Lec 6 analog

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Lecture Content
Distortion Caused by Multipath Effects

Subject: Distortion Caused by Multipath Ef-

fects
A multipath transmission takes place when a transmitted signal arrives at
the receiver by two or more paths of different delays. The transmission chan-
nel can be represented as several channels in parallel, each with a different
relative attenuation and a different time delay. Assume that two paths are
considered: one with unit gain and a delay td , and the other with a gain α
and a delay td + δt. The overall transfer function is H(ω), which is given by:

H(ω) = e−jωtd + αe−jω(td +δt)

= e−jωtd 1 + αe−jωδt
 

= e−jωtd [1 + α(cos(ωδt) − j sin(ωδt))]

p
= 1 + α2 + 2α cos(ωδt)ej(ϕ)
 
α sin(ωδt)
where ϕ = −ωtd + arctan 1+α cos(ωδt)
. Therefore, the multipaths cause
nonlinearity.
Fading Channels and Signal Energy

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 (input) at (0,0) Transmitted signal; (delay1) at (3,0) [draw] Delay td ;
(alpha) at (6,0) α; (delay2) at (9,0) [draw] Delay td + δt; (sum) at (11,0) Σ;
(output) at (13,0) Received signal; [-¿] (input) – (delay1); [-¿] (delay1) –
(alpha); [-¿] (alpha) – (delay2); [-¿] (delay2) – (sum); [-¿] (sum) – (output);
at (7.5,-1.5) H(ω); [dashed] (2,-2) to [out=-20,in=160] (12,-2); (2,-2) to
[out=-20,in=160] (12,-2); [-¿] (12,-2.5) to [out=-30,in=90] (13,-3); [-¿]
(13,-3) – (14,-3) node[right] ω; [-¿] (11,-3) to [out=-150,in=0] (10,-3.5) to
[out=180,in=-30] (7,-3.5) to [out=150,in=-90] (6,-3); [-¿] (6,-3) – (5,-3)
node[left] |H(ω)|;

Figure 1: Multipath Transmission

Fading Channels
The effect of channel changes the signals semiperiodically and randomly caus-
ing random attenuations of the signals. This phenomenon is known as fading.
One way to reduce this effect is to use automatic gain control (AGC). Fading
may be strongly frequency dependent where different frequency components
are affected unequally. Such fading is known as frequency-selective fading.

Signal Energy and Energy Spectral Density

The energy of the signal is known as the area under |g(t)|2 . We can determine
the signal energy from G(ω) using Parseval’s theorem.

Parseval’s Theorem
Z ∞ Z ∞
Eg = 2
|g(t)| dt = g(t)g ∗ (t)dt
−∞ −∞
Z ∞  Z ∞ 
1 ∗ jωt
= g(t) G (ω)e dω dt
−∞ 2π −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞ 
1 ∗ −jωt
Eg = G (ω) g(t)e dt dω
2π −∞ −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 ∗ 1
= G (ω)G(ω)dω = |G(ω)|2 dω
2π −∞ 2π −∞

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 Parseval’s Theorem Verification Subject: Example Date: Verify Par-
seval’s Theorem for the signal g(t) = e−at u(t) (a > 0) We have the energy of
the signal as:
Z ∞ Z ∞
1
Eg = 2
g (t) dt = e−2at dt = (1)
−∞ 0 2a
Parseval’s theorem states that:
Z ∞
1
Eg = |G(ω)|2 dω
2π −∞

where G(ω) is the Fourier Transform of g(t). The Fourier Transform of g(t)
is:
1
G(ω) =
a + jω
Then,
1
|G(ω)|2 = 2
a + ω2
Substituting this into Parseval’s theorem:
Z ∞   ∞
1 1 1 −1 ω 1
Eg = 2 2
dω = tan = (2)
2π −∞ a + ω 2πa a −∞ 2a
which verifies Parseval’s theorem. Energy Spectral Density (ESD) ESD
is:
Ψg (ω) = |G(ω)|2
The ESD of the signal g(t) = e−at u(t) is:
1
Ψg (ω) = |G(ω)|2 = (3)
a2 + ω 2
Essential Bandwidth of a Signal

Subject
Essential Bandwidth of a Signal
Most of the signal energy is contained within a certain band B Hz, and
the energy content of the components of frequencies greater than B Hz is
negligible. This band is known as the essential bandwidth. The criterion for
selecting B depends on the error tolerance in a particular application.

