CSC 422 (DATA COMMUNICATION AND

INFORMATION THEORY)

COMPILED BY

ABIKOYE, OLUWAKEMI CHRISTIANA(Ph.D)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

FACULTY OF COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN

2020/2021 SESSION
1. DATA COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION THEORY

1.1 A Mathematical Theory of Communication

"A Mathematical Theory of Communication" is an influential 1948 article by mathematician

Claude E. Shannon. It was renamed "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the book, a
small but significant title change after realizing the generality of this work.

Figure 1.1: Shannon’s General Communications system

Shannon's diagram of a general communications system, which shows the process that produces a
message.

The article was the founding work of the field of information theory. It was later published in 1949
as a book titled The Mathematical Theory of Communication (ISBN 0-252-72546-8), which was
published as a paperback in 1963 (ISBN 0-252-72548-4). The book contains an additional article
by Warren Weaver, providing an overview of the theory for a more general audience. Shannon's
article laid out the basic elements of communication:
• An information source that produces a message
• A transmitter that operates on the message to create a signal which can be sent through a
channel
• A channel, which is the medium over which the signal, carrying the information that
composes the message, is sent
• A receiver, which transforms the signal back into the message intended for delivery
• A destination, which can be a person or a machine, for whom or which the message is
intended
It also developed the concepts of information entropy and redundancy, and introduced the term bit
as a unit of information.
1.2 Introduction to Data communication
Data: Data refers to the information or message, which is present in the form that is agreed upon
by user and creator of data (mostly Digital data)
Data Communication: is exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium.
Message or Signal: is electrical or electromagnetic wave sent through medium from one point to
another, which contains encoded message. A messages can be in the form of sound, text, numbers,
pictures, video or combinations of these.
Sender: A sender is device which sends the message, example : computer, workstation, video
camera, telephone etc.
Medium: It is physical path over which data travels from a sender to receiver.
Receiver: A receiver is a device which receives the message, example : computer, TV receiver,
workstation, telephone receiver, radio receiver etc.
Protocol: A protocol is defined as the set of rules which governs data communication. The
connection of two devices takes places via the communication medium but the actual
communication between them will take place with take place with the help of a protocol .

1.3 Elements of information theory

Information theory can be defined as the mathematical study of the coding of information in the
form of sequence of symbols, impulses etc and of how rapidly such information can be transmitted.
For example, through computer circuits or telecommunications channels.

Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics, electrical engineering, and computer

science involving the quantification, storage, and communication of information. Information
theory was originally developed by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal
processing and communication operations such as data compression. Since its inception in a
landmark 1948 paper by Shannon entitled "A Mathematical Theory of Communication".

Information theory studies the transmission, processing, utilization, and extraction of information.
Abstractly, information can be thought of as the resolution of uncertainty. In the case of
communication of information over a noisy channel, this abstract concept was made concrete in
1948 by Claude Shannon in his paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", in which
"information" is thought of as a set of possible messages, where the goal is to send these messages
over a noisy channel, and then to have the receiver reconstruct the message with low probability
of error, in spite of the channel noise
A key measure in information theory is "entropy". Entropy quantifies the amount of uncertainty
involved in the value of a random variable or the outcome of a random process. For example,
identifying the outcome of a fair coin flip (with two equally likely outcomes) provides less
information (lower entropy) than specifying the outcome from a roll of a die (with six equally
likely outcomes). Some other important measures in information theory are mutual information,
channel capacity, error exponents and relative entropy.

Information theory often concerns itself with measures of information of the distributions
associated with random variables. Important quantities of information are entropy, a measure of
information in a single random variable, and mutual information, a measure of information in
common between two random variables. The former quantity is a property of the probability
distribution of a random variable and gives a limit on the rate at which data generated by
independent samples with the given distribution can be reliably compressed. The latter is a
property of the joint distribution of two random variables, and is the maximum rate of reliable
communication across a noisy channel in the limit of long block lengths, when the channel
statistics are determined by the joint distribution.

1.3.1 Entropy
If 𝕏 is the set of all messages {x1, …, xn} that X could be, and p(x) is the probability of some
, then the entropy, H, of X is defined:

(Here, I(x) is the self-information, which is the entropy contribution of an individual message,
and 𝔼X is the expected value.) A property of entropy is that it is maximized when all the
messages in the message space are equiprobable p(x) = 1/n; i.e., most unpredictable, in which
case H(X) = log n.
1.3.2 Measures of Information theory

Mutual Information
Mutual information (MI) of two random variables is a measure of the mutual dependence
between the two variables. More specifically, it quantifies the "amount of information" (in units
such as bits) obtained about one random variable, through the other random variable. The concept
of mutual information is intricately linked to that of entropy of a random variable, a fundamental
notion in information theory, that defines the "amount of information" held in a random variable

Venn diagram for various information measures associated with correlated variables X and Y. The
area contained by both circles is the joint entropy H(X,Y). The circle on the left (red and violet) is
the individual entropy H(X), with the red being the conditional entropy H(X|Y). The circle on the
right (blue and violet) is H(Y), with the blue being H(Y|X). The violet is the mutual information
I(X;Y).

Channel Capacity
Channel capacity is the tight upper bound on the rate at which information can be reliably
transmitted over a communication channel.
By the noisy-channel coding theorem, the channel capacity of a given channel is the limiting
information rate (in units of information per unit time) that can be achieved with arbitrarily small
error probability.

Error Exponent
In information theory, the error exponent of a channel code or source code over the block length
of the code is the logarithm of the error probability. For example, if the probability of error of a
decoder drops as e−nα, where n is the block length, the error exponent is α

Relative entropy
Relative entropy is a measure of the difference between two probability distributions P and Q. It
is not symmetric in P and Q. In applications, P typically represents the "true" distribution of data,
observations, or a precisely calculated theoretical distribution, while Q typically represents a
theory, model, description, or approximation of P.

2. SIGNALS
Signal is an electrical transmission of alternating current (AC) on network cabling that is generated
by a networking component such as a network interface card (NIC). An electromagnetic signal is
transmitted through air, vacuum to satellite or antenna to mobile. Signals can be either analog or
digital.

Figure 2.1: Signal types

2.1 Analog Signal

An analog signal is a continuous wave form that changes smoothly over time. An analog signal
can take on any value in a specified range of values. As the wave moves from value A to B, it
passes through and includes an infinite number of values along its path. A simple example is
alternating current (AC), which continually varies between about +110 volts and -110 volts in a
sine wave fashion 50 times per second. A more complex example of an analog signal is the time-
varying electrical voltage generated when a person speaks into a dynamic microphone or
telephone.
Analog signals such as telephone speech contain a wealth of detail, but are not readily accessible
to computers unless they are converted to digital form using a device such as an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC). Analog signals are usually specified as a continuously varying voltage over time
and can be displayed on a device known as an oscilloscope. Amplitude is absolute value of signal
at an instance. The maximum voltage displacement of a periodic (repeating) analog signal is called
its amplitude, and the shortest distance between crests of a periodic analog wave is called its
wavelength.

An example of analog data is the human voice. When somebody speaks, a continuous wave is
created in the air. Analog data --voice, video --continuously varying patterns of different intensity
(amplitude). Analog signal can be classified as simple or composite. A simple analog signal, a
sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite analog signal is composed of
multiple sine waves. Three characteristics namely – amplitude, frequency and phase fully
describes a sine wave.

