CHAPTER 3

3. Elementary Probability Theory

3.1 Introduction
It is common practice that we express what we are not hundred percent sure of using probable
words or sentences. By looking clouds in the sky, we say it may rain tomorrow. A student who
studies for examination is not sure that of the points that will appear on the examination, but he or
she tries to guess the most probable points and makes himself/herself ready for the examination.
In general, human life is a full of uncertainty. The concept of probability is related to the concept
of chance and uncertainty. Thus, we may conclude that the concept of probability is not new to
every one of us. What is new may be the scientific definition of probability and making use of it
in our daily activities. In general, probability can be defined as a measure of the likelihood that a
particular event will occur or it is a science of decision making with calculated risk in face of
uncertainty.

After completing this chapter, you should be able to

 To introduce students to the fundamental concepts in probability theory;
 Probability theory is the foundation upon which the logic of inference is built.
 To introduce the basic principles and methods of quantification of uncertainty;
 To demonstrate the importance and usefulness of probability in real applications;
 To build up interest in probability and hence encourage students to study more advanced
courses.
 To motivate the use of probability model/distribution analysis of data.

3.2 Deterministic and Non-Deterministic Models

Deterministic Models: Mathematical model in which outcomes are precisely determined through
known relationships among states and events, without any room for random variation. In such
models, a given input will always produce the same output, such as in a known chemical reaction.
A deterministic event always has the same outcome and is predictable 100% of the time. Example
for deterministic model
➢ Distance traveled = time * velocity
➢ The speed of light

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Non-deterministic/ Probability model: Non-deterministic models may return different results
each time even if the input values that they access remain the same. A probabilistic event is an
event for which the exact outcome is not predictable 100% of the time. Example: Tossing two
coins

3.3 Basic Terms in Probability

An experiment: is some procedure (or process) that we do and it results in an outcome.
A Random experiment: is an experiment whose outcome is not known until it is observed. Or it
is the process of observing the outcome of a chance event.
An Outcome: is particular result of an experiment. Or an outcome is the all possible results of the
random experiment.
The Sample Space: The set of all possible outcomes of a statistical experiment is called the sample
space and is denoted by Ω. Each outcome (element or member) of the sample space Ω is called a
sample point. A sample space may be finite, countable infinite or uncountable.
Examples 3.1:
Ω = {0, 1, 2, 3} (discrete, finite)
Ω = {0, 1, 2, 3 . . .} (discrete, infinite)
Ω = {HH, HT, TH, TT} (discrete, finite)
Events: An event A is a subset of the sample space Ω. That is A⊆Ω.
• We say that an event A occurs if the outcome (the result) of the experiment is an element
of A.
• ø⊆Ω is an event (ø is called the impossible event)
• Ω ⊆Ω is an event (Ω is called the sure event)
Notation:
n(Ω)= no. of outcomes (elements) in Ω.
n(E)= no. of outcomes (elements) in the event E.
Example 3.2: getting one head in a trial of tossing three coins simultaneously would be an event,
E= {HT, TH}. Getting even number in rolling a die, E= {2, 4, 6}.
Experiment Sample Space
1. Tossing a coin Ω={Head (H), Tail (T)}
2. Tossing two coins Ω={ HH,HT,TH,TT }

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 3. Rolling a die Ω={1,2,3,4,5,6}

3.4 Review of Set Theory

Let A and B be two events defined on the sample space Ω.
Union Two events: A∪B consists of all outcomes in A or in B or in both A and B. A∪B Occurs
if A occurs, or B occurs, or both A and B occurs. A∪B ={x ∈S: x∈A or x∈B}. That is A∪B occurs
if at least one of A and B occurs.

