BEE 4102 Control Systems II

4 Digital Controllers – Analogue Controller Emulation

4.1 Some background in digital control
We can implement our analogue controllers with op-amp circuits (Chapter 2 )
Modern controllers are implemented using digital computers (e.g., microcontrollers) are
used to implement our control algorithms.

There are two main approaches to digital controller design:

1. Emulation of an analog controller.
2. Direct digital controller design—subject of more advanced courses. (eg Fuzzy Logic,
Neural Networks, Re-enforcement Learning etc)

Eng. Prof. Mwangi Mbuthia – August - 2024

 BEE 4102 Control Systems II
4 Digital Controllers – Analogue Controller Emulation
4.2 Analog Controller Emulation
Emulation is when a digital computer algorithm approximates analog controllers shown in Fig. 4.2.1.

Fig. 4.2.1 Feed Back Control System Block Diagram with Options for Gain, Lead, Lag, PI, PD and PID
Controllers.
Eng. Prof. Mwangi Mbuthia – August - 2024
 BEE 4102 Control Systems II
4 Digital Controllers – Analogue Controller Emulation
4.2.1 Discrete Time Signal
An ideal sample f *(t) of a continuous signal f(t) is a series of zero width impulses spaced at
sampling time T seconds.
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A sampler (i.e an A to D converter) is represented by a switch shown below.
f(t) can be reconstructed from f *(t) by using a zero-order hold (D/A converter). The unit impulse at
time kT is converted into a pulse of width T at time 𝑡 − 𝑇

Eng. Prof. Mwangi Mbuthia – August - 2024

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BEE 4102 Control Systems II

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4 Digital Controllers – Analogue Controller Emulation
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Eng. Prof. Mwangi Mbuthia – August - 2024
 BEE 4102 Control Systems II
4 Digital Controllers – Analogue Controller Emulation
4.2.1 Discrete Time Signal
The zero-order hold (ZOH) operation is commonly used in digital signal processing and control systems. It represents
the holding of a constant value over a specific time interval, which is the sampling period in discrete-time systems. The
Laplace transform of a zero-order hold can be expressed as follows;

Suppose u(t) is the input signal to the zero-order hold. The output f(t) of the zero-order hold operation can be
represented as;

𝑓(𝑡) = u(kT), kT ≤ t < (k+1)T

Here, T is the sampling period, and k is an integer representing the discrete sampling instants. Taking the Laplace
Transform;

Eng. Prof. Mwangi Mbuthia – August - 2024

 BEE 4102 Control Systems II
4 Digital Controllers – Analogue Controller Emulation
4.2.1 Discrete Time Signal
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Continuous time controllers are analysed, simulated and designed using Laplace
transformations as described in Chapter 2.

Eng. Prof. Mwangi Mbuthia – August - 2024

 BEE 4102 Control Systems II
4 Digital Controllers – Analogue Controller Emulation
4.2.2 Discrete Time Signal – z Transform
The z-transform is the principal analytical and design tool for SISO discrete-time systems that is analogous
to Laplace transform for continuous time systems.
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Eng. Prof. Mwangi Mbuthia – August - 2024
 BEE 4102 Control Systems II
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4 Digital Controllers – Analogue Controller Emulation

4.2.2 Discrete Time Signal – z Transform
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Eng. Prof. Mwangi Mbuthia – August - 2024
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 BEE 4102 Control Systems II
4 Digital Controllers – Analogue Controller Emulation
4.2.3 z-transform properties
(a) Linearity

Z(f1(t) ± f2(t)) = F1(z) ± F2(z)

(b) Initial Value Theorem

𝑓 0 = lim 𝐹(𝑧)
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(c) Final Value Theorem

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𝑓 ∞ = lim 𝐹(𝑧)
/→, /),

Eng. Prof. Mwangi Mbuthia – August - 2024

 BEE 4102 Control Systems II
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Eng. Prof. Mwangi Mbuthia – August - 2024