Physics 42200

Waves & Oscillations

Lecture 23 – Review

Spring 2016 Semester

Matthew Jones
 Midterm Exam:
Date: Thursday, March 10th
Time: 8:00 – 10:00 pm
Room: MSEE B012
Material: French, chapters 1-8

You can bring one double sided page

of notes, formulas, examples, etc.
 Review
1. Simple harmonic motion (one degree of freedom)
– mass/spring, pendulum, floating objects, RLC circuits
– damped harmonic motion
2. Forced harmonic oscillators
– amplitude/phase of steady state oscillations
– transient phenomena
3. Coupled harmonic oscillators
– masses/springs, coupled pendula, RLC circuits
– forced oscillations
4. Uniformly distributed discrete systems
– masses on string fixed at both ends
– lots of masses/springs
 Review
5. Continuously distributed systems (standing waves)
– string fixed at both ends
– sound waves in pipes (open end/closed end)
– transmission lines
– Fourier analysis
6. Progressive waves in continuous systems
– reflection/transmission coefficients
 Simple Harmonic Motion
• Any system in which the force is opposite the
displacement will oscillate about a point of stable
equilibrium
• If the force is proportional to the displacement it will
undergo simple harmonic motion
• Examples:
– Mass/massless spring
– Elastic rod (characterized by Young’s modulus)
– Floating objects
– Torsion pendulum (shear modulus)
– Simple pendulum
– Physical pendulum
– LC circuit
 Simple Harmonic Motion
• You should be able to draw a free-body diagram and
express the force in terms of the displacement.
• Use Newton’s law:
 =  or  = 
• Write it in standard form:
 +  = 0
• Solutions are of the form:
  =  cos −
  =  cos  +  sin 
• You must be able to use the initial conditions to
solve for the constants of integration
 Examples



 sin   ≈

 
≈

ℓ



 = −
/ℓ
 = −

Examples

 = ?
 Damped Harmonic Motion
• Damping forces remove energy from the system
• We will only consider cases where the force is
proportional to the velocity:  = − !
• You should be able to construct a free-body diagram
and write the resulting equation of motion:

 + " +  = 0
– You should be able to write it in the standard form:
 + #" +  = 0
• You must be able to solve this differential equation!
 Damped Harmonic Motion
 + #" +  = 0
Let   = $ %&
• Characteristic polynomial:
' + #' + =0
• Roots (use the quadratic formula):
# #
'=− ± −
2 4
• Classification of solutions:
– Over-damped: # ⁄4 − >0 (distinct real roots)
– Critically damped: # ⁄4 = (one root)
– Under-damped: # ⁄4 − <0 (complex roots)
 Damped Harmonic Motion
• Over-damped motion: # ⁄4 − >0
/ /0 0 / /0
.0& & . 23 .0& .& . 23 0
  = $ $ 1+ $ $ 1

• Under-damped motion: # ⁄4 − <0

0 0
4
. & 5& 23 0 .4 4
. & .5& 23 0 .4
  = $ $ + $ 6 $ 6

• Critically damped motion:

/
.0&
  = ( + )$
• You must be able to use the initial conditions to
solve for the constants of integration
 Example

A
B(C) D

E
Sum of potential differences:
&
:; 1
−9 − ;  < − ? + @ ;  : = 0
: >
Initial charge, ? , defines the initial conditions.
 Example
&
:; 1
9 +;  <+ ? + @ ;  : = 0
: >
Differentiate once with respect to time:
: ; :; 1
9 +< + ;  =0
: : >
: ; :;
+# + ;  =0
: :
Remember, the solution is B(C) but the initial
conditions might be in terms of F C = FG + H B C IC
(See examples from the lecture notes…)
 Forced Harmonic Motion
• Now the differential equation is

 + " +  =  =  cos 
• Driving function is not always given in terms of a real
force… (think about non-inertial reference frames):
: K
J + #J" + J = − = > cos 
:
• General properties:
– Steady state properties:  ≫ 1/#
– Solution is J  =  cos  − 
– Amplitude, , and phase, , depend on
 Forced Harmonic Motion
“Q” quantifies the amount of damping:
?=
#
(large Q means small damping force)