Intersection of Two Events: A∩B consists of all outcomes in both A and B. A∩B occurs if both A and
B occur. A∩B =AB={x ∈S: x∈Aand x∈B}

Complement of an Event: 𝐀𝐜 or 𝐀′ 𝐀𝐜 ={x ∈S: x∉A}

De Morgan’s rules: If A and B are events in Ω, then

𝑨 ∪ 𝑩=𝐴̅∩𝐵̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝑨 ∩ 𝑩= 𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

In terms of the events, the first of these says that if, and it is not true that both A and B occur, either A does
not occur or B does not occur (or both), and conversely. Generally, similarly draw Venn diagrams suffices
to prove any things about these operations. First draw two events A and B.
Mutually Exclusive (Disjoint) Events: Two events A and B are mutually exclusive (or disjoint) if and only
if A∩B=∅; that is, A and B have no common elements (they do not occur together).
Independent Events: Two events are independent if the occurrence of one does not affect the probability
of the other occurring.
Dependent Events: Two events are dependent if the first event affects the outcome or occurrence of the
second event in a way the probability is changed.
Finite sample spaces: Consider a finite sample space Ω, with n finite elements Ω= {, A1,A2, A3, A4, A5, …,
An} where Ai are elementary events or There are a finite number of outcomes Ω={, A1,A2, A3, A4, A5, …,
An}
Equal likely outcomes: The outcomes of an experiment are equally likely if the occurrences of the
outcomes have the same chance. Examples 3.4: Modeling tomorrow’s weather. For example we might
take S={Hot, Medium, Cold}.

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3.5 Counting Techniques
In probability and statistics, we sometimes need to count the number of ways that a phenomenon can occur.
a) Permutations: A permutation is an ordered arrangement of r distinct objects, from a set of n different
objects. The size of a permutation is the number of distinct objects in the arrangement. We must
construct a permutation by choosing the r objects from the n distinct objects without replacement size r
selected from n distinct objects. The following permutation rules:
i. The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken all together is n!

Where n!= n * (n − 1) * (n − 2) *.....* 3 * 2 *1

ii. The arrangement of n objects in a specified order using r objects at a time is called the permutation

of n objects taken r objects at a time. It is written as n Pr and the formula is Furthermore, in a

permutation, the objects are ordered. We use the notation P

n r
to represent the total number of

different permutations of size r that can be selected from n distinct objects.

n!
Pr = , 0  r  n , Where r and n whole numbers is the general formula for
(n − r )!
n

computing the total number of permutations of size r selected from n distinct objects.
iii. The number of permutations of n objects in which k1 are alike k2 are alike ---- etc is

n!
P=
n r
k1!*k2 * ... * k n

Example 3.3: Three people, Aishah, Badrul and Daniel must be scheduled for job interviews. In how many
different orders can this be done?
Solution n =3 , So there are 3! = 6 possible orders for the interviews.

Example 3.4: how many 6 digit telephone numbers can be formed if each number starts with 35 and no digit
appears more than once?
Solution: The first two places can only be filled by 3 and 5 respectively and there is only 1 way for doing
this. Given that no digit appears more than once. Hence we have 8 digits remaining (0,1,2,4,6,7,8,9). So,
the next 4 places can be filled with the remaining 8 digits in 8P4 ways. Total number of ways
= 8P4 =8×7×6×5=1680
Example 3.5 there are 2 copies of each of 3 different books to be arranged on a shelf. In how many
distinguishable ways can this be done?
Solution n = 2  3 = 6 ( there are six books ) r1 = 2 r2 = 2 r3 = 2

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 n!
=
6!
=
( 6 )( 5 )( 4 )( 3 ) = 90 , Therefore, there are 90 ways to arrange
r1 ! r2 ! r3 ! 2! 2! 2! ( 2 )( 2 )
2 copies of each of 3 different books on a shelf.

b) Combination
A combination is an unordered group of r distinct objects, from a set of n different objects. The size of a
combination is the number of distinct objects in the unordered group. We use the notation n Cr to represent

the total number of different combinations of size r that can be selected from n distinct objects.
n!
Cr = , 0  r  n , r and n whole numbers is the general formula for computing the number of
(n − r )!r !
n

combinations of size r selected from n distinct objects. Similar to permutations, combinations require that
we choose the r objects from the n distinct objects without replacement. The general formula for the number
of combinations may be derived using the permutation formula. The next example outlines the argument.
The general relationship for the number of permutations and combinations of size r that can be selected
from n distinct objects is

n Cr  r ! = n Pr

Because if one finds all the unordered groups of size r which can be selected from n distinct objects, n C r ,

and then finds all the r! Permutations of the r objects in each unordered group, one gets all the permutations
of size r of the n objects.

By dividing both sides of the above equation by r! and then using the general permutation formula, we get
n!
n Pr (n − r )! n!
n Cr = = =
r! r! (n − r )! r !

