Experiment 1

Experiment 1: Performance of Tensile Test to Obtain Tensile Properties of

Material

Objective:

To determine the tensile properties (such as tensile strength, yield strength, elongation, and
modulus of elasticity) of a given material by performing a tensile test.

Equipment:

1. Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

2. Extensometer
3. Specimen (metallic or non-metallic)
4. Vernier Caliper or Micrometer (for measuring dimensions)
5. Measuring Scale
6. Calibrated Ruler or Marker

Theory:

The tensile test is used to determine the behavior of a material when subjected to a uniaxial
tensile force. The specimen is pulled by the testing machine, and the stress-strain curve is
plotted. The following tensile properties can be determined:

 Tensile Strength: The maximum stress the material can withstand before breaking.
 Yield Strength: The stress at which a material begins to deform plastically.
 Young’s Modulus: The ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region of the material.
 Elongation: The increase in length of the material before fracture.

Procedure:

1. Preparation of Specimen:
o Cut the specimen into the desired shape (usually dog-bone shape) with known
dimensions (gauge length, cross-sectional area).
o Measure the initial length (L₀) and cross-sectional area (A₀) using a vernier caliper
or micrometer.
2. Setting Up the Test:
o Install the specimen in the grips of the Universal Testing Machine (UTM).
o Attach the extensometer to the specimen to measure elongation.
o Set the UTM to the desired load and deformation rates.
3. Conducting the Test:
o Begin the test by applying a uniaxial tensile force to the specimen.
o Record the force and corresponding elongation continuously throughout the test.
o The UTM will plot a stress-strain curve automatically, based on the applied force
and measured elongation.
 4. Data Collection:
o The force and elongation data are captured continuously. The following data
points need to be recorded:
 Maximum Load (Force)
 Fracture Point
 Yield Point
 Elongation at Break
 Stress and Strain values at different points
5. Post-Test:
o After the specimen fractures, remove the specimen from the testing machine.
o Measure the final length (L₁) and cross-sectional area (A₁) at the fracture point to
calculate the elongation.

Calculations:

 Tensile Strength (σₜ):

σt=FmaxA0\sigma_t = \frac{F_{\text{max}}}{A_0}σt=A0Fmax
Where:
o FmaxF_{\text{max}}Fmax = Maximum load at fracture
o A0A_0A0 = Initial cross-sectional area of the specimen
 Yield Strength (σₓ):
This can be determined from the stress-strain curve where the point of transition from
elastic to plastic deformation is marked.
 Modulus of Elasticity (E):
E=StressStrainE = \frac{\text{Stress}}{\text{Strain}}E=StrainStress in the linear
(elastic) region.
 Elongation (%):
Elongation=L1−L0L0×100\text{Elongation} = \frac{L_1 - L_0}{L_0} \times
100Elongation=L0L1−L0×100
Where:
o L0L_0L0 = Initial length of the specimen
o L1L_1L1 = Final length of the specimen after fracture

Results:

 The stress-strain curve will show the material's behavior under tension. From the curve,
the following properties can be determined:
o Yield Strength: The stress at the yield point.
o Ultimate Tensile Strength: The highest point on the stress-strain curve.
o Young's Modulus: The slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic region.
o Fracture Point: The point where the material breaks.

Conclusion:

The tensile test provides valuable information about the material's behavior under tension,
allowing for the determination of its tensile strength, yield strength, modulus of elasticity, and
ductility. These properties are essential for selecting materials for various structural applications
where tensile loads are expected.

Experiment 2

Experiment 2: Performance of Tensile Test to Obtain Stress-Strain Curve

Objective:

To perform a tensile test on a material sample and obtain the stress-strain curve, which helps in
understanding the material's mechanical properties such as tensile strength, yield strength,
elongation, and modulus of elasticity.