Figure 2:2: Analog Signal

2.1.1 Characteristics of a sine wave
Peak Amplitude
The peak amplitude of a signal represents the absolute value of its highest intensity, proportional
to the energy it carries. For electric signal, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts.
Period and Frequency
Period refers to the amount of time, in second, a signal needs to complete one cycle. Frequency
refers to the number of periods in one second.
Period is expressed in seconds and frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz)
 Figure 2.3: Period and frequency
Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to the time zero. Phase is measured in
degrees or radians. The Phase is denoted by symbol [ Φ ]. A periodic signal is represented by an
equation.
x(t)=x(t)+t0 OR x(t)=Asin(2πft + Φ]

Table 1.1: Units of Period and Frequency

Unit time Equivalent Unit frequency Equivalent

Seconds (s) 1s Hertz (Hz) 1 Hz
Milliseconds (ms) 10-3 s Kilohertz (KHz) 103 Hz = 1 KHz
Microseconds 10-6 s Megahertz 106 Hz = 1 MHz
(µs) (MHz)
Nano second 10-9 s Gegahertz (GHz) 109 Hz = 1 GHz

2.2 Digital Signal

Digital signal is the transmission of signals that vary discretely with time between two values of
some physical quantity, one value representing the binary number 0 and the other representing 1.
Digital signals use discrete values for the transmission of binary information over a communication
medium such as a network cable or a telecommunications link. On a serial transmission line, a
digital signal is transmitted 1-bit at a time.

A digital signal is discrete. It has only a limited number of definite discreet values, as 1 and 0. An
example of digital data is data stored in memory of a computer in the form of 0's and 1's. For
example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. Digital data --text,
digitized images --takes discrete values, usually binary (0,1). Example of digitized text is the
ASCII code. 8 -bits so 255 patterns including -upper and lower case
characters, integers 0-9, special characters and some "control" characters are used in

communication. Bit interval and baud rate are used to describe digital signals.

Figure 2.4: Bit rate and bit interval

Bit Interval
The bit interval is the time required to send one single bit. The bit rate is the number of bit intervals
per second. This means that the bit rate is number of bits sent in one second, usually expressed in
bits per second (bps).
Baud rate
Baud rate refers to the number of signal units per second that are required to represent those bits.
Baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.
The difference between baud rate and bit rate occurs as they define different but related
information. Thus Baud rate is effective measure of information transmitted and bit rate is measure
of the data transmitted (which might include error correcting codes, frame, frame-packet numbers
etc.].
Example 1
A signal carries three bits in each signal element. If 1200 signal elements are sent per second, find
the baud rate and the bit rate.
Solution
Baud rate = Number of signal elements = 1200 bps
Bit rate = baud rate × Number of bits per signal element
= 1200 × 3
= 3600 bps
Example 2
The bit rate of a signal is 2000. If each signal element carries five bits, what is the baud rate?
Solution
Baud rate = Bit rate / Number of bits per signal element
= 2000 / 5
= 400 bps

3. FOURIER ANALYSIS
Fourier analysis is a method of defining periodic waveform s in terms of trigonometric functions.
The method gets its name from a French mathematician and physicist named Jean Baptiste Joseph,
Baron de Fourier, who lived during the 18th and 19th centuries. Fourier analysis is used in
electronics, acoustics, and communications.

Many waveforms consist of energy at a fundamental frequency and also at harmonic frequencies
(multiples of the fundamental). The relative proportions of energy in the fundamental and the
harmonics determines the shape of the wave. The wave function (usually amplitude , frequency,
or phase versus time ) can be expressed as of a sum of sine and cosine function s called a Fourier
series , uniquely defined by constants known as Fourier coefficient s. If these coefficients are
represented by a , a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , ..., a n , ... and b 1 , b 2 , b 3 , ..., b n , ..., then the Fourier series F (
x ), where x is an independent variable (usually time), has the following form:
F ( x ) = a /2 + a 1 cos x + b 1 sin x + a 2 cos 2 x + b 2 sin 2 x + ...
+ a n cos nx + b n sin nx + ...
In Fourier analysis, the objective is to calculate coefficients a , a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , ..., a n and b 1 , b 2 , b
3 , ..., b n up to the largest possible value of n . The greater the value of n (that is, the more terms
in the series whose coefficients can be determined), the more accurate is the Fourier-series
representation of the waveform.

4. DATA TRANSMISSION
4.1 Analog VERSUS Digital transmission
ANALOG TRANSMISSION --a means of transmitting ONLY analog signals.
• Data can be analog or digital; signal is always analog.
• Propagation can be over guided [wired, coaxial, optical fiber, cable] or unguided
medium (space, atmosphere).
• Analog signal will become weaker in signal strength (attenuate) over distance and
will be impaired by noise.
• An AMPLIFIER will boost the energy of the signal but also the noise. Noise is a
undesirable random electrical transmission on network cabling that is generated by
networking components such as network interface cards (NICs) or induced in cabling
by proximity to electrical equipment that generates electromagnetic interference (EMI).
• No coding is possible and thus no self-error correction is possible.

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION --a means of transmitting both digital and analog signals. Usually
assume that the signal is carrying digital (or digitized) data.
• Digital transmission can propagate to a limited distance before attenuation distorts
the signal and compromises the data integrity.
• A REPEATER retrieves the (digital) signal; recovers the (digital) data, e.g., a pattern
of 1's and 0's; and retransmits a new signal. Digital transmission is the preferred method for
several reasons :
• Equipment used for digital transmission is cheaper as compared to analog transmission.
• Use of repeaters, which recover the data and retransmit, are preferred over amplifiers,
which boost both signal and noise.
• Errors are not cumulative and so it is possible to transmit over longer distances, using
lower quality guided medium with better data integrity.
• Multiplexing -transmission links have high bandwidth and must propagate multiple
signals simultaneously to utilize the bandwidth. In digital transmission, time-
division multiplexing is used. Signals share the same medium over different time slots.
This is easier than analog transmission where the analog signals occupy different frequency
spectrum (frequency-division).
• Encryption of signal is possible for security and privacy.
• Coding is possible and self-error correction is possible.

4.2 Data rate in digital communication (Measure of Communication)

How fast data can be sent, in bits per second, through a channel depends on three factors.
1 The bandwidth available.
2 The levels of signals.
3 The quality of the channel.

Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate : one by Nyquist for a noiseless
channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel.
For noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate as:

𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2 × 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ × log 2 𝐿

Where, Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
L is the number of signal levels used to represent data, and Bitrate is the bit rate in bits per second.

Example 3
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 2000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal
levels. Calculate the bit rate.
Solution
Bitrate= 2 × 2000 × log2 2 = 4000 bps

Example 4
Consider the same noiseless channel, transmitting a signal with four signal levels.
Solution
Bitrate = 2 × 2000 × log2 4 = 8000 bps.
In reality, there cannot be a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. Claude Shannon
introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity, to determine the theoretical highest data rate
for a noisy channel :
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ × log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)

Where, Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel

SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, and Capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.
The signal-to-noise ratio is the statistical ration of the power of the signal to the power of the noise.

