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Calculus Special Edition Chapters 5 8 11 12 14 Karl J.
Smith Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Karl J. Smith, Monty J. Strauss, Magdalena D. Toda
ISBN(s): 9781465240798, 1465240799
Edition: 6
File Details: PDF, 179.04 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
CALCULUS S IX T H E D IT IO N
SPECIAL EDITION
I
Summaries —Where to Look for Help
PREREQUISITES
Your algebra, trigonometry, or prccalculus textbooks, if you kepi them, are good places
to look because you are familiar with the notation and presentation.
Properties of absolute value, see Table 1.1, p. 17
Exact values of trigonometric functions, sec Table 1.3, page 23
Directory of curves, sec Table 1.4, page 43
Directory of polar-form curves, Table 6.2, p. 451
Definition of inverse trigonometric functions, see Table 1.5, p. 56
INTEGRATION
Definition of integral, p. 326 (indefinite), p. 346 (definite)
Rules for summation. Theorem 5.4. p. 339
Integration formulas, sec inside back cover
Integration table, Appendix D
Volumes of surfaces of revolution, sec Table 6.1, pp. 442
Integration strategy, Section 7.5, p. 541
Modeling applications involving integration, sec Tabic 10.3, p. 814
INFINITE SERIES
Guidelines for determining convergence of scries, Table 8.1, p. 635
Power scries for elementary functions. Table 8.2, p. 660
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Introduction to differential equations, sec Section 5.6, p. 372
Growth and decay, sec Table 7.3, p. 550
First-order differential equations, Section 7.6, p. 545
Summary of strategies for solving first-order differential equations, Table 14.1, p. 1118
Second-order linear differential equations, Sections 14.2 and 14.3
Miscellaneous Formulas
sin lι .. coslι — 1
S P E C IA L T R IG O N O M E T R IC L IM IT S : lim — - = 1 Inn ----- ------- = 0
∕ι →0 II ∕ι → 0 II
rh ι
Sim pson R ule: / f( x ) d x ≈ -[∕( Λ - 0 ) + 4 ∕( X 1) + 2 ∕( X 2 ) + ∙ ∙ ■+ 4 ∕( x , j - ∣ ) + ∕( Λ - n )]∆Λ-
Ja *
ARC LENGTH: Let / be a function whose derivative/' is continuous on the interval [a ,b ]. Then the arc length, 5,
of the graph of y = ∕( ,r ) between x = a and .v = b is given by the integral
= / √ l + [ ∕ , (x)J 2 Λ
Ja
S E R IE S Suppose there is an open interval / containing c throughout which the function / and all its derivatives exist.
r aylιor S
Γ Qe n∙e s o Cf JΓ ∕ f( ι )x =
λ ∕ f (( c
' J+' <—< - c (∖
) x _ c ) + - ( λγ _ c
'1J'"( C∖
) - ψ _ c
χ3
)∙ H-----------
r/y
—
z∕ V
+ P (χ )y = Q M
is given by
y =⅛[∕ 2 ( Λ- ) ∕( Λ∙)√Λ + C
V E C T O R -V A L U E D F U N C T IO N S
∂ . 3 . ∂
Del operator: V = — ι -∣------ 1j H------ k
3Λ- ∂y ∂z
'∂ f, ∂f '∂f
G rad ien t: V ∕ = γ - i + γ - j + γ - k = Λ i + Λ j + Λ ∣<
d.V dy ∂Z
L ap lacian :
σA- dy~ dz~
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Kendall Hunt
p u b lis h in g com pany
Calculus
Sixth Edition
Special Edition, Chapters 5-8,11,12 ,14
Karl J. Smith
Santa Rosa Junior College
Monty J. Strauss
Texas Tech University
Magdalena D. Toda
Texas Tech University
Kendall Hunt
p u b lis h in g com pany
Copyright © 2014 Shutterstock, Inc.
The cover image of the Louvre was selected to highlight the melding of the old and the new. The study of
calculus has a rich heritage, full of anecdotes and mountaintop ideas, symbolized by the majestic old building
in Paris known as the Louvre. It was constructed as a fortress in 1190 and went thorough many changes until
becoming the palace of the Sun King, Louis XIV, only to be transformed into a museum by Louis XVI. The
building has constantly undergone change, as does mathematics, and in 1989 a modern Pyramid was added to
the museum. At about that time, calculus was “reinvented” using new technologies to capture the ideas of
calculus. Just as the Louvre blends the old and the new in its structure, this book also blends the old and the
new in its presentation. To symbolize this symbiosis, we use the logo:
T H IN K IN G IN Ik
O→ NEI11 D IR E C T IO N
Kendall Hunt
p u b lis h in g com pany
www.kendallhunt.com
Send all inquiries to:
4050 Westmark Drive
Dubuque, IA 52004-1840
ISBN 978-1-4652-4079-8
Preface vii
3 Differentiation 131
3.1 An Introduction to the Derivative: Tangents 132
3.2 Techniques of Differentiation 145
3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 154
3.4 Rates of Change: Modeling Rectilinear Motion I6l
3.5 The Chain Rule 173
3.6 Implicit Differentiation I8l
3.7 Related Rates and Applications 193
3.8 Linear Approximation and Differentials 202
Chapter 3 Review 215
J2 JΠ Fermat’s Enigma by Simon Singh 217
Chapter 3 Group Research Project 223
iii
iv Contents
Integration 323
5 .1 Antidifferentiation 324
5.2 Area as the Limit of a Sum 336
5.3 Riemann Sums and the Definite Integral 344
5.4 The Fundamental Theorems of Calculus 357
5.5 Integration by Substitution 364
5.6 Introduction to Differential Equations 372
5.7 The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals; Average Value 385
5.8 Numerical Integration: The Trapezoidal Rule and Simpson’s Rule 392
5.9 An Alternative Approach: The Logarithm as an Integral 402
Chapter 5 Review 409
Chapter 5 Group Research Project 417
Appendices 1153
A: Introduction to the Theory of Limits 1153
B: Selected Proofs 1159
C: Significant Digits 1169
D: Short Table of Integrals 1174
E: Trigonometry 1184
F: Determinants 1191
G: Answers to Selected Problems 1196
Index 1249
PREFACE
T H IN K IN G IN t<
FO R T H E S T U D E N T 9 → N EU I □ I R ∈C T I □ N
You have enrolled in a calculus course, and you might be thinking, “I’ve finally made
it . . . All my life Γve studied mathematics, and now Γm enrolled in ‘the big one.’
