Electric Circuits-2024

Module -II

ALTERNATING CURRENT THROUGH SERIES CIRCUITS

1. INTRODUCTION

1. Resistance: - It is the opposition offered by a substance or body to the flow of and electric
current through it. It is represented by letter R and is measured in ohm (  ).
2. Inductance: It is the property of a coil due to which it opposes any increase or decrease of
current or flux through it. It is represented by letter L and is measured in henry (H).
3. Capacitance:- It is the property of a capacitor to store electricity or the amount of charge
required to create a unit potential difference between plates. It is represented by letter C
and is measured in farad (F).
Phasors
Vectors representing alternating voltages and currents also show phase relationships, they some-
times are called phasors.

Phase and Phase Difference

The angle turned /moved/rotated through by an alternating current or voltage from a given instant
is called phase.
The phase of an alternating quantity can be defined as the fraction of a time period or cycle through
which the alternating quantity has moved from given instant. The angle between the phases of two
alternating quantity of the same frequency as measured in degrees is known as phase difference.
Vector diagrams of sine waves of same frequency

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In the above figure the voltage (e) and current (i) of same frequency is shown. The voltage
advances the current by 900 or current lag voltage by 900.

Addition and Subtraction of Alternating quantities by Vector Method

Addition
For addition and subtraction of alternating quantities, best suited method is rectangular or complex
form. The general form of an alternating quantity can be expressed in vector form as follows
E1 = a1 + jb1 and E2 = a2 + jb2 . For adding the quantities add the constant terms together and add

the imaginary terms together (imaginary term is the term which contains i or j term).
E = E1+E2
= (a1 + jb1 ) + ( a2 + jb2 )

= (a1 + a2 ) + j (b1 + b2 )
The magnitude of the resultant vector can be find out using following equation

E= ( a1 + a2 ) 2 + (b1 + b2 ) 2

The position of E with respect to x-axis is

 b1 + b2 
 = tan −1  
 a1 + a2
 
General formula for finding the magnitude of a vector is as follows

Magnitude, E= a 2 + b2
The position (angle) of E with respect to x-axis is,

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b 
Angle,  = tan −1  
a

Subtraction
For subtraction of the quantities subtract the constant terms and subtract the imaginary terms
together (imaginary term is the term which contains i or j term).
E = E1-E2
= (a1 + j b1 ) − ( a2 + j b2 )

= (a1 − a2 ) + j ( b1 − b2 )

The magnitude of E = (a1a2 − b1b2 ) 2 + (a1b2 + b1a2 ) 2

 b1 − b2 
 = tan −1  
 a1 − a2
 

Multiplication and Division of Alternating Quantities

Exponential and Polar forms are best suited for multiplication and division.

Exponential Form Polar Form

E1 = E1e j E1 = E1

E2 = E2e j E2 = E2

E = E1  E2 E = E1  E2

E = E1e j E2 e j  E = E1  E2

= E1E2e j ( − ) E = E1 E2 ( +  )

Division

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Exponential Form Polar Form

E1 E1e j E1 E1 
E= = E= =
E2 E 2 e j  E2 E2  

E1 j ( −  ) E1
= e = ( −  )
E2 E2

2. AC THROUGH PURE RESITANCE

Let a pure resistor (R) is connected across an AC voltage source, v = Vm sin t ………….. (1)

Let ‘R’ be the ohmic resistance and ‘i’ be the current flowing through it. When voltage is applied,
there is a small voltage drop or loss occurs across the resistance, called as ohmic drop. This will
be directly proportional to the current flowing through the resistor R. It is denoted by the
expression, v = iR ……..(2)
Equate the equations 1 and 2 we get, iR = Vm sin t

Vm sin t V
i= = i = m  sin t …………… (3)
R R
Current ‘i’ is maximum when sin t is unity (or t = 90 0 )
Vm
I m = ……………….. (4)
R
Substitute equation (4) in (3), we get
i = I m sin t …………….. (5)