Example 5
Calculate the channel capacity of telephone line using Shannon formula.
Solution
A telephone line has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 Hz to 3300 Hz). The signal-to-nose ration is
usually 3162. For this channel capacity is :
Capacity = Bandwidth × log2 (1 + SNR)
= 3000 × log2 (1 + 3162)
= 3000 × log2 (3163)
= 3000 × 11.62
= 34,860 bps
That is, the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860 Kbps. If data want to be sent faster than
this, the bandwidth of the line can be increased or signal-to-noise ratio improved.

4.3 Transmission Mode

Transmission of data across link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial. Data transfer from
one device to another device is always either by parallel transmission mode or serial transmission
mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, one bit is sent
with each clock tick.
 Figure 4.1: Data Transmission modes
4.3.1 Parallel Transmission
A form of signal transmission that sends information 8 or more bits at a time over a cable. Parallel
interfaces are used mainly to connect printers, hard drives, and other peripherals to computers. The
mechanism for parallel transmission is a conceptually simple one. Use n wires to send n bits at a
time. For example, to send 8 bits at a time use 8 data wires. Typically, the eight wires are bundled
in a cable with connector at each end. That way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one
group can be transmitted with each clock tick from one device to another device.

Figure 4.2: Parallel Transmission

4.3.2 Serial Transmission

A form of signal transmission that sends information one bit at a time over a single data channel
or data link. Serial interfaces are generally used to connect data communications equipment (DCE)
such as modems to data terminal equipment (DTE) such as computers and terminals and for
connecting a DCE to a DTE. RS-232 is the most commonly used serial interface in ordinary
network communication, which supports transmission over a range of 0 to 20 Kbps at distances of
up to 50 feet (15.24 meters).

In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel or wire
rather than n to transmit data between two communicating devices. Serial transmission is possible
in one of two ways: synchronous and asynchronous.

4.3.2.1 Serial Data Formats

Whether data are sent as bits or symbols, it is transmitted serially in one of two forms, synchronous
or asynchronous. Synchronous means serial data that requires a synchronizing clock signal
between sender and receiver. And, Asynchronous means serial data that does not require a
synchronizing clock or signal between sender and receiver.

Figure 4.3: Serial Transmission

Figure 4.4: Types of Serial

transmission

Synchronous Data
Synchronous data require a coherent clocking signal between transmitter and receiver,
called a data clock, to synchronize the interpretation of the data sent and received. The
data clock is extracted from the serial data stream at the receiver by special circuits called clock
recovery circuits.

Once the clock is recovered at the receiving end, bit and character synchronization can be
established. Bit synchronization requires that the high and low condition of the binary data sent
matches that received and is not in an inverted state. Character synchronization implies that the
beginning and end of a character word is established so that these characters can be decoded and
defined. Overall the clock recovered from the message stream itself maintains synchronization.
Figure 4.5(a) shows how a synchronous binary transmission would send the ASCII character E
(hex 45 or 1000101). The least significant bit (LSB) is transmitted first, followed by the remaining
bits of the character. There are no additional bits added to the transmission.

With synchronous transmission, a block of bits is transmitted in a steady stream without start and
stop codes. The block may be many bits in length. To prevent timing drift between transmitter and
receiver, their clocks must somehow be synchronized. One possibility is to provide a separate
clock line between transmitter and receiver. One side (transmitter or receiver) pulses the line
regularly with one short pulse per bit-time. The other side uses these regular pulses as a clock. This
technique works well over short distances, but over longer distances the clock pulses are subject
to the same impairments as the data signal, and timing errors can occur. The other alternative is to
embed the clocking information in the data signal; for digital signals, this can be accomplished
with Manchester or Differential Manchester encoding. For analog signals, a number of techniques
can be used; for example, the carrier frequency itself can be used to synchronize the receiver based
on the phase of the carrier.

With synchronous transmission, there is another level of synchronization required to allow the
receiver to determine the beginning and end of a block of data; to achieve this, each block begins
with a preamble bit pattern and generally ends with a postamble bit pattern.

Figure 4.6 shows, in general terms. a typical frame format for synchronous transmission.
Typically, the frame starts with a preamble called a flag, which is eight bit-long. The same flag is
used as a postamble. The receiver looks for the occurrence of the flag pattern to signal the start of
a frame. This is followed by some number of control fields, then a data field (variable length for
most protocols), more control fields, and finally the flag is repeated.

For sizable blocks of data, synchronous transmission is far more efficient than asynchronous.
Asynchronous transmission requires 20 percent or more overheads. The control information,
preamble, and postamble in synchronous transmission are typically less than 100 bits. For
example, one of the more common schemes, HDLC, contains 48 bits of control, preamble, and
postamble. Thus, for a 1000-character block of data, each frame consists of 48 bits of overhead
and 1000 X 8 = 8,000 bits of data, for a percentage overhead of only 0.6%.

Direction of Transmission

Figure 4.5(a): Synchronous E (hex 45 or 1000101).

Direction of Transmission

Figure 4.5(6): Asynchronous E (hex 45 or 1000101).

 Flag Control Data field (payload) Control Flag
Figure 4.6:
Field field field Field
Frame
format
Figure 2.8 Synchronous frame format for synchronous transmission

Asynchronous Data
Asynchronous data formats incorporate the use of framing bits to establish the beginning (start bit)
and ending (stop bit) of a data character word as shown in Figure 4.5 (b). A clocking signal is not
recovered from the data stream, although the internal clocks of the transmitter and receiver must
be the same frequency for data to be correctly received. To understand the format of an
asynchronous character, it is first necessary to be aware of the state of the transmission line when
it is idle and no data is being sent. The idle condition results from the transmission line being held
at a logic 1, high state, or mark condition. The receiver responds to a change in the state of the line
as an indication that data has been sent to it. This change of state is indicated by the line going low
or logic 0, caused by the transmission of a start bit at the beginning of the character transmission
as shown in Figure 4.5 (b). Data bits representing the code of the character being sent follow next
ending with one or two stop bits. The stop bits actually specify the minimum time the line must
return to logic 1 condition before the receiver can detect the next start bit of the next character.

Asynchronous transmission is simple and cheap but requires an overhead of two to three bits per
character. For example, for an 8-bit code, using a 1-bit-long stop bit, two out of every ten bits
convey no information but are there merely for synchronization; thus the overhead is 20%. Of
course, sending larger blocks of bits between the start and stop bits could reduce the percentage
overhead.

Table 4.1: Comparison of serial and parallel transmission

S/No Parameter Parallel transmission Serial transmission

1 Number of wire required N wire 1 wire

to transmit N bits

2 Number of bits N bits 1 bit

transmitted
simultaneously
 3 Speed of data transfer Fast Slow

4 Cost Higher due to more number Low, since only one

of conductor wire is used

5 Application Short distance Long distance

communication such as computer to computer
computer to printer communication
communication

4.3.3 Transmission Efficiency

Notice that the synchronous data uses just the seven bits required for the E character’s code while
the asynchronous stream needs 10 bits (one start, seven data, and two stop bits). The synchronous
stream is more efficient than the asynchronous because it does not require the overhead (framing)
bits that the asynchronous stream needs. Efficiency is a mark of performance and is calculated as
a ratio of data or information bits sent to total bits sent as shown in Equation 4.1.
Efficiency = (data bits/total bits) * 100………………. Equation 4.1

A more efficient stream of data takes less time to be transmitted simply because there are less bits
to be sent. However, the overall efficiency of a transmission relies on more than the efficiency of
individual characters within a message. For asynchronous data, the entire message will retain a
70% efficiency because no additional bits or overhead are required to send the data. Bit and
character synchronization are built into the framing bits.