Example 3.6:

1. From a class of 16 students, 4 will be chosen to do a job. How many different groups of students are
possible?

Solution: This is a combination problem because the 16 students are distinct and there is no order among
the students associated with doing the job. The number of different groups of students possibly doing the
job is

16! 16! 16 15 14 13 12! 16 15 14 13

C4 = = = = = 1820.
(16 − 4)! 4! 12! 4! 12! 4! 4  3  2 1
16

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2. Among 15 clocks there are two defectives .In how many ways can an inspector chose three of the
clocks for inspection so that:
a. There is no restriction.
b. None of the defective clock is included.
c. Only one of the defective clocks is included.
d. Two of the defective clock is included.

Solutions:
a. If there is no restriction select three clocks from 15 clocks and this can be done in :
n n! 15!
n=15, r=3 , then   = = = 455 ways
 r  (n − r )!*r! 12!*3!
b. None of the defective clocks is included.
This is equivalent to zero defective and three non-defective, which can be done in:
 2  13 
  *   = 286 ways .
0  3 
c. Only one of the defective clocks is included.
This is equivalent to one defective and two non-defective, which can be done in:
 2  13 
  *   = 156 ways .
1  2 

d. Two of the defective clock is included.

This is equivalent to two defective and one non-defective, which can be done in:

 2  13 
  *   = 13 ways .
 2  3 

c) Multiplication Rule: If a choice consists of k steps of which the first can be made in n1 ways, the
second can be made in n2 ways…, the kth can be made in nk ways, then the whole choice can be made

in
(n1 * n2 * ........* nk ) ways.
Example 3.7: The digits 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 are to be used in 4 digit identification card. How many different
cards are possible if
i. Repetitions are permitted.
ii. Repetitions are not permitted.

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Solutions:
i.
1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit 4th digit

5 5 5 5

There are four steps  5 * 5 * 5 * 5 = 625 different cards are possible

ii.
1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit 4th digit
5 4 3 2
There are four steps  5 * 4 * 3* 2 = 120 different cards are possible
d) Addition Rule
Suppose that the 1st procedure designed by 1 can be performed in n1 ways. Assume that 2nd procedure
designed by 2 can be performed in n2 ways. Suppose furthermore that, it is not possible that both procedures1
and 2 are performed together then the number of ways in which we can perform 1or 2 procedure is n1+n2
ways, and also if we have another procedure that is designed by k with possible way of nk we can conclude
that there is n1+n2+…+nk possible ways.

Example 3.8 Suppose we are planning a trip and are deciding by bus and train transportation. If there are 3
bus routes and 2 train routes to go from A to B. find the available routes for the trip.

Solution: There are 3+2 =5 routes for someone to go from A to B.

3.6 Approaches to Define Probability

A probability is a number that reflects the chance or likelihood that a particular event will occur.
Probabilities can be expressed as proportions that range from 0 to 1, and they can also be expressed as
percentages ranging from 0% to 100%. A probability of 0 indicates that there is no chance that a particular
event will occur, whereas a probability of 1 indicates that an event is certain to occur.

Probability is defined as the chance that an event will happen or the likelihood that an event will happen.

• A quantitative (numerical) measure of uncertainty.

• A measure of the strength of belief in the occurrence of something (an event).
• A measure of the degree of chance of an uncertain event.
As a general concept, probability is the measure of a chance that something will occur. It is a numerical
measure with a value between 0 and 1 where the probability of 0 indicates that the given event cannot occur

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and a probability of 1assures certainty of such an occurrence. There are different conceptual approaches to
the study of probability theory. These are:
a. The classical approach
Definition: If a random experiment with N equally likely outcomes is conducted and out of these N A
outcomes are favorable to the event A, then the probability that event A occur denoted P(A) is defined

as: NA No. of outcomes favourable to A n( A)

P( A) = = =
N Total number of outcomes n( S )

This approach is appropriate when:

➢ All outcomes are equally likely.
➢ Total number of outcome is finite, say N.
Example 3.9: A box of 80 candles consists of 30 defective and 50 non-defective candles. If 10 of this candles
are selected at random, what is the probability that
a) All will be defective.
b) Six will be non-defective
c) All will be non-defective
Solutions:  80 
Total selection = 
 10 
 = N = n( S )
 

a) Let A be the event that all will be defective.

