2024-2025

TOPIC: TRANSFORMERS

NAME: B. KEERTHANA

CLASS: SR. AIIMS 2

ROLL NO: 11

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that B. KEERTHANA, a student of Class XII, has

successfully completed the research project titled “TRANSFORMERS”

under the guidance of the English teacher during the academic year 2024-

2025.

Teacher’s Signature Principal Signature

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks and gratitude to my Physics teacher

and our Principal for giving me the golden opportunity to work on this
wonderful project on the topic “TRANSFORMERS”.

Secondly, I would also like to thank the Almighty, my parents, and friends for
helping me complete this project within the limited time frame.

Lastly, I would like to thank all my supporters who motivated me to fulfill this
project ahead of the deadline.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.No. Title Page No.

1 Introduction 5
2 Basic construction of a transformer 7
3 Working principle of transformer 8
4 Applications of transformers 10
5 Experiment to find out voltage and turns ratio 12
6 Losses in transformers 16

7 Practical considerations in self-designing a 17

transformer

8 Precautions and sources of error 21

9 Recent advances in Transformer Technology 23
10 Conclusion 24
11 Bibliography 25

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 INTRODUCTION

Introduction to transformer

A transformer is an essential electrical device that plays a crucial role in the

transmission and distribution of electrical power. It operates on the principle of
electromagnetic induction, which allows it to change the voltage level of alternating
current (AC) in a circuit without altering the frequency. Transformers are used to either
step up (increase) or step down (decrease) voltage, making them integral to power
generation, distribution, and utilization systems.

The basic structure of a transformer consists of two main components: the primary coil
(or winding) and the secondary coil. These coils are wound around a core made of
magnetic material, typically iron, which enhances the magnetic flux transfer between
the coils. When alternating current passes through the primary coil, it generates a
magnetic field that induces a current in the secondary coil, according to Faraday's Law
of Induction.

Figure 1: Representation of a Transformer

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Transformers are classified based on their function. Step-up transformers increase the
voltage, which is essential for transmitting electricity over long distances with minimal
power loss. Conversely, step-down transformers reduce the voltage to safer levels for
domestic or industrial use. In addition to these, there are also isolation transformers,
which provide electrical isolation between circuits, and autotransformers, which share
part of the winding between the primary and secondary circuits

Transformers are widely used in various applications, from large-scale power stations
to small electronic devices. In the power grid, they ensure the efficient transmission of
electricity from power plants to homes and businesses by adjusting voltage levels for
safe, cost-effective delivery. Overall, transformers are fundamental to modern electrical
systems, ensuring that power is delivered efficiently and safely to meet the diverse
needs of industries and consumers.

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 BASIC CONSTRUCTION OF A TRANSFORMER

A typical transformer consists of the following key components:

1. Primary Coil (Winding): The coil to which the input voltage is applied. It is
connected to the power source.
2. Secondary Coil (Winding): The coil from which the output voltage is taken.
3. Core: A magnetic core, usually made of laminated silicon steel, that serves to
channel and concentrate the magnetic flux generated by the AC current in the
primary winding. The core minimizes energy losses and provides a low-
reluctance path for the magnetic field.

Figure 2: Types of transformer

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 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER

The operation of a transformer is rooted in Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction,

which states that a changing magnetic field within a closed loop induces an
electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the conductor. This principle can be explained
in the context of a transformer:

1. Alternating Current in the Primary Coil: When an AC voltage is applied to the

primary coil, it produces an alternating magnetic field in the core. Since the
current in the primary winding is alternating, the magnetic flux through the core
is also alternating
2. Magnetic Flux and Mutual Induction: The alternating magnetic flux created by
the primary coil passes through the core and links with the secondary coil.
According to Faraday's Law, a changing magnetic flux will induce a voltage in
any conductor within the magnetic field. This is known as mutual induction.
3. Induced Voltage in the Secondary Coil: The changing magnetic flux in the core
induces a voltage in the secondary coil. The magnitude of the induced voltage in
the secondary winding depends on the number of turns in the secondary coil
relative to the primary coil.
4. Step-Up or Step-Down Transformation: The relationship between the primary
and secondary voltage is determined by the turns ratio between the primary and
secondary windings.

o Step-Up Transformer: If the secondary coil has more turns than the
primary, the voltage is increased, and the transformer is called a "step-up"
transformer.
o Step-Down Transformer: If the secondary coil has fewer turns than the
primary, the voltage is reduced, and the transformer is called a "step-
down" transformer.