Comparing equations 1and 5, we find that the voltage and current are in phase, because the angle
 is same for both instantaneous voltage equation and current equations, ie, the angle between

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voltage and current is 0. At any instant the voltage and current will be on the same phase. It is
shown in the figure.
2.1. Vector diagram

2.2. Instantaneous Power

Equation for power P = v  i watt
Substitute instantaneous values for v and i in the above equation
P = Vm sin t  I m sin t

 2 1 − cos 2 
P = Vm I m sin 2 t sin  = 
2

 1 − cos 2t 
P = Vm I m  
 2 
Vm I m Vm I m cos 2t
= −
2 2
Vm I m
in the above equation we have two parts, a constant part and a fluctuating part. is the
2
Vm I m cos 2t
constant part and is the fluctuating or varying part, this part depends on the
2
frequency. Normally this fluctuating part is the double of the frequency of that of voltage and
current.
From the figure, we can see that the areas above and below the axis are equal, hence average value
of the variable portion is zero. Thus the power of the cycle is the constant portion of the power
expression only. Therefore the power for the whole cycle is,
Vm I m V I
P= = m  m
2 2 2
P = Vrms  I rms
P = V  I watt

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3. AC THROGH PURE INDUCTOR

Consider a circuit containing a coil of pure inductance. This is denoted by L. if an alternating

current is applied across the inductor in the circuit, a magnetic flux will be set up when the current
flows through it. Due to the inference of the magnetic flux an alternating emf is induced in the
coil. It is called back emf, and is due to self-induction. The back emf will oppose the rise or fall of
current through it, and is equal and opposite to the applied emf.
di
The instantaneous voltage equation, v = L. ……………… (1)
dt
where, v = Vm sin t , L= self-inductance.

di
Equate both voltage equations, we get, L. = Vm sin t = v ……………………. (2)
dt
Vm
di = sin t.dt ……………….. (3)
L
Vm
Integrating both sides,  di =  L
sin t.dt ……………… (4)

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Vm
 di = L 
sin t.dt ……………….. (5)

Vm  − cos t 
i=   ………………………. (6)
L   
Vm
i= ( − cos t ) ……………………. (7)
L
Vm
i= (sin t − 900 ) ………………. (8)
L
Current ‘i’ is max I m , when (sin t − 900 ) is unity.

Vm
Im = ………………………………….. (9)
L
Substitute eqn 9 in 8 we get, i = I m (sin t − 900 )
By analyzing the above equation, we can see that the current lags behind the applied voltage by

900 or the phase difference between the two is  2 radians as shown in figure below. The quantity

 L is known as inductive reactance and denoted by X L and is measured in  .

3.1. Instantaneous Power
We know that power P = v  i watt where, v = Vm sin t and i = I m (sin t − 900 ) . Substitute the

values of v and i in power equation, we get P = Vm sin t  I m (sin t − 900 ) …………… (10)

P = Vm I m sin t  (− cos t ) ………………… (11)

P = −Vm I m sin t  cos t …………………. (12)

Multiply and divide the equation 12 by 2, we get

−Vm I m
P=  2sin t cos t ………………….(13)
2
−Vm I m
P=  sin 2t …………………. (14)
2
Vm I m
P=− sin 2t ………………. (15)
2 2
P = −Vrms I rms sin 2t ………………. (16)
This is the instantaneous power equation.

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Total power for the whole cycle is

2
Vm I m
P= −
0
2
(sin 2t )dt = 0 ,

Here power has no constant term. The power term exists of the double the frequency whose
average value over a whole cycle is zero. Thus P=0.
2
Vm I m
P= −
0
2
(sin 2t )dt = 0

4. CURRENT THROUGH PURE CAPACITOR

Consider a circuit consist of pure capacitor C connected across a voltage v = Vm sin t . When an

alternating emf is applied across the capacitor, the potential difference between the plates is given
q
v= where q is the charge and c is the capacitance of the capacitor. Substitute the instantaneous
c
value of voltage in the above equation,
q
Vm sin t = …………………………………………...(1)
c
q = CVm sin t