 /
 =
 1
M/
− +
?
1/?
= tan.M
−

But watch out when  = >

 Resonance
• Qualitative features: amplitude PQRR
=1

 #
PQRR = −
( ⁄) 4

Q=5
Q=4
Q=3
Q=2
Q=1

/
 Average Power
• The rate at which the oscillator absorbs energy is:

ST( ) =
1
2? 1
− +
?
ST( )
 /2
? = 10

Full-Width-at-Half-Max:
?=5
[G
?=3 WXYZ = =\
F

?=1

/
 Resonance
• Qualitative features: phase shift

1/?
= tan.M
−

 → 0 at low frequencies
 → ^ at high frequencies
`
_= when [ = [G
a
 Coupled Oscillators
• Restoring force on
pendulum A:
ℓ ℓ b = −(b − c )
• Restoring force on
pendulum B:
c = (b − c )

c b



b + b +  b − c = 0
ℓ



 c + c −  b − c = 0
ℓ
 Coupled Oscillators
• You must be able to draw the free-body diagram
and set up the system of equations.



b + b +  b − c = 0
ℓ



 c + c −  b − c = 0
ℓ
• You must be able to write this system as a matrix
equation.

b + d − d b ()
+ =0
 c − d + d c ()
 Coupled Oscillators
• Assume solutions are of the form
b () b
=  cos −
c () c
• Then,
+ d − − d b
− d + d − c = 0
• You must be able to calculate the eigenvalues of a 2x2
or 3x3 matrix.
– Calculate the determinant
– Calculate the roots by factoring the determinant or using the
quadratic formula.
• These are the frequencies of the normal modes of
oscillation.
 Coupled Oscillators
• You must be able to calculate the eigenvectors of a
2x2 or 3x3 matrix
• General solution:
e  = feM cos M  − g + he cos −i +⋯
• You must be able to solve for the constants of
integration using the initial conditions.
 Coupled Discrete Systems
• The general method of calculating eigenvalues will always
work, but for simple systems you should be able to decouple
the equations by a change of variables.



b + b +  b − c = 0
ℓ


1

ℓ ℓ
 c + c −  b − c = 0
ℓ
b + + d b − d c = 0
2  c + + d c − d b = 0
= /ℓ, d = /

kM = b + c
3
k = b − c
c b k M + kM = 0
k + ′ k = 0
4
 Forced Oscillations
• We mainly considered the qualitative aspects
– We did not analyze the behavior when damping forces
were significant
• Main features:
– Resonance occurs at each normal mode frequency
– Phase difference is  = ^⁄2 at resonance
• Example: b driven by the force  =  mno 
– Calculate force term applied to normal coordinates
M = =  cos 
– Reduced to two one-dimensional forced oscillators:
k M + kM =  /
cos 
k + ′ k =  /
cos 
 Uniformly Distributed Discrete Systems

Equations of motion for masses in the middle:

 5 + 2 5 − 5.M + 5pM = 0
=  ⁄

ℓ

Jq + 2 Jq − JqpM + Jq.M = 0

= ⁄
ℓ
 Uniformly Distributed Discrete Masses
• Proposed solution:
q  = q cos 
q.M + qpM − + 2
=
q
• We solved this to determine q and r :
t^
q,r = > sin
+1
^
r =2 sin
2 +1
• General solution:
w
t^
q  = u vr sin cos r − r
+1
rxM
 Vibrations of Continuous Systems
• General solution for mass t:
w
t^
q  = u vr sin cos r − r
+1
rxM
• Orthogonality relation:
w

^ t^ 
u sin sin = yq
+1 +1 2
rxM
• Solution to initial value problem:
w
t^ 
u q 0 sin = vr mno r
+1 2
qxM
 Lumped LC Circuit
D D D
A A A A
;q.M () ;q () ;qpM ()

:;q 1 1
−9 − @ ;q − ;qpM : − @ ;q − ;q.M : = 0
: > >
: ;q
+2 ;q − (;q.M + ;qpM ) = 0
:

This is the exact same problem as the previous two examples.