Apparatus:

1. Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

2. Material specimen (e.g., metal, plastic, or any other ductile material)
3. Vernier caliper (for measuring dimensions of the specimen)
4. Micrometer (if needed for precise measurements)
5. Extensometer (optional for precise elongation measurements)
6. Computer (for data collection and analysis)

Material:

The material sample should be uniform and free of defects. Common materials used include:

 Mild steel
 Aluminum
 Brass
 Polymers (for plastic samples)

Procedure:

1. Preparation of Specimen:
o Measure and record the initial dimensions (length, diameter, or cross-sectional
area) of the specimen using a vernier caliper or micrometer.
o Ensure the specimen has smooth, flat, and parallel ends (if using cylindrical or flat
specimens) to avoid stress concentration.
2. Setting Up the Universal Testing Machine (UTM):
o Install the specimen securely in the grips of the UTM.
o Set the machine to apply a controlled tensile load, starting from zero and
increasing gradually.
3. Conducting the Tensile Test:
o Start the test by applying a tensile load gradually at a constant rate of elongation.
o Continuously record the load (force) and the corresponding elongation
(displacement) as the specimen stretches.
 oIf available, use an extensometer to measure the elongation directly to avoid any
error due to deformation of the grips.
4. Recording Data:
o For each increment of elongation, record the applied load (force) and the
corresponding elongation or displacement.
o Continue the test until the specimen breaks, noting the maximum load before
failure (ultimate tensile strength).
5. Data Analysis:
o Calculate the engineering stress and engineering strain using the following
formulas:
 Engineering Stress (σ) = Force (F) / Original Cross-sectional Area (A₀)
 Engineering Strain (ε) = Elongation (ΔL) / Original Length (L₀)
o Plot the stress vs. strain graph (stress-strain curve).

Key points to identify on the stress-strain curve:

 Proportional limit: The point up to which stress and strain are

proportional.
 Yield strength: The point at which the material starts to deform
plastically.
 Ultimate tensile strength: The maximum stress the material can
withstand before failure.
 Fracture point: The point where the material breaks.
6. Observations:
o Note the type of fracture (ductile or brittle) and the overall behavior of the
material under tensile loading.
o Measure the elongation at failure to determine the material's ductility.

Results:

The stress-strain curve will provide the following information:

 Elastic Modulus (Young’s Modulus, E): The slope of the linear portion of the stress-
strain curve.
 Yield Strength: The stress at which plastic deformation begins.
 Ultimate Tensile Strength: The maximum stress the material can withstand.
 Fracture Strain: The total elongation at fracture, indicating ductility.

Discussion:

 The shape of the stress-strain curve depends on the material's properties. For ductile
materials, the curve will show an initial linear region (elastic deformation), followed by a
plastic deformation region, and then fracture. Brittle materials typically fracture after
elastic deformation without significant plastic behavior.
 Understanding the tensile properties of materials is crucial in designing structures and
components that will undergo tensile forces in practical applications.
Conclusion:

The tensile test provides valuable data about the strength and deformation behavior of materials.
By obtaining the stress-strain curve, we can assess material properties like yield strength, tensile
strength, and ductility, which are essential for selecting appropriate materials for engineering
applications.

Experiment 3: Performance of Compressive Test to Obtain Compressive

Properties of Material

Objective:
To determine the compressive properties of a material, including compressive strength, yield
strength, modulus of elasticity, and deformation behavior under compressive loading.

Apparatus Required:

1. Universal Testing Machine (UTM): For applying compressive force and measuring
deformation.
2. Compression Test Specimens: Cylindrical or rectangular specimens as per ASTM E9 or
equivalent standard.
3. Extensometer or Strain Gauges: For measuring deformation.
4. Vernier Caliper or Micrometer: To measure the dimensions of the specimen.
5. Computer with Data Acquisition System: For recording force and deformation.

Theory:

The compressive test is performed to study the behavior of materials under compressive loads.
The key parameters obtained include:

 Compressive Strength: Maximum compressive stress the material can withstand before
failure.
 Yield Strength: Stress at which the material starts to deform plastically.
 Modulus of Elasticity (E): Ratio of compressive stress to compressive strain in the
elastic region.

Procedure:

1. Preparation of Specimen:
 o Measure the initial dimensions of the specimen (length and diameter/width) using
a Vernier caliper or micrometer.
o Ensure the specimen is free from surface defects.
2. Setup of Universal Testing Machine (UTM):
o Place the specimen centrally between the compression platens of the UTM.
o Attach the extensometer or strain gauges to measure deformation.
3. Test Execution:
o Start the UTM and apply compressive load at a constant rate as per the standard
(e.g., ASTM E9).
o Record the load and corresponding deformation until the specimen fails or
reaches a predefined limit.
4. Data Collection:
o Use the data acquisition system to record the applied load and corresponding
deformation.
o Note the maximum load the specimen can withstand.
5. Analysis:
o Calculate the compressive stress using the formula:
Compressive Stress=Load (P)Cross-sectional Area (A)\text{Compressive Stress}
= \frac{\text{Load (P)}}{\text{Cross-sectional Area (A)}}
o Determine the compressive strain:
Compressive Strain=Change in Length (ΔL)Original Length (L)\text{Compressiv
e Strain} = \frac{\text{Change in Length (ΔL)}}{\text{Original Length (L)}}
o Plot the stress-strain curve and identify key properties:
 Yield strength
 Compressive strength
 Modulus of elasticity (slope in the elastic region)