Synchronous data, on the other hand, requires a preamble message, which is a set pattern of binary
ones and zeros used to facilitate clock recovery, so the data to be bit and character synchronized
before data can be correctly received. This adds additional bits to be sent and reduces the overall
efficiency of the transmission. Despite this added burden, synchronous transmissions remain more
efficient than asynchronous ones.

4.4 Transmission Impairment

Transmission is the act of propagation through the medium and receiving and processing of the
signal. Transmission media are not perfect. The imperfections cause impairment in the signal sent
through the medium. This means that the signal at the beginning and end of the medium are not
the same. What is sent is not what is received.

Signal that is received will be impaired or distorted during transmission. For analog signals, signal
quality is reduced. For digital signals, errors are introduced ,1 recognized
as 0 and vice versa. Transmission medium is imperfect and these impairments affect the capacity
of the channel. Three types of impairments can occur : attenuation, distortion, and noise.

4.4.1 Types of Impairments

Figure 4.7: Types of Impairment

i) ATTENUATION
Attenuation means loss of energy. Signal strength reduces over time. When a signal travels through
a medium, it losses some of energy so that it can overcome the resistance of the medium.

Attenuation is the weakening in strength, of a signal as it passes through the medium. As the signal
travels through the transmission medium, some of its power is absorbed, the signal gets weaker,
and the receiving equipment has less and less chance of correctly interpreting the data. Thus a wire
carrying electrical signal gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy in the
signal is converted to heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal .

Figure 4.8: Attenuation

The loss of signal strength with long distances when signals travel along cabling. Attenuation
values for actual cables are measured in units of decibels (dB) – a standard measurement value
used in communication for expressing the ratio of two values of voltage, power, or some other
signal-related quantity. For example, a drop of 3 dB corresponds to a decrease in signal strength
of 50 percent or 2:1, while a drop of 6 dB corresponds to a decrease of 75 percent or 4:1.
Attenuation values for cabling media are expressed in units of decibels per 1000 feet, which
express the amount of attenuation in decibels for a standard 1000 -foot length of cabling composed
of that media.
Loss of signal strength is expressed in dB decibel. It is a ratio between final and initial power,
using logarithms. Loss will be negative dB and gain will be positive dB.
loss in dB = 10 * log{base-10} þ (Pfinal / Pinitial).
Attenuation increases at higher frequencies. Copper cabling has much greater attenuation than
fiber-optic cabling; therefore, copper is suitable only for relatively short cable runs. Typical
attenuation values for copper category 5 cabling vary with frequency and are shown in the table
that follows. Attenuation for lower-grade cable is slightly higher.
Table 4.2: Attenuation Values for Copper Category 5 Cabling

Signal Frequency Attenuation

4 MHz 13 dB/1000 feet
10 MHz 20 dB/1000 feet
20 MHz 28 dB/1000 feet
100 MHz 67 dB/1000 feet

Attenuation is caused by signal absorption, connector loss, and coupling loss. To minimize
attenuation, use high-grade cabling such as enhanced category 5 cabling. Also try to minimize the
number of connector devices or couplers, ensuring that these are high-grade components as well.
When a signal attenuates a large amount, the receiving device might not be able to detect it or
might misinterpret it, therefore causing errors.

ii) DISTORTION
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. The distortion of electrical signals
occurs as they pass through metallic conductors. Attenuation Distortion occurs because high
frequencies lose power more rapidly than low frequencies during transmission. Thus the received
signal is distorted by unequal loss of its component
frequencies. Signals that start at the source as clean, rectangular pulses may be received as rounded
pulses with ringing at the rising and falling edges. These effects are properties of transmission
through metallic conductors, and become more pronounced as the conductor length increases. To
compensate for distortion, signal power must be increased or the transmission rate decreased.
Delay Distortion
It occurs when the method of transmission involves transmission at different frequencies.
The bits transmitted at one frequency may travel slightly faster than the bits transmitted at another
frequency. Delay distortion occurs in guided medium. All frequency components of the signal may
not "travel" at the same speed --can cause distortion --e.g., for two consecutive bits, the portion of
the signal carrying one bit may overlap with the portion of the signal carrying the neighboring bit.
The various frequency components in digital signal arrive at the receiver with varying delays,
resulting in delay distortion.

As bit rate increases, some of the frequency components associated with each bit transition are
delayed and start to interfere with frequency components associated with a later bit, causing inter-
symbol interference, which is a major limitation o maximum bit rate.

iii) NOISE
Noise refers to unintentional signal (voltages) introduced in a line by various phenomenons such
as heat or electromagnetic induction created by other sources.
Noise is an undesirable random electrical transmission on network cabling that is generated by
networking components such as network interface cards (NICs) or induced in cabling by proximity
to electrical equipment that generates electromagnetic interference (EMI). Noise is generated by
all electrical and electronic devices, including motors, fluorescent lamps, power lines, and office
equipment, and it can interfere with the transmission of signals on a network. The better the signal-
to-noise ratio of an electrical transmission system, the greater the throughput of information on the
system.
The binary data being transmitted will be altered by noise and result in incorrect data received.
Noise and momentary electrical disturbances may cause data to be changed as it passes through a
communications channel.
The noisy signals, which cause the data lost or corruption, are classified into different types such
as : white noise or thermal noise, induced noise, interference, crosstalk, impulse noise and human
errors may corrupt the signal.
White noise is present in all electronic devices and cannot be eliminated by any circuits. It
increases with temperature, but it is independent of frequency. That means the white noise covers
the whole frequency spectrum and will be picked up by both low and high frequency devices. As
bandwidth increases, (thermal) white noise power increases. White noise is also called as thermal
noise or additive noise. The amount of noise is directly
Figure 4.9: Noise

Sender
Receiver
proportional to the temperature of the medium. White noise usually is not a problem unless it
becomes so strong that it obliterates the transmission. Thermal noise (or additive noise) is the
random motion of electrons in a wire that created an extra signal not originally sent by the
transmitter.
Thermal noise is also called as additive noise. Additive noise is generated internally by
components such as resistors and solid-state devices used to implement the communication system.
Thermal noise is the most common impairment in a wireless communication system. There are
three general sources:
1) The noise that enters the antenna with the signal, aptly called antenna noise,
2) the noise generated due to ohmic absorption in the various passive hardware components, and
3) noise produced in amplifiers through thermal action within semiconductors.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances with coils. These devices act as
a sending antenna and the transmission medium acts as a receiving antenna.
What can we do to minimize the white noise?
The medium should be kept as cool as possible
Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short period of time) that comes from
power lines, lightning, and so on. Impulse Noise consisting of random occurrences of energy
spikes having random amplitude and spectral content. Impulse noise in a data channel can be a
definitive cause of data transmission errors.
Interference is caused by picking up the unwanted electromagnetic signals nearby such as
crosstalk due to adjacent cables transmitting electronic signals or lightning causing power surge.
Crosstalk is the undesired effect of one circuit (or channel) on another circuit (or channel). It
occurs when one line picks up some of the signal traveling down another line. Crosstalk effect can
be experienced during telephone conversations when one can hear other conversations in the
background. Crosstalk is a form of interference in which signals in one cable induce
electromagnetic interference (EMI) in an adjacent cable. The twisting in twisted-pair cabling
reduces the amount of crosstalk that occurs, and crosstalk can be further reduced by shielding
cables or physically separating them. Crosstalk is a feature of copper cables only—fiber-optic
cables do not experience crosstalk

The ability of a cable to reject crosstalk in Ethernet networks is usually measured using a scale
called near-end crosstalk (NEXT). NEXT is expressed in decibels (dB), and the higher the NEXT
rating of a cable, the greater its ability to reject crosstalk. A more complex scale called Power Sum
NEXT (PS NEXT) is used to quantify crosstalk in high-speed Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM) and Gigabit Ethernet networks.