 30   50 
Total way in which A occur =   10 
*
 
 = N A = n( A)
   0 
 30   50 

 10 
* 0 

 P( A) =
n( A)
=     = 0.00001825
n( S )  80 

 10 

 

b) Let A be the event that 6 will be non-defective.

 30   50 
  *  
 30   50  n( A)  4   6 
Total way in which A occur =   *   = N A = n( A)  P( A) = = = 0.265 Let A be the
4 6 n( S )  80 
 
 10 
event that all will be non-defective.

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  30   50 
  *  
 30   50  n( A)  0   10 
Total way in which A occur =   *   = N A = n( A)  P( A) = = = 0.00624
 0   10  n( S )  80 
 
 10 

b. The Frequentist Approach:

Probabilities are assigned on the basis of experimentation or historical data. This is based on the relative
frequencies of outcomes belonging to an event.
Definition: The probability of an event A is the proportion of outcomes favorable to A in the long run when
the experiment is repeated under same condition.

NA
P ( A) = lim
N → N

Example 3.10: If records show that 60 out of 100,000 bulbs produced are defective. What is the probability
of a newly produced bulb to be defective?

Solution: Let A be the event that the newly produced bulb is defective

NA 60
P( A) = lim = = 0.0006
N → N 100,000

C. Subjective approach probability

Subjective probability is a probability derived from an individual's personal judgment about whether a
specific outcome is likely to occur. It contains no formal calculations and only reflects the subject's opinions
and past experience and the degree of belief that we hold in the occurrence of an event. Thus, judgment is
used as the basis for assigning probabilities.

Even though there are no mathematical calculations or proof behind this type of probability, it could be
illustrated the following way:

P(X) = degree of belief that X is true

Probability, whether it's subjective or has been calculated mathematically, cannot tell us exactly that
something will or will not happen; it's just a guide, and it's always between 0 and 1. A '0' probability would
mean it is impossible that the event will happen, and a probability of '1' states with 100% certainty that the
event will occur; therefore, probabilities should not be exactly 0 or 1 but rather something in between. For
example: You think you have an 80% chance of your best friend calling today, because her car broke down
yesterday and she’ll probably need a ride.

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D. Axiomatic Approach
Let E be a random experiment and S be a sample space associated with E. With each event A a real number
called the probability of A satisfies the following properties called axioms of probability or postulates of
probability.
Simple consequences of the axioms of probability:

1. P(A) ≤ 1;
2. P() = 0 , ø is the impossible event.
3. 0  P( A)  1

4. P(AC) = 1 - P(A);
5. If A and B are mutually exclusive then P(AB) = P(A)+ P(B).
6. IfAB then P(A) ≤ P(B).
7. P(S ) = 1, S is the sure event.
Remark: Venn-diagrams can be used to solve probability problems.

A∩B
AB
Derived Theorems of Probability
Theorem 1: Let A and B be events. Then

P(AB) = P(A) + P(B) – P(AB).

P(A∩BC)= P(A) − P(A∩B)

P(AC∩B)= P(B) − P(A∩B)

P(AC∩BC)= 1 − P(A∪B)

Then P(AB) = P(A (AC∩B))= P(A) + P(B) – P(AB).

Theorem 2: Probability of the impossible event is zero, i.e. P (∅) = 0.
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Theorem 3: Probability of the complement event 𝐴̅ of A is given by P(A
̅) = 1-P(A).
Theorem 4: Boole’s inequality: Let A1, A2, A3,…,An be events. Then

P(A1 … An) ≤ P(A1) + … + P(An).

An inequality concerning intersections: Let A1, A2, A3,…,An be events. Then

P(A1 … An) ≥ P(A1) + … + P(An) – (n – 1).

3.7 Conditional Probability

In general, if A and B are events, then being told whether or not B occurs will change our views on the
probability A occurs. In other words, if we know B has occurred we may no longer think that the probability
of A occurring is P(A). It helps to define the conditional probability of A occurring given that B occurs as
follows.

Conditional probability: If A and B are events with P(B)>0, then the conditional
probability of A given B is defined as
P( A  B)
P( A | B) = .
P( B)

Example: Consider the example tossing the fair die. Suppose

A = event of getting an even number = {2, 4, 6}
B = event of getting a number less than 4 = {1, 2,3}
 A  B = {2}
P( A  B) 1/ 6 1
 P( B / A) = = =
P( A) 3/ 6 3

Example 3.11: A family has two children. It is known that at least one of the children is a girl. What is the
probability that both the children are girls?