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 5. Power Conservation: Ideally, a transformer operates with minimal loss of
power, meaning the power input to the primary coil is equal to the power output
from the secondary coil (neglecting losses such as core losses, eddy currents, and
hysteresis losses). Therefore, if the voltage is increased in the secondary coil (as
in a step-up transformer), the current decreases proportionally, and vice versa.
In this way, the transformer maintains the power balance while changing the
voltage and current levels.

Figure 3: Pictorial view of 2 Ampere stepdown transformer

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 APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS

Applications of Step-up Transformers:

➢ Power Generation and Transmission: Used in power plants to increase voltage

for efficient long-distance transmission.
➢ Electrical Substations: Used to step up voltage for transmission lines.
➢ High-Voltage Equipment: In industries requiring high-voltage equipment like
electrostatic precipitators or X-ray machines.
➢ Design and Construction: Key features that differentiate step-up transformers,
such as the number of turns in the secondary coil compared to the primary coil.
➢ Voltage Rating and Efficiency: Factors affecting voltage regulation and energy
loss in step-up transformers.

Applications of Step-down Transformers:

➢ Residential Power Supply: Reducing high-voltage transmission lines to usable

household voltages.
➢ Consumer Electronics: Adapting high voltage to low voltage for devices like
chargers and appliances.
➢ Industrial Applications: Providing the required voltage for machinery and
equipment that operate at lower voltages.
➢ Design and Construction: Features of step-down transformers, including the
number of turns in the secondary coil being fewer than the primary coil.
➢ Voltage Rating and Efficiency: Voltage regulation, losses, and efficiency
concerns for step-down transformers.

Types of Transformers (Step-up and Step-down)

• Single-phase Transformers: Used in residential and light commercial

applications.
• Three-phase Transformers: Used in industrial and high-power transmission
systems.
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 • Autotransformers: A type of transformer that shares common windings
between the primary and secondary circuits.
• Oil-filled vs. Dry-type Transformers: Different insulation and cooling methods
used in step-up and step-down transformers.

Applications and Uses

• Power Distribution Networks: The role of step-up and step-down transformers

in ensuring efficient electrical transmission and distribution.
• Power Plants: How step-up transformers increase voltage for long-distance
transmission and step-down transformers reduce it for use in homes and
factories.
• Portable Electronics and Power Adapters: Step-down transformers in
adapters for devices that require a lower voltage.

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 EXPERIMENT TO FIND OUT VOLTAGE AND TURNS RATIO

OBJECTIVE
To investigate the relation between
1. Output and input voltage and

2. Number of turns in the secondary coil and primary coil of a self- designated
transformer

APPARATUS
• Transformer: A self-designed transformer with primary and secondary coils
wound around a magnetic core.
• Multimeter (Digital or Analog): Used to measure the input (primary) and
output (secondary) voltages.
• Variable Power Supply: Provides adjustable AC input voltage to the primary
coil.
• Load Resistor or Measurement Device: Connected to the secondary coil to
draw a current and measure the voltage.
• Wire: For winding the coils and making connections.
• Ruler/Calipers: For measuring the number of turns in the coils.
• Insulating Materials: Used for proper insulation of wires and transformer
components.
• Connection Wires: For making electrical connections between the transformer,
power supply, and measurement devices.

The Role of Turns Ratio in Voltage Transformation

The number of turns in the primary and secondary coils plays a central role in
determining how the transformer alters the voltage. The ratio of the number of turns
between the primary and secondary coils dictates the voltage ratio between the two
circuits.

