PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

2024-2025

CONSTRUCTING A SWITCH USING A TRANSISTOR

Submitted by:

Name: TM.Elamaran

Grade: XII
CHETTINADU PUBLIC SCHOOL

Managiri, Karaikudi – 630 307.

 Managiri, Karaikudi – 630 307.

Bonafide Certificate

This is to certify that the Physics project entitled “Constructing switch using a
Transistor” has been completed and submitted by the candidate TM.Elamaran of Grade XII,
Chettinad Public School for the practical examination conducted by CBSE for the year 2024-
2025.

It is further certified that the said project is the original work of the candidate under the
guidance of the Physics teacher.

Date: PRINCIPAL

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 Acknowledgement

I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to our beloved Principal Mrs.Usha
Kumari, M.Sc.,B.Ed., for her cordial care, valuable guidance and information throughout the
execution of this assignment.

I also take this opportunity to put forth my heartfelt thanks and regards to my Physics
teacher Mrs.G.Thennila, M.Sc., M.A., B.Ed., for her continuous incredible support and
supervision in the conduct of experiments and preparation of this project report. I could not have
brought the project report to this present shape without her sincere and dedicated supervision.

I am naturally indebted to the School management for providing me quality apparatus in

the Physics laboratory to accomplish this exciting project.

I also thank the Almighty, my parents, other faculty members and my friends for their
consistent encouragement and support during my school days.

TM.Elamaran
 INDEX

INTRODUCTION
AIM
MATERIALS REQUIRED
THEORY
PROCEDURE
OBSERVATIONS
RESULTS
PRECAUTIONS
SOURCE OF ERROR
REFERENCES
 INTRODUCTION:

There is great need of batteries in our daily use electronic appliances and
the use is increasing every day. Thus, the batteries need to be made more powerful so that their
potential can be increased greatly. Thus, this project is based on practical analysis for the
factors affecting the resistance of a cell. When the internal resistance of the cell is decreased
we can increase the potential difference across it, and hence make it more reliable.
Internal resistance is the resistance in the flow of current when the circuit gets because
of electrolyte and electrodes present in the battery/cell. It is present within the cell. Measure
in ohm. Fresh cell has low internal resistance but increases with continuous use.
Internal resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of current offered by the cells
and batteries themselves resulting in the generation of heat. Internal resistance is measured in
Ohms. The relationship between internal resistance (r) and emf (e) of cell s given by.
e = I (r + R)
Where, e = EMF i.e. electromotive force (Volts), I = current (A), R = Load resistance, and r
is the internal resistance of cell measured in ohms.
On rearranging the above equation we get;
e = IR + Ir or, e = V + Ir
In the above equation, V is the potential difference (terminal) across the cell when the
current (I) is flowing through the circuit.
 AIM:

To study the various factors on which the internal resistance/EMF of a cell depends

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

 Potentiometer
 Battery
 Two way keys
 Rheostat
 Galvanometer
 High resistance
 Ammeter
 Cell
 Jockey
 Set square
 Connecting wires

THEORY

The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered by its electrolyte to the flow
of ions. The internal resistance of a cell is
o Directly proportional to the distance between the electrodes.
o Is inversely proportional to facing surface area of the electrodes in electrolyte.
o Decreases with increase in temperature of electrolyte.
o In inversely proportional to concentration of electrolyte
the internal resistance of a cell is given by
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make tight connections
according to the circuit diagram.
Tighten the plugs of the resistance box
Check the EMF of the battery is more than that of the cell and make sure that e.m.f. of
the battery is more than that of the cell, otherwise mill or balance point will not be
obtained.

To study variation of internal resistance with distance of separation

Keep both the electrodes at a distance of 16 сm.
Take maximum current from the battery, making rheostat resistance small.
Without inserting a plug in key K., adjust the rheostat so that a null point is obtained
on the last wire of the potentiometer.
 Determine the position of the null point accurately using a set square and measure the
balancing length (1) between the null point and the end P.
Next introduce plugs in both keys K and K. At the same time, take out a small
resistance (1-5 W) from the shunt resistance box connected in parallel with the cell.
Slide the jockey along a potentiometer wire and obtain the null point.

To study variation of internal resistance with concentration of electrolyte

Keeping all other factors constant, decrease the concentration of electrolyte by adding,
distilled water for different observations.
Obtain three such observations by repeating step 7 to 10.
Record your readings

OBSERVATIONS:

TABLE FOR SEPARATION BETWEEN THE ELECTRODES

TABLE FOR EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

RESULTS:
 The Electromotive force of the cell is constant and is equal to E=0.98V
 The internal resistance of the cell is directly proportional to the separation between
the electrodes.
 The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the separation between
the electrodes.
 The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the area of the
electrodes dipped in the electrolyte.
 The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the temperature of
electrolyte.
 The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the concentration of the
electrolyte.

PRECAUTIONS
 The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
 The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observations are to
be taken.
 The positive polls of the battery E and cells E1 and E2 should, all be connecte
to the terminal at the zero of the wires.
 The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire
 It should touch the wire gently.
SOURCES OF ERROR
 The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.
 The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section and material
density throughout its length section and material density throughout its length.
 End resistances may not be zero.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY:
www.scribd.com Investigatory-Project-Analysis-Of-factors-affecting-emf-of-
the-battery

www.slideshare.net study-on-battery-emf