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dq
Now, current i is given by the rate of flow of charge. ie, i = ………………(2)
dt
d (CVm sin t )
Substitute the value of q in the above equation, i= , ………. (3)
dt
Differentiate RHS of the equation, i = CVm cos t ………. (4)

Vm
i= cos t ………. (5)
1
C
Vm
i= sin(t + 900 ) ……………….(6)
1
C
Current ‘i’ is maximum when sin(t + 900 ) is unity
Vm
Im =
1
C
i = I m sin(t + 900 ) ………. (7)

The factor 1C corresponds to the resistance of the capacitor and is known as its reactance

1
usually called capacitive reactance and is denoted by X c , X c =
2 fC
Thus when the applied emf is given by v= Vm sin t

The current in the capacitive circuit is given by i = I m sin(t + 900 ) ,

from the above equations we can see that the current in a capacitive circuit leads the applied voltage

by 900 or radians.
2
4.1Power in a pure Capacitor
We know that P = vi where
v = Vm sin t
i = I m sin(t + 90)
P = Vm sin tI m sin(t + 90)
P = Vm I m (sin t  cos t )
Divide and multiply the above eqn by 2,

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Vm I m (2  sin t  cos t )
P=
2
Vm Im
V I P=  sin 2t
P = m m sin 2t 2 2
2
P = Vrms I rms sin 2t
The total power for the whole cycle in pure capacitor is zero, P = 0

5. AC THROUGH R-L SERIES CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit consisting of a pure resistance R ohm and a pure inductance L henry connected
in series.
Let I = rms value of total current
V = rms value of applied voltage
VR = voltage drop across R

VL = I  L = IX L = voltage drop across L

The vector diagram represents the voltage

q111qq drops. Vector OA represents VR , and AB

represents VL . The applied voltage V is the

vector sum of VL and VR

OB = (OA) 2 + ( AB ) 2
V = (VR ) 2 + (VL ) 2 = V = ( IR) 2 + ( IX L ) 2
= I 2 (R2 + X L2 ) = I (R2 + X L2 )
Vector diagram Impedance triangle
V
I=
(R + X L2 )
2

The quantity ( R 2 + X L 2 ) is expressed in ohm and is known as impedance of the circuit and is

denoted by the letter Z, therefore, impedance Z= ( R 2 + X L 2 ) .

V
Thus I = or V = IZ . From the figure we can find that current I lags behind the applied voltage
z
by and angle  . The cosine of the angle between voltage and current is known as power factor.

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R
pf = cos  =
Z

5.1 Power in R-L Circuit

We know that P = vi where
v = Vm sin t
i = I m sin(t −  )
P = Vm sin tI m sin(t −  )

P = Vm I m sin t  sin(t −  )  2Sin ASin B = Cos( A − B) − cos( A + B)

Divide and multiply the above eqn by 2,
Vm I m
P= cos  − cos(2t −  
2
Vm I m
Thus power consists of a constant part cos  and a
2
Vm I m
variable part  cos (2t −   of double frequency whose average value over a cycle is zero.
2
Vm I m V I
Hence average power = P =  cos   = m  m cos   = Vrms I rms cos 
2 2 2
P = VI cos  watt

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Hence, the power is no longer a product of V

and I. The mean power is given by the product
of voltage V and that part of current I which is
in phase with V and the power factor.
P = VI cos
= voltage  current  power factor
kW = kVA  p. f .

kW
p. f . =
kVA

6 AC THROUGH R-C SERIES CIRCUITS

Consider a circuit consisting of R and C in series as in figure. Let VR ( VR = IR )be the resistance

drop across the resistance and VC ( VC = IX C ) be the capacitive drop across capacitor . As X C is

taken negative, VC also taken as negative, as in figure.

