SOLUTIONS class

SOLUTIONS
Introduction
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The substance present in

greater amount is called the solvent, and the one present in the smaller amount is called the
solute.
Types of solutions
Solutions can be divided into three types:
Solid solutions: In these, both the solute and solvent are solids.
Example: an alloy of gold and silver
Liquid solutions: These are solutions in which both the solute and solvent are in liquid state.
Example: a solution of salt in water
Gaseous solutions: Here, both the solute and solvent are in gaseous state.
Example: air is a gaseous solution of nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases.
Concentration of solutions
It is a measure of the amount of solute dissolved in given amount of solvent.
Concentration can be expressed in following ways:
Mass by volume percentage (w/v): Mass of the solute dissolved in 100 mL of solution.
Molality (m): It is the number of moles of solute present in 1kg of solvent.
Molarity (M): It is the number of moles of solute present in 1L of solution.
Normality: It is the number of gram equivalent of solute dissolved per litre of solution.
Mass percentage (w/w): This is the mass of solute divided by the mass of the solution,
expressed as a percentage.
Volume percentage (v/v): This is the volume of solute divided by the volume of the solution,
expressed as a percentage.
Mole fraction: Number of moles of the solute divided by the moles of the solution, expressed as
a percentage.
Saturated solution: It is a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the

same temperature and pressure.
Solubility
It is the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a given
temperature. It depends on a number of factors, including the nature of the solute and solvent, the
temperature, and the pressure.
Henry's law
Henry's law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial
pressure of the gas above the liquid. Hence, with increase in pressure the solubility of gas in
liquid will increase.
i.e., p = KHx
Where p is the partial pressure of the gas; and x is the mole fraction of the gas in the solution and
KH is Henry‘s Law constant.
Liquid in Liquid solution:
Vapour Pressure: The pressure developed above the liquid at particular temperature at the
equilibrium point.
Raoult’s Law: In solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each component is
directly proportional to its mole fraction.
pA = p0A χA ,
pB = p0B χB ,
Total pressure pT = pA + pB
Ideal Solution: It is the liquid-liquid solution which obeys Raoult’s law at all concentrations.
Forces of attraction between A-A, B-B is similar to A-B
ptotal = pA + pB,
ΔHmix =0; ΔVmix = 0.
Non-Ideal Solution: It is the liquid-liquid solution which does not obey Raoult’s law. It
shows positive or negative deviations from Raoult’s law.
Azeotrope: The mixture of liquids which boils at constant temperature like pure liquid and has
same composition of component in liquid as well as vapour phase.
Types of azeotropes:
(i) Minimum boiling azeotrope: The solutions which show a large positive deviation from
Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope.
Example: ethanol-water mixture
(ii) Maximum boiling azeotrope: The solutions that show large negative deviation from
Raoult’s law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
Example: Nitric acid and water mixture.
Colligative properties
These are the properties of solutions which depend on the number of solute particles dissolved in
the solution, but not on the identity of the solute particles. These include:
Relative lowering of vapour pressure: It refers to the decreased number of solvent
molecules escaping into vapour phase resulting in a decrease in the pressure exerted
by the vapour phase.The relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution is equal to
the mole fraction of the solute.
Elevation of boiling point: It refers to the increase in the boiling point of a solvent upon the
addition of a solute.
Depression of freezing point: It is the decrease of the freezing point of a solvent on addition of
a non-volatile solute.
Osmotic pressure: It is the minimum pressure applied to a solution to stop the flow of solvent
molecules through a semipermeable membrane.
Isotonic solutions: Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are
called isotonic solutions.
Reverse osmosis: If the pressure applied on the solution side is more than osmotic pressure of
the solution then the solvent particles will move from solution to solvent side. This process is
termed as reverse osmosis.
Hypertonic solution: It is a solution having a higher concentration of solutes on the outside of a

cell.
Hypotonic solution: It is a solution having a lesser concentration of solute inside as compared to

outside the cell.
Abnormal molecular mass: It is the molar mass that is either lower or higher than the expected
or
normal value.
Van't Hoff factor (i): It is the ratio of the total number of moles of particles after dissolution to
the number of moles of particles before dissolution.
Dissociation leads to an increase in the number of solute particles in the solution resulting in an
increase in the value of colligative property.

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SOLUTIONS

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The substance present in

Solutions can be divided into three types:

Example: an alloy of gold and silver

Example: a solution of salt in water

Example: air is a gaseous solution of nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases.

It is a measure of the amount of solute dissolved in given amount of solvent.

Concentration can be expressed in following ways:

Molality (m): It is the number of moles of solute present in 1kg of solvent.

Molarity (M): It is the number of moles of solute present in 1L of solution.

Saturated solution: It is a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the

KH is Henry‘s Law constant.

Liquid in Liquid solution:

Forces of attraction between A-A, B-B is similar to A-B

ΔHmix =0; ΔVmix = 0.

Example: ethanol-water mixture

Example: Nitric acid and water mixture.

Hypertonic solution: It is a solution having a higher concentration of solutes on the outside of a

Hypotonic solution: It is a solution having a lesser concentration of solute inside as compared to

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