Observations:

Original Max Yield Modulus of

Specimen Diameter/Width Compressive
Length Load Strength Elasticity
No. (mm) Strength (MPa)
(mm) (kN) (MPa) (GPa)
1
2

Calculations:

 Cross-sectional Area (A):

A=π(d2)2(for cylindrical specimens)A = \pi \left(\frac{d}{2}\right)^2 \quad \text{(for

cylindrical specimens)} A=Width×Height(for rectangular specimens)A = \text{Width}
\times \text{Height} \quad \text{(for rectangular specimens)}
  Compressive Stress:

σ=PA\sigma = \frac{P}{A}

 Compressive Strain:

ϵ=ΔLL\epsilon = \frac{\Delta L}{L}

 Modulus of Elasticity (E):

E=ΔσΔϵ(slope of stress-strain curve in elastic region)E = \frac{\Delta \sigma}{\Delta

\epsilon} \quad \text{(slope of stress-strain curve in elastic region)}

Result:

 Compressive Strength: ___ MPa

 Yield Strength: ___ MPa
 Modulus of Elasticity: ___ GPa

Conclusion:

The compressive test provided essential material properties that help in determining the
material’s behavior under compressive loads. These properties are crucial for designing
components subjected to compressive forces.

Precautions:

1. Ensure the specimen is properly aligned in the UTM to avoid eccentric loading.
2. Apply load gradually to prevent sudden failure.
3. Verify calibration of the UTM and extensometer for accurate readings.
4. Use specimens conforming to standard dimensions to ensure reliable results.

Experiment 4: Performance of Shear Test to Obtain Shear Properties of the

Material

Objective:

To determine the shear strength and shear modulus of a given material by conducting a shear
test.
Apparatus Required:

1. Shear testing machine (Universal Testing Machine with shear attachment)

2. Specimens (standard dimensions as per ASTM or ISO standards)
3. Micrometer or Vernier caliper (for measuring dimensions)
4. Dial gauge (optional, for accurate displacement measurement)
5. Data recording system

Theory:

Shear stress is defined as the force per unit area acting parallel to the plane of the material. The
shear test helps in determining the material's response to shear loading and its ultimate shear
strength.

Shear Stress (τ):

τ=FA\tau = \frac{F}{A}

Where:

 FF = Applied force (N)

 AA = Cross-sectional area under shear (mm²)

Shear Modulus (G):

The ratio of shear stress to shear strain in the elastic region.

Procedure:

1. Preparation:

 Select a specimen of standard dimensions.

 Measure the initial dimensions (thickness and width) of the specimen using a micrometer
or Vernier caliper.
 Note the cross-sectional area AA.

2. Setup:

 Fix the specimen securely in the shear test attachment of the universal testing machine.
 Ensure proper alignment to avoid eccentric loading.
3. Testing:

 Gradually apply the load using the testing machine.

 Record the load values at regular intervals.
 Note the maximum load FmaxF_{\text{max}} at which the specimen fails.

4. Calculation:

 Calculate the shear stress using the formula: τ=FmaxA\tau = \frac{F_{\text{max}}}{A}

 Plot a graph of shear stress vs. shear strain (if strain data is available).
 Determine the shear modulus GG from the slope of the elastic region of the graph.

5. Repeat:

 Repeat the experiment for multiple specimens to ensure accuracy and consistency.

Observations and Calculations:

Specimen Force Applied FmaxF_{\text{max}} Area AA Shear Stress τ\tau

No. (N) (mm²) (MPa)
1
2
3

Result:

 The shear strength of the material is calculated as the average maximum shear stress at
failure.
 The shear modulus is obtained from the slope of the stress-strain graph (if applicable).

Precautions:

1. Ensure the specimen is properly aligned and secured to avoid uneven loading.
2. Apply the load gradually to prevent dynamic effects.
3. Take accurate measurements of the specimen dimensions.

Conclusion:
The experiment helps determine the shear strength and shear modulus of the material, which are
crucial for designing components subjected to shear loads.