Solution: A = event of at least one girl, B = event of two girls

Clearly

S = {gg , gb, bg , bb}, A = { gg , gb, bg} and B = { gg}

A  B = {gg}
P( A  B) 1/ 4 1
 P( B / A) = = =
P( A) 3/ 4 3
Remark:
➢ A decomposition of a set S into 2 or more disjoint nonempty subsets is called a partition of S .
The subsets A1, A2 , . . . An form a partition of S if

S = A1  A2 .....  An and Ai  Aj =  for i  j.

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 ➢ The theorem of total probability can be used to determine the probability of a complex event in
terms of related simpler events. This result will be used in Bays’ theorem to be discussed to the
end of the lecture.
Example 3.12: Suppose a box contains 2 white and 3 black balls. Two balls are picked at random without
replacement. Let A1 = event that the first ball is white and Let A1c = event that the first ball is black.

Clearly A1 and A1c form a partition of the sample space corresponding to picking two balls from the box.

Let B = the event that the second ball is white. Then

P( B) = P( A1 ) P( B / A1 ) + P( A1c ) P( B / A1c )
2 1 3 2 2
=  +  =
5 4 5 4 5

Multiplication Rule for Independent Events

The probability of two independent events A and B occurring together:
P (A and B) = P(A) * P(B)
Example 3.13: Let the experiment be flipping a coin and then rolling a die. What is the probability of
getting “heads” and “4”? First, are these independent events? Yes, they are because the occurrence of one
does not affect the probability of the occurrence of the other. Therefore, we can use the multiplication rule
from above. P(heads and 4) = P(heads) * P(4) = (1/2) * (1/6) = 1/12
Multiplication Rule for Dependent Events:-P (A and B) = P( A) * P( B A) .

Example 3.14: A bag contains 4 green balls and 3 red balls. If two balls are drawn from the bag, what is
the probability that both are green?
Events: A = 1st ball is green; B = 2nd ball is green
Are A and B independent or dependent events?
Dependent P(A and B) = P( A) * P( B A) = 4/7 * 3/6 = 12/42 or 0.2857

Using the Multiplication Rule for Dependent Events to compute Conditional Probability:

3.8. Total Probability and Bayes’ Theorem

In many cases of interest, it is hard to write down the probability of an event directly, but we might be able
to use information about conditional probabilities. An important example occurs where we have a partition
of the sample space. We say that events B1, B2, …form a partition the sample space if they are mutually
exclusive (meaning that the intersection of any two of the events is the empty set) and exhaustive (meaning
that the union of the events is the sample space). When we have a partition of the sample space then one of
the events must occur, but only one can occur.

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 Theorem of Total Probability: IfB1, B2, … partition the sample space (meaning they are
mutually exclusive and exhaustive) then
P( A) =  P( A | Bi ) P( Bi ) .

In the special case where n=2 this becomes

P( A) = P( A | B) P( B) + P( A | B C ) P( B C ) .

Example 3.15: Tomorrow I am running in a race. If it is hot then the probability I will beat my best time is
0.4; if it is cold then the probability I will beat my best time is 0.9. The probability it will be hot is 0.7 and
the probability it will be cold is 0.3. What is the probability I will beat my best time?
Solution: Let A be the event that I beat my best time and B be the event that it is hot (so BC is the event that
it is cold). The pair B, BC partitions the sample space (since one of them must occur but both can’t occur).
We can write down the probabilities P(A | B) = 0.4, P(A | BC) = 0.9, P(B) = 0.7 and P(BC) = 0.3. We apply
theorem of total probability to see that
P(A) = P(A | B) P(B) + P(A | BC) P(BC) = 0.40.7 + 0.90.3 = 0.55. This shows that I have a 55% chance of
beating my best time.
We will often want to “reverse” probabilities. In other words we might know P(A|B) and need to calculate
P(B|A). To answer this type of question we need Bayes’ theorem.