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Step-up Transformer:

• In a step-up transformer, the number of turns in the secondary coil is greater

than in the primary coil (Ns>Np). This leads to an increase in voltage.
• For instance, if the primary coil has 100 turns and the secondary coil has 200
turns, the output voltage will be double the input voltage. This is mathematically
represented by:

Vs = VP x Ns/NP = VP x 200/100 =2 x VP

• Step-up transformers are used in power transmission to increase the voltage and
reduce current for long-distance transmission, minimizing energy losses.

Step-down Transformer:

• In a step-down transformer, the number of turns in the secondary coil is fewer

than in the primary coil (Ns<Np), which leads to a decrease in voltage.
• For example, if the primary coil has 200 turns and the secondary coil has 100
turns, the output voltage will be halved:

Vs = VP x Ns / NP = VP x 100 / 200 = 0.5 VP

• Step-down transformers are typically used in electrical systems where the

voltage needs to be reduced, such as in household appliances.

Power Conservation in Transformers

In an ideal transformer, the power input to the primary coil is equal to the power output
at the secondary coil, minus any losses due to inefficiencies. This is known as the law of
conservation of energy. Power, denoted as PPP, is the product of voltage and current:

P=VxI

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For an ideal transformer, where PP is the primary power and Ps is the secondary power,
the power on both sides is the same:

Pp=Ps

This implies:

VP × IP = Vs × Is

Where:

• Vp and Vs are the primary and secondary voltages

• Ip and Is are the primary and secondary currents

Using the voltage ratio from earlier:

Is = IP × NP / Ns

Thus, when the voltage is stepped up (increased), the current is stepped down
(decreased), and vice versa. This current-voltage relationship ensures that the total
power remains constant (neglecting losses).

Impact of Number of Turns on Current

The number of turns in a transformer also influences the current in both the primary
and secondary coils. As per the law of conservation of energy, if the transformer steps
up the voltage, the current must decrease, and if the transformer steps down the
voltage, the current must increase. This is captured by the current ratio:

Is / IP=NP / Ns

For a step-up transformer (Ns>Np), the current in the secondary coil (Is ) will be less
than the current in the primary coil (Ip ).

• For a step-down transformer (Ns<Np), the current in the secondary coil will be
greater than the current in the primary coil.
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This inverse relationship between current and voltage ensures that the power remains
conserved.

Magnetic Field and Core Design

The transformer’s core design plays a significant role in determining its efficiency and
performance. The core of the transformer is typically made from a ferromagnetic
material like iron or silicon steel, which helps concentrate the magnetic field generated
by the current in the coils. The strength of the magnetic field produced by the primary
coil is proportional to the number of turns in the coil and the current flowing through it.

The magnetic flux in the core induces a voltage in the secondary coil. However, not all
the magnetic flux from the primary coil perfectly links with the secondary coil, leading
to magnetic flux leakage. To minimize losses and improve efficiency, the transformer’s
core must be carefully designed to maximize the magnetic coupling between the coils

Figure 4: Windings of a coil

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 LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS

In real transformers, the efficiency is always less than 100% due to various losses.
These losses include:

• Copper Losses: These losses occur due to the resistance of the wires in the
primary and secondary coils. The current flowing through the coils causes
resistive heating, which dissipates energy.
• Core Losses: The core material of the transformer, typically made of iron,
experiences hysteresis and eddy currents, both of which lead to energy losses.
• Leakage Flux: Not all the magnetic flux produced by the primary coil links with
the secondary coil. This leakage flux results in some inefficiencies, particularly in
transformers with poorly designed cores or insufficiently close coupling between
the coils.

These losses are often minimized through careful design, choice of core material, and
winding techniques.