Experiment 5: Performance of Bending Test to Obtain Bending Properties of

Material

Objective:

To determine the bending properties of a material by performing a three-point or four-point

bending test, and to calculate parameters such as the flexural strength, flexural modulus, and the
bending strain.

Apparatus Required:

1. Universal Testing Machine (UTM) with bending test fixture (three-point or four-point
setup)
2. Test specimen (standard dimensions based on material type)
3. Vernier caliper or micrometer (for accurate measurement of specimen dimensions)
4. Computer/software for data acquisition (if applicable)
5. Safety equipment (gloves, goggles)

Theory:

Bending tests measure the behavior of materials under flexural loading. Key properties obtained
include:

 Flexural Strength: The maximum stress experienced by the outermost fibers of the
specimen before failure.
 Flexural Modulus: The ratio of stress to strain in the elastic deformation region.
 Bending Strain: The strain experienced by the material under the bending load.

For a rectangular cross-section, these properties are calculated as follows:

1. Flexural Stress (σf\sigma_f):

σf=3FL2bd2(Three-point bending)\sigma_f = \frac{3FL}{2bd^2} \quad \text{(Three-

point bending)} σf=F(L1+L2)4bd2(Four-point bending)\sigma_f =
\frac{F(L1+L2)}{4bd^2} \quad \text{(Four-point bending)}

where:

o FF = Load applied at the midpoint

 o LL = Span length between supports
o bb = Width of the specimen
o dd = Thickness of the specimen
o L1,L2L1, L2 = Distances between the inner and outer supports (for four-point
bending)
2. Flexural Modulus (EfE_f):

Ef=L3m4bd3(Three-point bending)E_f = \frac{L^3m}{4bd^3} \quad \text{(Three-point

bending)} Ef=(L23−L13)m4bd3(Four-point bending)E_f = \frac{(L2^3 -
L1^3)m}{4bd^3} \quad \text{(Four-point bending)}

where mm is the slope of the initial linear portion of the load-deflection curve.

3. Bending Strain (ϵf\epsilon_f):

ϵf=6DdL2\epsilon_f = \frac{6Dd}{L^2}

where DD is the maximum deflection at the midpoint.

Procedure:

1. Preparation:
o Measure the dimensions (width bb and thickness dd) of the test specimen using a
Vernier caliper or micrometer.
o Set up the bending fixture (three-point or four-point) on the UTM.
2. Test Setup:
o Place the specimen on the bending supports.
o Ensure the load applicator (or the central loading pin for three-point bending) is
positioned correctly.
3. Loading:
o Start the test by applying load at a constant rate (as per the relevant standard, e.g.,
ASTM D790).
o Record the load and deflection data until the specimen fails or reaches the desired
deflection limit.
4. Data Recording:
o Note the maximum load at failure (FmaxF_{max}) and corresponding deflection.
o Record the load-deflection curve if using a data acquisition system.
5. Calculations:
o Calculate flexural strength, flexural modulus, and bending strain using the
formulas provided.
6. Repeat:
o Perform the test for multiple specimens to ensure consistency and accuracy.
Observations:

Span Max Max Flexural

Specimen Width Thickness Flexural Stress
Length Load Deflection Modulus
No. (b) (d) (σf\sigma_f)
(L) (F) (D) (EfE_f)
1
2
...

Precautions:

1. Ensure proper alignment of the specimen to avoid erroneous results.

2. Follow safety guidelines when operating the UTM.
3. Avoid overloading the machine beyond its capacity.
4. Ensure consistent specimen dimensions for accurate comparison.

Conclusion:

Summarize the material's bending properties based on the calculated flexural strength, flexural
modulus, and bending strain. Highlight any observed trends or anomalies in the data.

Experiment 6: Performance of Brinell Hardness Test

Objective:

To determine the Brinell hardness number (BHN) of a given material by using the Brinell
hardness testing method.