Bayes’ theorem:
(One version)
P( A | B) P( B)
P( B | A) = .
P( A | B) P( B) + P( A | B C ) P( B C )
(Another version): If B1, B2, … partition the sample space then
P( A | Bi ) P( Bi )
P( Bi | A) = .
 j P( A | B j ) P( B j )

Example 3.16: In 2002 there will be three candidates for the position of the principal –Mr. x, Mr. y and
Mr.z whose chances of getting the appointment are in the ratio 4:2:3 respectively. The probability that Mr.
x if selected would introduce co-education in the college is 0.3. The corresponding probabilities for Mr. y
and Mr.z are 0.5 and 0.8.
(1) What is the probability that there will be co-education in 2003?
(2) If there is co-education in 2003, what is the probability that Mr. z is the principal?
➢ Let us define the events
A: introduction of co-education, E1: Mr. x is selected as principal

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 E2: Mr. y is selected as principal, E3: Mr. z is selected as principal.

P(E1)=4/9, P(E2)=2/9, P(E3)=3/9, P(A/E1)=3/10, P(A/E2)=5/10,P(A/E3)=8/10.

(1) The required probability that there will be coeducation in the college in 2003 is
P(A)=P[(A∩E1)∪ (A ∩ 𝐸2 ) ∪ (A ∩ E3 )]= P(A∩E1)+P(A∩E2)+P(A∩E3)
4 3 2 5 3 8 23
=P(E1)P(A/E1)+P(E2)P(A/E2)+P(E3)P(A/E3)=9 . 10 + 9 . 10 + 9 . 10=45.

(2) The required probability is given by Bayes’ rule:

𝐴 3 8
𝑃(𝐸3 )𝑃( ) 𝑋 12
𝐸3
P(E3/A) = = 9 4610 =23.
𝑃(𝐴)
90

3.9. Independence Events

An informal definition of independence is that two events are independent if the occurrence of one does
not affect the probability that the other occurs. The formal definition is given below.
Independence of two events:
Two events, A and B, are said to be independent if
P( A  B) = P( A) P( B) .

To check if A and B are independent, we need to write down the event AB and then calculate P(A), P(B)
and P(AB). The following example is straightforward.

Example 3.17: I throw a fair die and define A and B as follows. Are A and B independent?
1. A = {Even Number}, B= {Number less than or equal to 2}
2. A = {Even Number}, B= {Number less than or equal to 3}
3. A = {Even Number}, B= {Odd number}
Solution:
For Part 1: AB= {2}, so P(AB) =1/6. As P(A)=1/2 and P(B)=1/3 we see that P(AB)= P(A) P(B).
Hence A and B are independent.
For Part 2: AB= {2}, so P(AB) =1/6. Here P(A)=1/2 and P(B)=1/2, so P(AB)P(A) P(B). Hence A
and B are not independent; they are dependent.
For Part 3: AB equals the empty set, so P(AB)=0. Here P(A)=1/2 and P(B)=1/2, so P(AB)P(A)
P(B). Hence A and B are not independent; they are dependent.

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 Exercise

1. A box contains 12 light bulbs of which 5 are defective. All the bulbs look alike and have equal
probability of being chosen. Three bulbs are picked up at random. What is the probability that
at least 2 are defective?
1
2. A problem in Mathematics is given to three students, whose chances of solving are ,
2
1 1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 4respectively. What is the probability that problem will be solved?
3
1 2 3
3. The probabilities of A, B and C solving a problem are 2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8respectively. If allthe three
7

try to solve the problem simultaneously, find the probability that exactly one of them will solve
it.
4. A husband and wife appear in an interview for two vacancies in the same department. The
1 1
probability of husband's selection is 𝑎𝑛𝑑 that of wife's selection is What is the probability
7 5

that
A. Only one of them will be selected?
B. Both of them will be selected?
C. None of them will be selected?
D. At least one of them will be selected?
5. Two machines A and B make 80% and 20%, respectively, of the products in a certain
factory. It is known that 5% and 10% of the products made by each machine, respectively,
are defective. A finished product is randomly selected.
a) Find the probability that the product is defective
b) If the product were found to be defective, what is the probability that it was made by
machine B.
6. If P(A)=0.9, P(B)=0.6, and P(AB)=0.5, then, find
a. P(ABC) c. c. P(B|A)
b. b. P(ACBC )
7. If P(A1)=0.4, P(A1A2)=0.2, and P(A3|A1A2)=0.75, then find
a. P(A2|A1) b. P(A1A2A3)

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