 Forced Coupled Oscillators
• Qualitative features are the same:
– Motion can be decoupled into a set of 
independent oscillator equations (normal modes)
– Amplitude of normal mode oscillations are large
when driven with the frequency of the normal
mode
– Phase difference approaches ^/2 at resonance
• You should be able to anticipate the
qualitative behavior when coupled oscillators
are driven by a periodic force.
 Continuous Distributions
Limit as  → ∞ and
⁄ℓ → {:
| J 1 | J
=
| ! |
Boundary conditions specified at  = 0 and  = 9:
– Fixed ends: J 0 = J 9 = 0
– Maximal motion at ends: J" 0 = J" 9 = 0
– Mixed boundary conditions
Normal modes will be of the form
Jq ,  = vq sin(q ) cos( q − 'q )
or Jq ,  = vq cos(q ) cos( q  − 'q )
 Properties of the Solutions
J 9,  ~ sin q 9 = 0 ⇒ q 9 = t^

29
q =
t
t^!
q =
9
t!
€q =
29
 Boundary Conditions
• Examples:
– String fixed at both ends: J 0 = J 9 = 0
– Organ pipe open at one end: J" 0 = J" 9 = 0
• Driving end has maximal pressure amplitude
– Organ pipe closed at one end: J" 0 = 0, J 9 = 0
– Transmission line open at one end: ; 9 = 0
‚5 ƒ
– Transmission line shorted at one end: ! 9 ∝ =0
‚&
 Fourier Analysis
• Normal modes satisfying J 0 = J 9 = 0:
t^
Jq ,  = vq sin cos q  − 'q
9
• General solution:
t^
J ,  = u vq sin cos q − 'q
9
qxM
• Initial conditions:
t^ t^
J , 0 = u vq sin cos 'q = u v′q sin
9 9
qxM qxM
t^ t^
J" , 0 = − u vq q sin sin 'q = u ′q sin
9 9
qxM qxM
 Fourier Analysis
• Fourier sine transform:
t^
†  = u v′q sin
9
qxM
ƒ
2 t^
v′q = @ †() sin :
9 9
• Fourier cosine transform:

2 ƒ t^
′q = @ !() cos :
9 9
 Fourier Analysis
v′q = vq cos 'q
′q = vq q sin 'q
Solve for amplitudes:
′q
vq = v′q +
q

Solve for phase:

′q
tan 'q =
v′q q
 Fourier Analysis
• Suggestion: don’t simply rely on these formulas – use
your knowledge of the boundary conditions and initial
conditions.
• Example:
– If you are given J" , 0 = 0 and J 0 = J 9 = 0 then you
know that solutions are of the form
t^
J ,  = u vq sin cos q 
9
– If you are given J , 0 = 0 and J 0 = J 9 = 0 then
solutions are of the form
t^
J ,  = u vq sin sin q
9
‡‚‚ q
 Progressive Waves
• Far from the boundaries, other descriptions are more transparent:
J ,  = €  ± !
• The Fourier transform gives the frequency components:
1
  = @ () cos  :
2^ .
1 1
() = @   cos() : + @   sin() :  
2^ . 2^ .
1
= @ () sin  :
2^ .

• Narrow pulse in space
wide range of frequencies

• Pulse spread out in space
narrow range of frequencies
 Properties of Progressive Waves
• Power carried by a wave:
– String with tension  and mass per unit length {
1 1
S= {  != ˆ 
2 2
• Impedance of the medium:
ˆ = {! = /!
• Important properties:
– Impedance is a property of the medium, not the wave
– Energy and power are proportional to the square of the
amplitude
 Reflections
• Wave energy is reflected by discontinuities in the impedance
of a system
• Reflection and transmission coefficients:
– The wave is incident and reflected in medium 1
– The wave is transmitted into medium 2
Ša − Š‹
‰=
Š‹ + Ša
aŠa
Œ=
Š‹ + Ša
• Wave amplitudes:
Q = 5
& = Ž5
 Reflected and Transmitted Power
• Power is proportional to the square of the
amplitude.
– Reflected power: SQ =  S5
– Transmitted power: S& = Ž S5
• You should be able to demonstrate that energy is
conserved:
ie, show that B =  + C
 That’s all for now…
• Study these topics – make sure you
understand the examples and assignment
questions.

• Midterm exams from previous years are also

available on the web.

• Next topics: waves applied to optics.