Apparatus Required:

1. Brinell hardness testing machine

2. Indenter (steel or tungsten carbide ball, typically 10 mm in diameter)
3. Test specimens (mild steel, aluminum, brass, etc.)
4. Microscope or measuring device with a calibrated scale
5. Surface preparation tools (sandpaper, cloth)

Theory:
The Brinell hardness test determines the hardness of a material by pressing a hard steel or
tungsten carbide ball into the surface under a specified load. The diameter of the indentation is
measured, and the hardness is calculated using the following formula:

BHN=2PπD(D−D2−d2)\text{BHN} = \frac{2P}{\pi D \left( D - \sqrt{D^2 - d^2} \right)}

Where:

 PP = applied load (kgf)

 DD = diameter of the ball indenter (mm)
 dd = diameter of the indentation (mm)

Procedure:

1. Preparation of Specimen
o Ensure the surface of the specimen is clean, smooth, and free from scale or
coatings. Use sandpaper or a polishing cloth if necessary.
2. Setup of the Brinell Hardness Tester
o Select the appropriate load based on the material to be tested and the size of the
indenter (typically 500 to 3000 kgf).
o Place the specimen securely on the anvil of the machine.
3. Applying the Load
o Lower the indenter onto the surface of the specimen until it makes contact.
o Apply the load gradually and hold it for a specified dwell time (usually 10-15
seconds).
o Release the load gently.
4. Measuring the Indentation
o Remove the specimen from the machine.
o Use a microscope or calibrated measuring device to measure the diameter of the
indentation in at least two perpendicular directions and take the average value
(dd).
5. Calculation of Brinell Hardness Number (BHN)
o Substitute the values of PP, DD, and dd into the BHN formula to calculate the
hardness.

Observations:

Record your observations in the following format:

Load (P) Indenter Diameter (D) Indentation Diameter (d)

Material BHN
(kgf) (mm) (mm)
Mild Steel
 Load (P) Indenter Diameter (D) Indentation Diameter (d)
Material BHN
(kgf) (mm) (mm)
Aluminum
Brass

Precautions:

1. Ensure the test specimen surface is clean and smooth.

2. Apply the load gradually to avoid sudden impact.
3. Take accurate measurements of the indentation diameter to ensure correct calculations.
4. Use an appropriate load for the material to avoid over-penetration or surface damage.

Conclusion:

 Compare the BHN values of different materials.

 Discuss the relationship between hardness and material properties like strength and wear
resistance.

Experiment 7: Performance of Vickers Hardness Test

Objective

To determine the Vickers hardness number (VHN) of a given material specimen by performing
the Vickers hardness test.

Apparatus and Materials Required

1. Vickers Hardness Testing Machine

2. Material specimen (e.g., mild steel, aluminum, brass)
3. Magnifying eyepiece or microscope
4. Measuring scale for indentation
5. Cleaning cloth

Theory

The Vickers Hardness Test determines the hardness of materials by measuring the size of the
indentation produced by a diamond pyramid-shaped indenter under a specified load. The Vickers
hardness number (VHN) is calculated using the following formula:
VHN=1.854×Pd2\text{VHN} = \frac{1.854 \times P}{d^2}

Where:

 P = Applied load in kgf

 d = Mean diagonal length of the indentation in mm

Procedure

1. Preparation of the Specimen:

o Clean the surface of the specimen to remove dirt, grease, or any other impurities.
o Ensure the surface is smooth and flat for accurate indentation.
2. Setting Up the Machine:
o Switch on the Vickers hardness testing machine.
o Select an appropriate load (e.g., 5 kgf, 10 kgf, etc.) based on the material type and
thickness.
3. Indentation Process:
o Place the specimen on the testing platform.
o Align the specimen under the indenter.
o Lower the indenter onto the specimen by applying the selected load.
o Hold the load for 10-15 seconds and then release it.
4. Measurement of Indentation:
o Use the magnifying eyepiece or microscope to observe the indentation.
o Measure the two diagonals of the square-shaped indentation (d1 and d2) using the
microscope scale.
o Calculate the mean diagonal length, d=d1+d22d = \frac{d1 + d2}{2}.
5. Calculation of Vickers Hardness Number (VHN):
o Use the formula to calculate the VHN: VHN=1.854×Pd2\text{VHN} =
\frac{1.854 \times P}{d^2}
6. Repeat the Process:
o Perform the test at least three times on different areas of the specimen.
o Record all observations and take the average VHN value for accuracy.

Observations

Specimen Material Load (P) Diagonal 1 (d1) Diagonal 2 (d2) Mean Diagonal (d) VHN

Precautions

1. Ensure the specimen surface is clean and smooth.

2. Do not exceed the load limit of the testing machine.
 3. Avoid parallax errors while measuring the diagonals.
4. Ensure the indentation is not too close to the specimen's edge.

Result

The Vickers hardness number of the given specimen is calculated and recorded as an average of
multiple observations.