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 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SELF-DESIGNING A TRANSFORMER

When designing a transformer, especially a self-designed one, there are several

important factors to consider:

• Voltage and Current Requirements: Determine the input voltage and current
requirements for the primary circuit, as well as the desired output voltage and
current. This will help in selecting the appropriate turns ratio.
• Core Material: Select an appropriate core material that can efficiently handle the
magnetic flux and minimize core losses. Materials such as silicon steel, ferrite,
and laminated iron are commonly used.
• Number of Turns: The number of turns must be calculated based on the desired
voltage ratio and the core’s magnetic properties. The turns should be distributed
evenly across the core to ensure optimal flux linkage.
• Wire Gauge: The wire gauge (thickness of the wire) used for the coils must be
selected based on the current that will pass through it. A thicker wire reduces the
resistance and minimizes copper losses.

• Insulation: Proper insulation between the turns of the coils is critical to prevent
short circuits and ensure safety. Core Material: Selection of core materials like
silicon steel for low hysteresis losses and better performance.
• Voltage Regulation: Managing the output voltage stability as the load varies.
• Size and Weight: Factors affecting the design and cost of transformers for
different applications.
• Insulation and Safety: Design considerations for ensuring the transformer
operates safely under high voltage conditions.

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OBSERVATIONS

• Voltage Relationship: As the number of turns in the secondary coil was

increased relative to the primary coil, the output voltage increased
proportionally, confirming the voltage transformation ratio. For example, when
the secondary coil had twice as many turns as the primary, the secondary voltage
was roughly double the primary voltage.
• Step-up and Step-down Behavior: When the number of turns in the secondary
coil was greater than in the primary coil, the transformer acted as a step-up
transformer, increasing the output voltage. Conversely, when the secondary coil
had fewer turns than the primary, the transformer acted as a step-down
transformer, reducing the output voltage.
• Current Inversion: As expected, when the voltage increased in the secondary
coil (for a step-up transformer), the current decreased in the secondary circuit.
For a step-down transformer, where the voltage decreased, the current
increased proportionally.
• Accuracy of Turns Count: Accurate counting of the number of turns in both the
primary and secondary coils was crucial for obtaining the correct voltage ratio.
Any error in the turns ratio led to discrepancies in the expected voltage.

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 • Voltage Stability: The voltage on the secondary coil remained stable as long as
the input voltage and the turns ratio were kept constant. Variations in the input
voltage or coil winding could cause fluctuations in the secondary voltage.
• Core Material: The core material used in the transformer (typically iron or
ferrite) contributed to the efficiency of the transformer by guiding the magnetic
flux between the primary and secondary coils. An iron core allowed for better
coupling, while a poorly designed core could lead to flux leakage and lower
efficiency.
• Temperature and Overheating: During extended operation, the transformer
did not show significant signs of overheating, suggesting that the wire gauge and
the load were appropriate for the current levels used in the experiment.

Transformers in Electrical Systems

• Role in Electrical Grids: How step-up and step-down transformers facilitate

efficient electricity transmission across vast distances.
• Load Losses: How step-down transformers handle the conversion of power in
domestic and commercial applications.
• Short-Circuit Protection: The importance of safety measures in transformers,
such as fuses and circuit breakers.

Challenges and Limitations

• Transformer Losses: The impact of core and copper losses on the efficiency and
cost of transformers.
• Overheating and Cooling Methods: Addressing the challenges of heat
generation and the need for cooling systems in large transformers.
• Harmonics and Distortion: How harmonics affect transformer performance
and how to mitigate them.

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Modern Innovations in Step-up and Step-down Transformers

• Smart Transformers: Integration of monitoring systems for real-time

performance tracking.
• Solid-State Transformers (SST): The emerging field of transformers based on
semiconductor technology, which offers benefits such as compact size, better
efficiency, and faster response times.
• Energy Storage: The role of transformers in modern energy storage systems,
such as in renewable energy applications (solar and wind).

Transformer Maintenance and Troubleshooting

• Routine Inspection: Steps to ensure transformers are operating efficiently and

safely.
• Common Faults and Repairs: Diagnosing issues such as winding short circuits,
oil leaks, and overloading.
• Testing and Diagnostics: Methods like insulation resistance testing, ratio
testing, and oil quality checks.