Human Error
Noise sometimes is caused by human being such as plugging or unplugging the signal cables, or
power on/off the related communications equipment.
The effects of noise may be minimized by increasing the power in the transmitted signal. However,
equipment and other practical constraints limit the power level in the transmitted signal. Another
basic limitation is the available channel bandwidth. A bandwidth constraint is usually due to the
physical limitations of the medium and the electronic components used to implement the
transmitter and the receiver. These two limitations result in constraining the amount of data that
can be transmitted reliably over any communications channel. Shannon's basic results relate the
channel capacity to the available transmitted power and channel bandwidth.
Signal to noise ratio to quantify noise
Signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is a parameter used to quantify how much noise there is in a signal. A
high SNR means a high power signal relative to noise level, resulting in a good-quality signal.
SNR is represented in decibel (db).
S/N = 10 Log10 (S/N)
Where S = average signal power
N = noise power
Bit Error Rate
The BER (Bit Error Rate) is the probability of a signal bit being corrupted in a define time interval.
-5 -5
BER of 10 means on average 1 bit in 10 will be corrupted.
-5 -6
Note that, a BER of 10 over voice-graded line is typical and BER of less than 10 over digital
communication is common.
A Bit Error Rate (BER) is a significant measure of system performance in terms of noise. A BER
-6
of 10 , for example, means that one bit of every million may be destroyed during transmission.
Several factors affect the BER:
• Bandwidth
• S/N (Signal-to-noise ratio)
• Transmission medium
• Transmission distance
• Environment
• Performance of transmitter and receiver

4.5 Communication Channel

A communications channel is a pathway over which information can be conveyed. i.e a channel
may be defined as a path between a transmitter and receiver . This path may be logical or physical
in nature. It may also be hard wired or wireless. It may be defined by a physical wire that connects
communicating devices, or by a radio, laser, or other radiated energy source that has no obvious
physical presence.

The communication channel provides the connection between the transmitter and the receiver. The
physical channel may be a pair of wires that carry the electrical signal, or an optical fiber that
carries the information on a modulated light beam, or an underwater ocean channel in which the
information is transmitted acoustically, or free space over which the information-bearing signal is
radiated by use of an antenna. Other media that can be characterized as communication channels
are data storage media, such as magnetic tape, magnetic disks, and optical disks.

Information sent through a communications channel has a source from which the information
originates, and a destination to which the information is delivered. Although information originates
from a single source, there may be more than one destination, depending upon how many receive
stations are linked to the channel and how much energy the transmitted signal possesses. In a
digital communications channel, the information is represented by individual data bits, which may
be encapsulated into multibit message units. A byte, which consists of eight bits, is an example of
a message unit that may be conveyed through a digital communications channel. A collection of
bytes may itself be grouped into a frame or other higher-level message unit. Such multiple levels
of encapsulation facilitate the handling of messages in a complex data communications network

In some cases, the information may not be reproduced or the information may not reach the
receiver at all. Such phenomena can be understood from the following channel characteristics
issues :

4.5.1 Channel characteristics

1. Channel Noise
It is a slight background interference present on the channel or unwanted electrical or
electromagnetic energy that carries no data or information on but interfaces with the information
or data. Hence, noise degrades the quality of information and data by affecting files and
communicating of all types including text, programmers, images audio and telemetry. Information
and data may be treated as signals in either electrical form. This may be considered as the main
source of transmission errors.
The noise may e classified as external or internal noise based upon the sources. External noise is
generally picked up from electrical appliances in the vicinity, from electrical transformers, the
atmosphere, on even from outer space. Normally this noise does not seriously hamper the
performance. However there are a number of electrical appliances or heavy current machines in
use, external noise can affect communications. It also impacts communication during severe
thunderstorms.
The external noise is generated in inverse proportion to the frequency and in direct proportion to
the wavelength and therefore has a remarkable impact on wireless systems than on hard-wired
systems. The noise generated because of electricity or atmosphere disturbances is 300khz that is
lower than the high frequency range of 300MHz and therefore may have more interference with
the signal or information.
Noise generated inside channels or receivers is known as internal noise. Internal noise is less
dependent on frequency but has a significant effect at higher frequencies because less dependent
on frequencies but has a significant effect at a higher frequencies because external noise has less
effect at these frequencies. Minimizing the signal bandwidth may contain noise but this will limit
the maximum speed of the data that can be delivered.
2. Channel Bandwidth
Channel bandwidth may be defined as the size of the range of frequencies that can be transmitted
through a channel. In order words, it is the volume of information per unit time that a computer,
person or transmission medium can handle. It is measured in Hertz Bandwidth is expressed as data
speed in bits per second in digital systems and as the difference between highest frequency to
lowest frequency in analog system. Bandwidth determines how fast data flows on a given
transmission path.
3. Channel Capacity
It is the amount of information per unit time handled by either a link or a node ( system element ).
The messages transmitted may be either similar or different. It is usually measured in bits per
second.
4 Transmission Time
This is the time required transmitting a message through the channel. It is the size of message in
bits divided by the data rate in bits per second of the channel over which the transmission takes
place. It is also given as the packet length divided by the channel capacity.
5. Propagation Time
This is the amount of time needed for information to propagate from source to destination through
the channel. It is the distance divided by the signal propagation speed. Channel latency depends
on media characteristics, signal propagation speed, and transmission distance.
4.6 Channel Capacity
Channel can be defined as a single path provided by a transmission medium via either (a) physical
separation, such as by multipair cable or (b) electrical separation, such as by frequency-or time-
division multiplexing.
Channel capacity Definition: The maximum bit rate that can be handled by a channel. Channel
capacity is also defined as maximum number of television channels that a cable system can carry
simultaneously.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N Ratio) is a very important parameter in assessing the channel capacity
or throughput of a data channel. From Shannon's Law, the maximum data rate (bit rate), which a
channel can possibly support, is given by the product of the line bandwidth and the signal-to-noise
ratio of the channel. Channel capacity, shown often as "C" in communication formulas, is the
amount of discrete information bits that a defined area or segment in a communications medium
can hold. Thus, a telephone wire may be considered a channel in this sense.
Shannon‘s Law
The maximum data rate of a noisy channel whose bandwidth W in Hz, and whose signal-to-noise
ratio is S/N, is given by
C= W Log2(1 + S/N)
Where W = Bandwidth in Hz
S = Average signal power in watts
N = Random noise power in watts
C = Maximum data rate possible
Example
Calculate maximum data rate for telephone line, which having 30 dB signal-to-noise ratio.
Solution
Bandwidth (W) of telephone line = 3300 – 300 Hz = 3000 Hz.
S/N= 39 dB = 1000
C = 3000 × Log2 (1 + 1000)