Conclusion

The experiment demonstrates the hardness of the material, which is an essential property for
assessing its suitability for various engineering applications.

Experiment 8: Performance of Torsion Test to Obtain Torsional Properties of

Material

Objective

To determine the torsional properties of a material, including modulus of rigidity (shear

modulus), torsional strength, and the shear stress-strain behavior under torsional loading.

Apparatus Required

 Torsion testing machine

 Specimen (cylindrical or tubular rod of the material to be tested)
 Vernier caliper (for diameter measurement)
 Protractor (for measuring angle of twist)
 Torque wrench or digital torque meter
 Dial gauge (optional, for precise twist measurement)

Theory

Torsion occurs when a moment or torque is applied to a material, causing it to twist. The
relationship between torque TT, shear stress τ\tau, and angle of twist θ\theta can be expressed as:

1. Shear Stress:

τ=T⋅rJ\tau = \frac{T \cdot r}{J}

Where:

o TT = applied torque
 orr = radius of the specimen
oJJ = polar moment of inertia (J=πd432 for solid circular shaft)(J = \frac{\pi
d^4}{32} \text{ for solid circular shaft})
2. Angle of Twist:

θ=T⋅LG⋅J\theta = \frac{T \cdot L}{G \cdot J}

Where:

o LL = length of the specimen

o GG = modulus of rigidity (shear modulus)

Procedure

1. Preparation of the Specimen:

o Measure the diameter (dd) and length (LL) of the specimen using a vernier
caliper.
o Mount the specimen securely in the torsion testing machine.
2. Initial Setup:
o Set the machine to zero torque and zero twist position.
3. Application of Torque:
o Gradually apply torque to the specimen while simultaneously recording the
corresponding angle of twist.
o Continue increasing the torque until the specimen fails or a predefined torque
limit is reached.
4. Data Recording:
o Record the applied torque (TT) and the angle of twist (θ\theta) at regular intervals.
o Note the maximum torque before failure.
5. Calculation:
o Compute the shear stress (τ\tau) for each torque using τ=T⋅rJ\tau = \frac{T \cdot
r}{J}.
o Calculate the modulus of rigidity (GG) from the linear portion of the torque vs.
angle of twist graph.
6. Observation of Failure:
o Note the type of failure (brittle or ductile) and the behavior of the material under
torsion.

Observations and Data Table

Torque (T) Angle of Twist (θ\theta) Shear Stress (τ\tau) Modulus of Rigidity (GG)

Graphs

 Plot Torque (T) vs Angle of Twist (θ\theta).

 Plot Shear Stress (τ\tau) vs Shear Strain (γ\gamma).
Results

 Modulus of Rigidity (GG):

Obtained from the slope of the linear portion of the torque vs. angle of twist graph.
 Maximum Shear Stress (τmax\tau_{\text{max}}):
Calculated at the point of failure.
 Torsional Strength:
Maximum torque sustained by the specimen.

Conclusion

Summarize the torsional properties of the tested material and compare them with standard
values, if available.

Precautions

 Ensure the specimen is properly aligned to avoid bending stresses.

 Apply torque gradually to prevent sudden failure.
 Use appropriate safety gear during the test.

Experiment 9: Performance of Torsion Test to Obtain Torque-Twist Curve (T-T

Curve)

Objective:

To determine the torsional properties of a given material and plot the Torque-Twist (T-T) curve.

Apparatus:

1. Torsion testing machine

2. Specimen (circular shaft or cylindrical rod, typically of mild steel, aluminum, or brass)
3. Protractor or angular scale
4. Torque wrench or load cell
5. Vernier caliper
6. Ruler or tape for length measurement
7. Computer/software (for plotting T-T curve, optional)

Theory:
The torsion test measures a material's response to a twisting moment or torque. It is used to
determine properties such as modulus of rigidity (G), shear stress (τ), and shear strain (γ).