From the voltage triangle, V 2 = VR2 + VC2 = ( IR)2 + ( IX C )2

= I 2 ( R2 + X C2 )

V = I ( R 2 + X C2 )

V V
I= = ( R 2 + X C2 ) = Z
(R + X )
2 2
C
Z

From the figure we can see that, the current

I leads the voltage V by angle  and the two
quantities are represented by the equations as
follows

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v = Vm sin t

i = I m sin(t +  )

Or v = Vm sin(t −  )

i = I m sin t

From the impedance triangle

R
Power factor = cos  =
Z
Power consumed = v  i

= VI cos 

7 AC THROUGH L-C SERIES CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit consisting of Inductor (L) and

Capacitor(C) connected in series and the applied
voltage is v.
Here the only opposite to current flow is the net reactance X which is given by the formula
X = X L − X C OR X = X C − X L If X L is more the resulting reactance has the characteristics of

inductive reactance. If X C is more the resulting reactance has characteristics of capacitive

reactance.
Thus Z= X and
V V
I= =
Z X
cos  = 0 ( = 900 )

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Power consumed =vi cos  .

Hence power consumed = 0.

8 AC THROUGH R-L-C SERIES CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit consisting of Resistor (R), Inductor (L) and Capacitor(C) connected in series
and the applied voltage is v.

Let,
VR = IR

VL = IX L

VC = IX C

v = Vm sin t .

In voltage triangle VL , VC are 1800 out of phase

with each other. It has been assumed that

VL  VC

The net reactive drop = AB-BD= VL − VC

from voltage triangle

OD 2 = OA2 + AD 2
V 2 = VR2 + (VL − VC ) 2

= ( IR)2 + ( IX L − IX C )2

V = I R 2 + ( X L − X C )2

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V V
I= =
R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 Z

Where Z is the impedance of the circuit

Z 2 = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 = R 2 + X 2
(Impedance)2 = (Resistance)2+(Net reactance)2

R R R
Power factor, cos  = = =
Z R + (X L − XC )
2 2
R + ( X )2
2

The voltage and current equations in RLC circuit are,

v = Vm sin t

i = I m sin(t   )

+ve sign is to be used when X C  X L (or current leads)

-ve sign is to be used when X L  X C (or current lags)

8.1 POWER IN RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

Power consumed = v  i
= VI cos 
9 RESONANCE IN R-L-C SERIES CIRCUIT
A series circuit is said to be in electrical resonance when its net reactance is zero.ie, X L − X C = 0

where X L = X C . The impedance of the circuit can be found out from the equation,

Z = R2 + ( X )2 . Here ( X )2 be the net reactance.

The supply voltage is kept constant, the frequency of the supply varying from zero to infinity, at a
certain frequency of applied voltage the inductive reactance ( X L ) becomes equal to the capacitive

reactance ( X C ) in magnitude. This situation is known as resonance. The frequency at which

X L = X C is known as resonance frequency and is represented by f r . At resonance condition the

net reactance X=0. The impedance will be equal to resistance of the circuit ‘R’. Therefore the
circuit will act as a purely resistive circuit and current is in phase with the applied voltage v.
We know that, VL = IX L and VC = IX C . From the figure, we can see that VL = VC and in opposite.
Therefore they are opposite in direction (phase). Hence both the voltages are cancel each other.

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The two reactances ( X L , X C ) taken together act as a short circuit since no voltage develops across

them. The whole of the applied voltage drops across the resistance.
ie, V = IR .
9.1 CALCULATION OF RESONACE FREQUENCY
The frequency at which X L = X C is known as resonance frequency and is represented by f r .

1
Where, X L = L and X C =
C

1
At resonant condition, L =
C

1
2 f r L =
2 f r C

1
(2 f r ) 2 =
LC

1
( f r )2 =
(2 ) 2 LC

1
fr =
2 LC

This is the formula for finding resonance frequency. At resonance condition, the RLC circuit
possess minimum impedance because Z=R. therefore, the current is flowing through the circuit is
maximum. It produces large voltage drop across L and C. but these drops are equal and opposite.
Therefore they can each other.
10 Q-FACTOR OF A SERIES CIRCUIT
It is the voltage magnification in the series circuit at resonance. The formula for finding Q-factor
as follows

1 L
Q − factor =
R C

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