C = 3000 × Log2 (1001) C = 29,897 bps

30 Kbps
4.8

5. MODULATION/DEMODULATION
In analog transmission the sending device produces high - frequency signal that acts as a basis for
the information signal. The base signal is called the carrier signal or carrier frequency. The
receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the carrier signal that it expects from the sender.
Digital information is then encoded onto the carrier signal by modifying one or more of its
characteristic (amplitude, frequency or phase). This kind of modification is called modulation (or
shift keying) and the information signal is called a modulating signal.
The process of changing some characteristic (e.g. amplitude, frequency or phase) of a carrier wave
in accordance with the intensity of the signal is known as modulation.
5.1 Types of Modulation
Signal modulation can be divided into two broad categories: Analog and Digital modulation. The
aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog band pass channel
The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband (or low pass) signal, for example
an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog band pass channel, for example a limited radio
frequency band or a cable TV network channel.

5.2 Analog Modulation methods

Analog Modulation can be accomplished in three ways:
Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase modulation
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the changing
amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same; only
the amplitude changes to follow variations in the information. The modulating signal becomes the
envelope of the carrier.

Figure 5.1: Modulating signal and Carrier frequency

Figure 5.2: AM Signal

AM stations are allowed carrier frequencies anywhere between 530 and 1700 kHz (1.7 MHz).
However, each station’s carrier frequency must be separated from those on either side by at least
10 kHz (one AM bandwidth) to avoid interference.
 Figure 5.3: Station’s carrier frequency
The following points are worth noting in amplitude modulation:
(i) The amplitude of the carrier wave changes according to the intensity of the signal.
(ii) The amplitude variations of the carrier wave is at the signal frequency.
(iii) The frequency of the amplitude modulated wave remains the same i.e. carrier frequency fc.
2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal
remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the
carrier changes correspondingly. When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance
with the intensity of the signal, it is called frequency modulation (FM).

Figure 5.4: Modulating signal, Carrier frequency and FM signal

FM stations are allowed carrier frequencies anywhere between 88 and 108 MHz. However, stations
must be separated from by at least 200 kHz to avoid overlapping.
Advantages: The following are the advantages of FM over AM:
(i) It gives noiseless reception. As discussed before, noise is a form of amplitude variations and a
FM receiver will reject such signals.
(ii) The operating range is quite large.
(iii) It gives high-fidelity reception.
(iv) The efficiency of transmission is very high.

The comparison of FM and AM is given in the table 4.3 below.

S. N FM AM
1. The amplitude of carrier remains constant The amplitude of carrier changes with
with modulation modulation.
2. The carrier frequency changes with The carrier frequency remains constant
modulation. with modulation.
3. The carrier frequency changes according to The carrier amplitude changes according to
the strength of the modulating signal. the strength of the modulating signal.
4. The value of modulation index (mf) can be The value of modulation factor (m) cannot
more than 1. be more than 1 for distortionless AM
signal.

3. Phase Modulation (PM)

Due to simpler hardware requirements, PM is used in some systems as an alternative to FM. In
PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage level
of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain constant,
but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of carrier changes
correspondingly. The analysis and final result (modulating signal) are similar to those of FM.
 Figure 5.5: Comparison of AM, FM & PM

5.3 Digital Modulation methods

Modulation of binary data or digital-to-analog modulation is the process of changing one of the
characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in a digital signal (0s and 1s). When
we transmit data from one computer to another across a public access phone line, for example, the
original data are digital, but because telephone wires carry analog signal, the data must be
converted. The digital data must be modulated on an analog signal that has been manipulated to
look like two distinct values corresponding to binary 1 and binary 0.

Two terms used frequently in data communication are bit rate and baud rate. Bit rate is the number
of bits transmitted during 1s. Baud rate refers to the number of signal units per second that are
required to represent those bits. A signal unit is composed of one or more bits. Bit rate is the
number of bits per second. Baud rate is the number of signal units per second. Baud rate is always
less than or equal to the bit rate.

An analogy can clarify the concept of baud and bits. In transportation, a baud is analogous to a car,
and a bit is analogous to passenger. A car can carry one or more passengers. If 2000 cars go from
one location to another, carrying only one passenger, then 2000 passengers are transported.
However, if each car carries two passengers, then 4000 passengers are transported. Note that
number of cars, not the number of passengers, determines the traffic and therefore, the need for
wider highways. Similarly, the number of bauds determines the required bandwidth, not the
number of bits.

Figure 5.6: Digital Modulation Methods

1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

In ASK the strength of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. In ASK both the
frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes. Which voltage represents 1
and which represents 0 is left to the system designers. Unfortunately, ASK transmission is highly
susceptible to noise interference. The term noise refers to unintentional voltage introduced onto a
line by various phenomena such as heat or electromagnetic indication created by other sources.
These unintentional voltages combine with the signal to change the amplitude. A 0 can be changed
to 1, and a 1 to 0.
Advantages
Scheme is simple, so it is easy to implement transmitter and receiver with several components.
Low bandwidth requirements
Disadvantage
ASK is heavily affected by noise and interference and can be easily demodulated.
 Figure 5.7: Amplitude Shift Keying

2. Frequency Shift Keying

In FSK the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. The frequency of
the signal during each bit duration is constant.
In FSK, value of frequency depends on the bit 1 or 0. In FSK both the amplitude and phase remains
constant.

Figure 5.8: Frequency Shift Keying

In FSK, two fixed amplitude carrier signal are used, one for a binary 0 and the other for a binary
1. The different between the two carriers is known as the frequency shift. FSK avoids most of the
noise problem of ASK. Because the receiving device is looking for specific frequency changes
over a given number of periods, it can ignore voltage spikes. The limiting factors of FSK are the
physical capabilities of the carrier.

Advantages
FSK is insensitive to channel fluctuations and not easily effected by noise.
Resilient to signal strength variations
Does not require linear amplifiers in the transmitter
Disadvantage
FSK is a low performance type of digital modulation.

3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

In PSK the phase of the carrier is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. For example, if we start with
phase of 0 degrees to represent binary 0, then we can change the phase to 180 degrees to send
binary 1. The above method is often called 2-PSK, or binary PSK, because two different phases (0
and 180 degrees) are used.

In PSK, both the amplitude and frequency remains constant as the phase changes. PSK is not
susceptible to the noise degradation that mostly affects ASK, nor to the bandwidth limitations of
FSK.
Advantages
PSK, phase shift keying enables data to be carried on a radio communications signal in a more
efficient manner than Frequency Shift
Disadvantage: Implementation is complex and expensive.

Figure
5.9: Phase
Shift Keying

4. QAM

(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)

So far, we have been altering only one of the three characteristics (amplitude, frequency, and
phase) of a sine wave at a time, but what if we alter two ?
FSK having bandwidth limitation so combining it with other is practically useless. But why not
combine ASK and PSK ? Then we have x variation in amplitude and y variation in phase, giving
us x times y possible variations.
QAM means combining ASK and PSK in such a way that we have maximum contrast between
each bit, dibit, tribit, and so on.