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 PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR

When conducting an experiment on the relationship between output and input voltage
and the number of turns in a self-designed transformer, several precautions should be
followed to ensure safety and accuracy:

1. Safety First: Always ensure that the transformer is properly insulated to prevent
electrical shocks. Wear rubber-insulated gloves when handling the transformer
and its connections. Use insulated wires and ensure the transformer is properly
grounded to prevent electric hazards. Turn off the power supply before making
any adjustments.
2. Accurate Measurements: Use a reliable digital multimeter to measure voltages
and ensure instruments are calibrated. Keep the load conditions stable during
the experiment to avoid fluctuating results.
3. Proper Coil Winding: Ensure accurate and even winding of the coils to maintain
a consistent turns ratio. The number of turns must be precisely counted to
ensure the correct voltage ratio.
4. Avoid Overheating: Monitor the transformer for any signs of overheating,
especially during extended operation. Ensure that the wire gauge is appropriate
for the expected current to prevent excessive heat buildup.
5. Check Setup: Double-check all connections before applying power. Document
the setup details, including the core material and number of turns, for accurate
analysis.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Inaccurate Counting of Turns: Miscounting the number of turns in the primary

or secondary coil affects the turns ratio and thus the voltage ratio.
2. Measurement Instrument Errors: Calibration errors or low-quality
instruments can lead to inaccurate voltage readings.
3. Magnetic Flux Leakage: Poorly wound coils or suboptimal core material can
cause flux leakage, reducing efficiency.

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4. Core Saturation: Excessive current or voltage can saturate the core, distorting
voltage transformation.
5. Load Variations: Fluctuations in the load can alter the secondary voltage.
6. External Interference: Electromagnetic interference can affect measurements.

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 RECENT ADVANCES IN TRANSFORMER TECHNOLOGY

Recent innovations in transformer technology focus on improving efficiency, reducing

environmental impact, and integrating smart technologies. High-efficiency transformers
reduce energy loss and improve power delivery. Smart transformers incorporate digital
sensors and monitoring systems to track operational performance and detect potential faults
before they occur. Eco-friendly transformers, such as dry-type transformers, reduce the
environmental risks associated with oil leaks and require less maintenance.

Environmental Impact of Transformers

The environmental impact of transformers is primarily associated with their cooling oils and
noise. Transformer oil, which is used to insulate and cool transformers, can pose an
environmental hazard if leaks occur. Furthermore, the noise generated by large transformers
in residential areas can be a concern. New designs aim to mitigate these issues through
advanced materials and quieter operational methods.

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 CONCLUSION

Transformers are fundamental to modern electrical infrastructure, enabling efficient

power transmission and distribution, ensuring the proper functioning of electrical
devices, and supporting industrial growth. As technology continues to evolve,
transformers are becoming more efficient, environmentally friendly, and integrated into
smart grid systems.

Transformers are exposed to various risks such as overload, short circuits, and environmental
factors. Protective devices ensure that transformers operate safely and prevent costly damage.
Common protection methods include:

• Overcurrent Protection: Prevents transformer damage by disconnecting the circuit

when the current exceeds a safe limit.
• Buchholz Relay: A specialized device used in oil-immersed transformers to detect
faults such as gas accumulation or oil flow issues.
• Temperature Monitoring: Temperature sensors monitor the heat generated in the
transformer, activating cooling systems or shutting down the transformer if the
temperature exceeds safe limits.

The ongoing research and development in transformer technology promise even

more advanced systems in the future, further enhancing the reliability and
sustainability of electrical power systems worldwide.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Hughes, E. (2010). Electrical and Electronic Technology (8th ed.). Pearson

Education.
Provides fundamental concepts on transformers and their operation.
2. Boylestad, R. L., & Nashelsky, L. (2009). Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory
(9th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
Covers electrical devices, including transformers, and their characteristics.
3. Sullivan, D. (2009). Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook. CRC Press.
A detailed guide to transformer design and the relationship between voltage and
turns ratio.
4. IEEE (2011). IEEE Standard for Transformers: Specifications and Testing. IEEE.
Technical standards on transformer testing and voltage measurement.

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