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Example
Estimate the essential bandwidth W rad/sec of the signal e−at if the essential
band is required to contain 95% of the signal energy. Solution: Given
1 1
G(ω) = a+jω , we have |G(ω)|2 = a2 +ω 2 . The total energy is given by:

Z ∞ Z ∞
1 2 1 1 1
E= |G(ω)| dω = dω =
2π −∞ 2π −∞ a2 + ω 2 2a

We want to find W such that 95% of the energy is contained within the band
−W ≤ ω ≤ W : Z W
1 1 1
0.95 × = dω
2a 2π −W a + ω 2
2

Z W
1 1
0.95 = dω
πa 0 1 + ( ωa )2
 
1 h −1 ω
 iW 1 −1 W
0.95 = a tan = tan
πa a 0 π a
 
W
tan−1 = 0.95π
a
W
= tan(0.95π)
a
W ≈ 12.7a rad/sec
This means that the spectral components of g(t) in the band 0 → 12.7a
rad/sec contribute 95% of the total energy; other remaining spectral compo-
nents contribute only 5%.
Essential Bandwidth of a Rectangular Pulse

Example
Estimate the essential bandwidth of a rectangular pulse g(t) = rect Tt ,

where the essential bandwidth is to contain at least 99% of the pulse energy.

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Energy of Modulated Signals
Let ϕ(t) = g(t) cos(ω0 t). Then,
1
Φ(ω) = [G(ω + ω0 ) + G(ω − ω0 )]
2
The energy spectral density (ESD) is given by:
1
ESD = |Φ(ω)|2 = |G(ω + ω0 )|2 + |G(ω − ω0 )|2

if ω0 ≥ 2ωB
4
where G(ω + ω0 ) and G(ω − ω0 ) are non-overlapping.

ESD of the Input and the Output

If g(t) and y(t) are the input and output of a linear time-invariant (LTI)
system, then
Y (ω) = H(ω)G(ω)
|Y (ω)|2 = |H(ω)|2 |G(ω)|2
Thus, the output signal ESD is |H(ω)|2 times the input signal ESD.

Signal Power and Power Spectral Density

The signal power is defined as:
Z T /2
1
Pg = lim g 2 (t)dt
T →∞ T −T /2

The power spectral density is:

 Z ∞ 
Eg 1 1 2
Pg = lim = lim |G(ω)| dω
T →∞ T T →∞ T 2π −∞

Subject Z ∞
1
Pg = |G(w)|2 dw
2πT −∞

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 |G(ω)|2
Power spectral density (PSD) = S(ω) = limT →∞ T
Z ∞
1
Pg = S(ω)dω
2π 0

1 ∞
Z
= S(ω)dω
π 0
using ω = 2πf Z ∞
Pg = 2 S(ω)df
0

Example A noise signal ni (t) with PSD Sni (ω) = K is applied at the input
of an ideal differentiator. Determine the PSD and the power of the output
noise signal no (t). Solution The transfer function of an ideal differentiator
is H(ω) = jω. If the noise at the demodulator output is no (t), then Sno (ω) =
|H(ω)|2 Sni (ω) = (ω 2 )K The output PSD Sno (ω) is parabolic.
2πB 2πB
8π 3 B 3 K
Z Z
1 2
No = Kω dω = K ω 2 dω =
2π −2πB −2πB 3

Power Spectral Density and Ideal Integrator

Subject
Example A noise signal ni (t) with PSD Sni (ω) = K1 is applied at the input
of an ideal integrator. Determine PSD and the power of the output noise
signal no (t).
Amplitude (Linear) Modulation

Subject: Amplitude (Linear) Modulation

Modulation is a process that causes a shift in the range of frequencies in a
signal.