Possible variations of QAM are numerous. Theoretically, any measurable number of changes in
amplitude can be combined with any measurable number of changes in phase. For example : 4-
QAM or 8-QAM. In 4-QAM, two-amplitude change and 2 phase shift as shown in figure. In 8-
QAM, 2-amplitude change and 4 phase shift. In 8-QAM number of amplitude shifts is less than
number of phase shifts. Because amplitude changes are susceptible to noise and require greater
shift differences than do phase changes, the number of phase shifts used by a QAM system always
larger than the number of amplitude shifts.

Figure 5.10: 4-QAM (2 amplitudes, 2 phases)

 Figure 5.11: Constellation Diagram of 4-QAM

5.4 MODEM
The devices (computers) that generate the digital data (DTE) usually generate a sequence of digital
pulses which are not suitable for transmission on a medium. Typically there is another device -a
modem (DCE) which prepares this signal for the transmission medium.
Modem stands for modulator/demodulator. A modulator converts a digital signal into an analog
signal using Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), Phase Shift Keying
(PSK), or Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) appropriate for telephone lines. A
demodulator converts an analog signal into a digital signal.

The two PCs at the end are the DTEs; the modems are the DCEs. The DTE creates a digital signal
and relay it to the modem via an interface (like the EIA 232). The modulated signal is received by
demodulation function of second modem. It decodes it and then relays the resulting digital signal
to the receiving computer via an interface. Generally, modem is any type of data communications
equipment (DCE) that enables digital data transmission over the analog Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN). The term “modem” (which actually stands for
“modulator/demodulator”) is usually reserved for analog modems, which interface, through a
serial transmission connection such as the RS-232 interface, with data terminal equipment (DTE)
such as computers. The modem converts the digital signal coming from the computer into an
analog signal that can be carried over a Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) line. The term “digital
modem” is sometimes used for ISDN terminal adapters.

Modems were developed in the 1960s by Bell Labs, which developed a series of standards called
the Bell Standards. These standards defined modem technologies of up to a 9600-bps transmission
speed. But after the breakup of Bell Telephone, the task of developing modem standards was taken
over by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT), which is
now called the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). According to ITU specifications,
modem standards are classified by a series of specifications known as the V series. The
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which defines standards of up to V.90 (which
supports 56-Kbps downloads and 33.6-Kbps uploads).

Modems generally have two interfaces:

• An RS-232 serial transmission interface for connecting to the DTE, usually the
computer
• An RJ-11 telephone interface for connecting to the 4-wire PSTN telephone outlet in the
local loop connection

Physical types of modem types include the following :

• Internal modems, which are installed as interface cards inside the computer and might
use some of the machine’s CPU processing power for functions such as encoding and data
compression.
• External modems, which are generally more expensive and connect to the serial port on
the computer using a DB9 or DB25 connector. External modems are useful when several
users need to share a modem.
• PCMCIA modems, which are credit-card-sized modems for laptop computers used
by mobile workers.
• Voice/data/fax modems, which can be used for file transfer, sending and receiving
faxes, and voice mail using associated software.

Logical types of modem

• Asynchronous and synchronous
Low speed modems are designed to operate asynchronously. Each data frame conforms an
asynchronous transmission mechanism. High-speed modems as well as leased-lines modems use
synchronous transmission. The two modems use a common time base and operate continuously at
substantially that same frequency and phase relationship by circuit that monitor the connection.
• Half duplex and Full duplex
A half-duplex modem must alternately send and receives signals. Half-duplex allows more of the
channel bandwidth to be put to use but slows data communications. A full-duplex modem can
simultaneously handle two signals using two carriers to transmit and receive data. Each carrier
uses half of the bandwidth available to it and its modulation.

Figure 5.12: Modem

Digital Modem
Any type of modem used for synchronous transmission of data over circuit-switched digital lines.
One example of a digital modem is an ISDN terminal adapter. Digital modems are not used for
changing analog signals into digital signals because they operate on end-to-end digital services.
Instead, they use advanced digital modulation techniques for changing data frames from a network
into a format suitable for transmission over a digital line such as an Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) line. They are basically data framing devices, rather than signal modulators.
Analog Modem
A modem used for asynchronous transmission of data over Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS)
lines. Analog modems are still a popular component for remote communication between users and
remote networks. The word “modem” stands for “modulator/demodulator,” which refers to the
fact that modems convert digital transmission signals to analog signals and vice versa. For
example, in transmission, an analog modem converts the digital signals it receives from the local
computer into audible analog signals that can be carried as electrical impulses over POTS to a
destination computer or network. To transmit data over a telephone channel, the modem modulates
the incoming digital signal to a frequency within the carrying range of analog phone lines (between
300 Hz and 3.3 kHz). To accomplish this, multiplexing of the digital signal from the computer
with a carrier signal is performed. The resulting modulated signal is transmitted into the local loop
and transmitted to the remote station where a similar modem demodulates it into a digital signal
suitable for the remote computer.

5.3 Analog to Digital Conversion using modulation

There are 3 modulation techniques: 1. PAM 2. PCM 3. PWM
1. PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation)
The first step in A/D encoding is called pulse amplitude modulation (PAM). This technique takes
analog information, samples it, and generates a series of pulses based on the results of sampling.
The term sampling means measuring the amplitude of the signal at equal time intervals. In PAM,
the original signal is sampled at equal intervals.
PAM has some applications, but it is not used by itself in data communications. However, it is the
first step in another very popular encoding method called pulse code modulation (PCM).

Figure 5.13: PAM

2. PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)

PCM is a general scheme for transmitting analog data in a digital and binary way, independent of
the complexity of the analog waveform. With PCM all forms of analog data like video, voice,
music and telemetry can be transferred.
3. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
Pulse Width Modulation refers to a method of carrying information on a train of pulses, the
information being encoded in the width of the pulses. In applications to motion control, it is not
exactly information we are encoding, but a method of controlling power in motors without
(significant) loss.
There are several schemes to accomplish this technique. One is to switch voltage on and off, and
let the current recirculate through diodes when the transistors have switched off.
In battery systems PWM is the most effective way to achieve a constant voltage for battery
charging by switching the system controller's power devices on and off.

6. MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing (or muxing) is a way of sending multiple signals or streams of information over a
communications link at the same time in the form of a single, complex signal; the receiver recovers
the separate signals, a process called demultiplexing (or demuxing).

In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing (sometimes contracted to muxing)

is a method by which multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into
one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in
telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried using one wire. Multiplexing
originated in telegraphy in the 1870s, and is now widely applied in communications. In telephony,
George Owen Squier is credited with the development of telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.

The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, such as a cable. The
multiplexing divides the capacity of the communication channel into several logical channels, one
for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as
demultiplexing, extracts the original channels on the receiver end. A device that performs the
multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs the reverse process is
called a demultiplexer (DEMUX or DMX).

Networks use multiplexing for two reasons:

• To make it possible for any network device to talk to any other network device
without having to dedicate a connection for each pair. This requires shared media;
• To make a scarce or expensive resource stretch further -- e.g., to send many signals
down each cable or fiber strand running between major metropolitan areas, or across one
satellite uplink.
 Figure 6.1: Multiplexing

6.1 Types of Multiplexing

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique which uses various frequencies to combine many
streams of data for sending signals over a medium for communication purpose. It carries frequency
to each data stream and later combines various modulated frequencies to transmission. When the
carrier is frequency, FDM is used. FDM is an analog technology. FDM divides the spectrum or
carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one user to each channel. Each user can use the
channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it. All channels are divided in such
a way that they do not overlap with each other. Channels are separated by guard bands. Guard
band is a frequency which is not used by either channel.