Key Formulas:

1. Torsional Shear Stress:

τ=T⋅rJ\tau = \frac{T \cdot r}{J}

where:

oTT = Applied torque (Nm)

orr = Radius of the specimen (m)
oJJ = Polar moment of inertia (for a solid circular shaft, J=πd432J = \frac{\pi
d^4}{32})
2. Shear Strain:

γ=θ⋅rL\gamma = \frac{\theta \cdot r}{L}

where:

θ\theta = Angle of twist (radians)

o
o
LL = Gauge length (m)
3. Modulus of Rigidity (G):

G=τγG = \frac{\tau}{\gamma}

Procedure:

1. Preparation:
o Measure and record the dimensions of the specimen (length LL, diameter dd).
o Mount the specimen securely in the torsion testing machine.
2. Set Zero Reference:
o Ensure the machine reads zero for both torque and angle of twist at the start.
3. Apply Torque:
o Gradually apply torque to the specimen and record the corresponding angle of
twist.
o Take readings at regular intervals until the specimen yields or fractures.
4. Data Recording:
o For each applied torque value, record the corresponding angle of twist.
5. Failure Observation:
o Continue applying torque until the specimen fails, noting the maximum torque
value.
6. Plot T-T Curve:
 o Plot a graph of Torque (T) vs. Angle of Twist (θ\theta) using the recorded data.
o Identify elastic and plastic regions.

Calculations:

1. Polar Moment of Inertia (J): Calculate based on specimen dimensions.

2. Shear Stress (τ\tau) and Shear Strain (γ\gamma): Calculate for each recorded torque
and twist angle.
3. Modulus of Rigidity (G): Determine from the slope of the linear (elastic) region of the
T-T curve.

Results:

 Plot the T-T curve and identify key points such as the yield torque and ultimate torque.
 Calculate the modulus of rigidity (G) from the curve.
 Compare the experimental results with the theoretical or standard values for the material.

Discussion:

 Analyze the behavior of the material under torsional loading.

 Discuss the accuracy of the experiment, sources of error, and ways to minimize them.
 Compare results with other materials (if available) to highlight differences in torsional
properties.

Conclusion:

 Summarize the torsional properties obtained from the experiment, including the modulus
of rigidity and the material's performance under torsion.

Precautions:

1. Ensure the specimen is properly mounted to avoid slippage.

2. Apply torque gradually to prevent sudden failure.
3. Take accurate readings of torque and twist angle.
Experiment 10: Performance of Impact Test to Determine the Impact Strength
of Materials

Objective:

To determine the impact strength of materials by performing impact tests using a pendulum-type
impact testing machine (Charpy or Izod test).

Apparatus:

1. Impact Testing Machine (Pendulum Type)

o Charpy Test Setup
o Izod Test Setup
2. Test Specimens:
o Different materials (e.g., mild steel, aluminum, brass, etc.)
o Standard dimensions as per ASTM E23 or equivalent
3. Vernier Caliper or Micrometer (for dimensional accuracy)
4. Safety Equipment:
o Safety goggles
o Gloves

Theory:

The impact test measures a material's ability to resist sudden impact. The test provides an impact
energy value, which is a measure of the toughness of the material.

 Charpy Test: The specimen is supported horizontally and struck behind a notch.
 Izod Test: The specimen is clamped vertically and struck at the notch.

The energy absorbed by the material to fracture under the impact is recorded as the impact
strength.

Procedure:

1. Preparation of Specimens:
o Ensure specimens are of standard dimensions.
o Create a notch on each specimen as per the testing standard.
2. Machine Setup:
 o Calibrate the impact testing machine.
o Select the desired test (Charpy or Izod) and position the pendulum accordingly.
3. Test Execution:
o Place the specimen in the appropriate position:
 For Charpy, lay the specimen horizontally across supports.
 For Izod, fix the specimen vertically.
o Raise the pendulum to a specified height and lock it.
o Release the pendulum to strike the specimen.
4. Record Observations:
o Note the reading from the machine. It indicates the energy absorbed by the
specimen during fracture (measured in Joules).
o Repeat the test for different materials and multiple specimens for accuracy.

Observations and Calculations:

Specimen Type of Notch Energy Absorbed Impact Strength

Material Test Type (Joules) (J/m²)
Mild Steel Charpy V-notch
Aluminum Izod U-notch
Brass Charpy V-notch

Results:

The impact strength of the materials can be calculated using the formula:

Impact Strength=Energy Absorbed (J)Cross-sectional Area of the Notch (m²)\text{Impact

Strength} = \frac{\text{Energy Absorbed (J)}}{\text{Cross-sectional Area of the Notch (m²)}}

Conclusion:

Based on the recorded data, compare the impact strength of different materials. Discuss the
material’s toughness and its suitability for applications requiring resistance to sudden impacts.

Precautions:

1. Ensure the specimen dimensions and notches are accurate.

2. Handle the pendulum with care to avoid injury.
3. Perform the test in a controlled environment to avoid external influences.
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