Baseband and Carrier Modulation

In baseband communication, the signal is transmitted without modulation,
without any shift in the range of frequencies of the signal. It is suitable to

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 diagram.png

Figure 2: Power spectral density at the input and output of a differentiator

be transmitted over a pair of wires, coaxial cables, or optical fibers. Carrier

communication is a communication that uses modulation; it shifts the fre-
quency to high frequency in order to enable efficient power radiation using
an antenna of reasonable dimensions.

Amplitude Modulation: Double Sideband (DSB)

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude A of the carrier A cos(ωc t+θ) is var-
ied in proportion to the baseband signal m(t) (modulating signal). Assume
that θ = 0.
m(t) ⇐⇒ M (ω)
1
m(t) cos(ωc t) ⇐⇒ [M (ω + ωc ) + M (ω − ωc )]
2

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 diagram2.png

If the bandwidth of m(t) is B Hz, the bandwidth of the modulated signal

is 2B Hz. The modulated signal does not contain a discrete component of
ωc . For this reason, it is called double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)
modulation.
DSB-SC Modulation and Demodulation

Subject
To avoid the overlap of the spectra centered at ωc and −ωc , we use ωc ≥ 2πB.

Modulation
The modulating signal m(t) is multiplied by a carrier signal cos(ωc t) to pro-
duce the modulated signal m(t) cos(ωc t). The spectrum of m(t) is denoted

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 modulation_diagram.png

Figure 3: DSB-SC Modulation Diagram

by M (ω). The modulated signal’s spectrum is shown below: The spectrum

shows two sidebands: the upper sideband (USB) and the lower sideband
(LSB). The bandwidth of each sideband is equal to the bandwidth of the
modulating signal, B. The separation between the sidebands is 2ωc .

Demodulation
The received modulated signal m(t) cos(ωc t) is multiplied by the carrier signal
cos(ωc t) and then passed through a low-pass filter (LPF). The output of the
LPF is 12 m(t).

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 frequency_spectrum.png

Figure 4: Frequency Spectrum of the Modulated Signal

Conclusion
This illustrates Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) modulation
and demodulation. The condition ωc ≥ 2πB ensures that the sidebands do
not overlap.
Modulation and Demodulation

Demodulation
The process of recovering the signal from the modulated signal is referred to
as demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the same as modulation; it
consists of multiplication of a signal (modulated signal) by a carrier cos ωc t

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 demodulation_diagram.png

Figure 5: DSB-SC Demodulation Diagram

followed by a Low Pass Filter (LPF).

1
e(t) = m(t) cos2 ωc t = [m(t) + m(t) cos 2ωc t]
2
1 1
E(ω) = M (ω) + [M (ω + 2ωc ) + M (ω − 2ωc )]
2 4
The term M (ω + 2ωc ) + M (ω − 2ωc ) is suppressed by the LPF. The process of
recovering the signal is called synchronous detection or coherent detection.

Modulators
Modulation can be achieved by:

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 1. Multiplier Modulator: Modulation is achieved directly by multiply-
ing m(t) by cos ωc t using an analog multiplier.

2. Nonlinear Modulators: Modulation can be achieved by using non-

linear devices such as a semiconductor diode or a transistor.
Subject Let us assume the relation between input and output by

y(t) = ax(t) + bx2 (t)

where x(t), y(t) are the input and output respectively.

z(t) = y1 (t) − y2 (t) = [ax1 (t) + bx21 (t)] − [ax2 (t) + bx22 (t)]

Let x1 (t) = cos(ωc t) + m(t) and x2 (t) = cos(ωc t) − m(t).

diagram.png

Figure 6: Block diagram

z(t) = 2am(t) + 4bm(t) cos(ωc t)

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Using a bandpass filter (BPF) centered at ±ωc , the output is 4bm(t) cos(ωc t).
This type of modulator is known as a single balanced modulator. Switching
Modulators The modulation can be achieved by multiplying m(t) by a
periodic signal f (t) using trigonometric Fourier series:
∞
X
ϕ(t) = Cn cos(nωc t + θn )
n=0

∞
X
m(t)ϕ(t) = Cn m(t) cos(nωc t + θn )
n=0

The spectrum of m(t)ϕ(t) is the spectrum M (ω) shifted to ±nωc .

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