One of the most common applications for FDM is traditional radio and television broadcasting
from terrestrial, mobile or satellite stations, or cable television. Only one cable reaches a customer's
residential area, but the service provider can send multiple television channels or signals
simultaneously over that cable to all subscribers without interference. Receivers must tune to the
appropriate frequency (channel) to access the desired signal
 Figure 6.2: FDM
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as well. In TDM
the shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot. Each user can transmit data
within the provided time slot only. Digital signals are divided in frames, equivalent to time slot i.e.
frame of an optimal size which can be transmitted in given time slot.

TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and De-multiplexer are timely
synchronized and both switch to next channel simultaneously.

Figure 6.3: TCM

When channel A transmits its frame at one end, the De-multiplexer provides media to channel A
on the other end. As soon as the channel A’s time slot expires, this side switches to channel B. On
the other end, the De-multiplexer works in a synchronized manner and provides media to channel
B. Signals from different channels travel the path in interleaved manner.
A drawback to standard TDM is that each sending device has a reserved time slot in each cycle,
regardless of whether it is ready to transmit. This can result in empty slots and underutilization of
the multiplexed communication channel.

Statistical TDM (STDM) represents an improvement over standard TDM. In STDM, if a sender is
not ready to transmit in a cycle, the next sender that is ready can transmit. This reduces the number
of wasted slots and increases the utilization of the communication channel. STDM data blocks are
known as packets and must contain header information to identify the receiving destination.

Applications that use TDM include long-distance telephone service over a T-1 wire line and the
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) standard for cellular phones. STDM is used in
packet-switching networks for LAN and Internet communications.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Light has different wavelength (colors). It modulates many data streams on light spectrum. This
multiplexing is used in optical fiber. In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals are
multiplexed into an optical fiber by using different wavelengths. This is an analog multiplexing
technique and is done conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light as signals.

Figure 6.4: WDM

It is FDM optical equivalent. Various signals in WDM are optical signal that will be light and were
transmitted through optical fiber.WDM similar to FDM as it mixes many signals of different
frequencies into single signal and transfer on one link. Wavelength of wave is reciprocal to its
frequency, if wavelength increase then frequency decreases. Several light waves from many
sources are united to get light signal which will be transmitted across channel to receiver.

WDM used in Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). It utilizes various optical fiber lines that
are multiplexed and demultiplexed. Further, on each wavelength time division multiplexing can
be incorporated to accommodate more data signals.

4. Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexer (DWDM)

In Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing, an optical technology used to expand bandwidth onto
fiber optic. Bit rate and protocol are independent and these are the main advantage of DWDM.
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) operated by combining different signals
simultaneously at different wavelengths. On fiber is changed to multiple fibers. By increasing the
carrier capacity of fiber from 2.5 Gb/s to 20 Gb/s, an eight OC 48 signals can be multiplexed into
single fiber. Single fibers are able to transfer data at a speed upto 400 GB/s due to DWDM.DWDM
transfers data or information in IP, SONET, ATM and Ethernet It also carries different type of
traffic at a range of speeds on an optical channel.

Figure 6.5: DWDM

5. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
Code division multiplexing (CDM), Code division multiple access (CDMA) or spread spectrum is
a class of techniques where several channels simultaneously share the same frequency spectrum,
and this spectral bandwidth is much higher than the bit rate or symbol rate. One form is frequency
hopping, another is direct sequence spread spectrum. Multiple data signals can be transmitted over
a single frequency by using Code Division Multiplexing. FDM divides the frequency in smaller
channels but CDM allows its users to full bandwidth and transmit signals all the time using a
unique code. CDM uses orthogonal codes to spread signals.

Each channel transmits its bits as a coded channel-specific sequence of pulses called chips. Each
station is assigned with this unique code. Signals travel with these codes independently, inside the
whole bandwidth. The receiver knows in advance the chip code signal it has to receive. Number
of chips per bit, or chips per symbol, is the spreading factor. This coded transmission typically is
accomplished by transmitting a unique time-dependent series of short pulses, which are placed
within chip times within the larger bit time. All channels, each with a different code, can be
transmitted on.

Advantages over conventional techniques are that variable bandwidth is possible (just as in
statistical multiplexing) and it is more secure. CDM is widely used in digital television and radio
broadcasting and in 3G mobile cellular networks. Where CDM allows multiple signals from
multiple sources, it is called Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA). A significant application
of CDMA is the Global Positioning System (GPS).
the same fiber or radio channel or other medium, and asynchronously demultiplexed.

6. Polarization-division multiplexing
Polarization-division multiplexing uses the polarization of electromagnetic radiation to separate
orthogonal channels. It is in practical use in both radio and optical communications, particularly
in 100 Gbit/s per channel fiber optic transmission systems.

7. Orbital angular momentum multiplexing

Orbital angular momentum multiplexing is a relatively new and experimental technique for
multiplexing multiple channels of signals carried using electromagnetic radiation over a single
path. It can potentially be used in addition to other physical multiplexing methods to greatly expand
the transmission capacity of such systems.
8. Space-division multiplexing
In wired communication, space-division multiplexing is the use of separate point-to-point
electrical conductors for each transmitted channel. Examples include an analogue stereo audio
cable, with one pair of wires for the left channel and another for the right channel, and a multi-pair
telephone cable, a switched star network such as a telephone access network, a switched Ethernet
network, and a mesh network.

In wireless communication, space-division multiplexing is achieved with multiple antenna

elements forming a phased array antenna. Examples are multiple-input and multiple-output
(MIMO), single-input and multiple-output (SIMO) and multiple-input and single-output (MISO)
multiplexing.

6.2 Difference between Mux and Demux

• A Multiplexer is a device used to communicate by means of a medium with combination
of multiple signals.
• A DE multiplexer is a process of separating multiplexed signals from transmission line.
• Both Mux and DMux are mixed into single device which has the capability to process
outgoing and incoming signals
• An electronic multiplexer is a multiple-input, single-output switch.
• A DE multiplexer as a single-input, multiple-output switch
• MUX allows many signals to share one device.
• Example: one A/D converter or one communication line

Figure 6.6: Difference between MUX and Demux

6.3 Applications of Multiplexers
A Multiplexer is used in numerous applications like, where multiple data can be transmitted using
a single line.
Communication System – A Multiplexer is used in communication systems, which has a
transmission system and also a communication network. A Multiplexer is used to increase the
efficiency of the communication system by allowing the transmission of data such as audio &
video data from different channels via cables and single lines.
Computer Memory – A Multiplexer is used in computer memory to keep up a vast amount of
memory in the computers, and also to decrease the number of copper lines necessary to connect
the memory to other parts of the computer.
Telephone Network – A multiplexer is used in telephone networks to integrate the multiple audio
signals on a single line of transmission.
Transmission from the Computer System of a Satellite:
A Multiplexer is used to transmit the data signals from the computer system of a satellite to the
ground system by using a GSM communication.