Certainly, calculus is the pinnacle of my studies in mathematics!”
But wait! So you arc here,. . . but do you know why? Can you answer the question,
“What is calculus?” In the first section of this text, we begin by answering this question,
and if you look at college catalogues, you will see that calculus is the first course in
college mathematics, not the last one. This course is a prerequisite for almost all the
other nonremcdial mathematics courses.
OK, so now you are here in a calculus course and you arc asked to pay a great deal
of money for this book. “Why does this book cost so much, and how could it possibly
be worth all that money?” The value of any purchase is relative to many aspects which
differ from person to person, but ultimately, value must be measured by the extent to
which it changes our lives. The intent and goal of this book is to change your life by
giving you life skills which enhance your problem-solving ability. By the time you finish
this course you will have a book, which at different times, you will have loved, hated,
cursed, and respected. You will have a reference book that should last you a lifetime.
Calculus is a difficult subject, and there is no magic key to success; it will require
hard work. This book should make your calculus journey easier because it builds your
problem-solving skills and helps you form some good study habits. You will need to read
the book, work the examples in the book using your own pencil and paper, and make a
commitment to do your mathematics homework on a daily basis. £ Read that last sentence
once again. It is the best hint you will see about building success in mathematics. &
We have written this book so that it will be easy for you to know what is important.
Each chapter begins with a preview and ends with a proficiency examination (generally
30 problems) consisting of concept problems (to help you know what is important)
and practice problems (to help you with a self-test).
Important terms are presented in boldface type.
Important ideas, definitions, and procedures arc enclosed in screened boxes:
Definitions , Properties"!, and Procedures
• Common pitfalls, helpful hints and explanations are shown using this font.
• £ WARNINGS are given to call your attention to common mistakes.
vii
viii Preface
Success in this course is a joint effort by the student, the instructor, and the author.
The student must be willing to attend class and devote lime to the course on a daily
basis. There is no substitute for working problems in mathematics.
FOR T H E IN S T R U C T O R
As the instructor of a calculus course, you must select materials which are relevant to
your students at your school or university. Some aspects of your course are necessitated
by your environment, and others are selected by you or a committee in your department.
We have put together a calculus textbook which we believe will meet your needs, as
well as those of your department. Most importantly, our book will meet the needs of
your students in the twenty-first century.
The writing of a calculus textbook is a monumental task, one that grows out of a love
of teaching and of helping students struggle until we sec “the light” in their eyes as he
or she has an “ah-hah” moment. The creation of this text has been a life-long journey for
its authors, and to understand the nature of this book we travel back to 1930 to tell you
of the books which have influenced us as we have developed the materials in this text.
At one time, the defining and almost universally used calculus textbook was
Granville, Smith, and Longley’s calculus book published in I929.* This 516 page book
contained no color, few illustrations, and even fewer problems. At that time, there were
about a million students enrolled in the American university system, and education was
designed to be for the privileged few.
In 1957, Sputnik created a revolution in American education. Rigor was added to
the teaching of calculus. The most influential calculus textbook of this era was a book
by Thomas' which was initially published in 1952 and became the standard text in the
1960s. This book added rigor and problems, but still offered little pedagogy. By the
end of 1968, Thomas was in its fourth edition, and had grown to 818 pages, which
matched the growth of college enrollments at that time to almost four million students.
Textbooks were still relatively inexpensive, but were colorless and without learning aids
or technology. By 1970, Calculus by A p o sto lw as being used as a rigid and rigorous
alternative to calculus,... correct, but lifeless. Many instructors of that time adopted a
“sink-or-swim” attitude as there seemed to be an unlimited supply of students, each year
growing larger and larger.
By the 1980s, college enrollments had passed the ten million mark and calculus
needed to change to keep up with the times. In 1987 the next generation of calcu
lus books was born. Stewart’s Calculus* changed both the content and pedagogy of
calculus. During this period of time, there was a movement to “reform” calculus. In
1986 and 1987, Steve Maurer and Ronald Douglas held two conferences, “Toward a
Lean and Lively Calculus” and “Calculus for a New Century: A Pump not a Filter.”
This movement gave rise to what has become known as the Harvard Calculus approach
and the publication of a book commonly known as the Hughes-Hallett Calculus.^ The
reform calculus movement divided the mathematics community into two “camps” and
,W. A. Granville, P. F. Smith, and W. R. Longley, Elements o f the Differential and Integral Calculus. Boston: Ginn
and Company, 1929.
'G. B. Thomas, Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Classic Edition (Reprint of the 1952 edition). Reading: Addison
Wesley, 1983.
÷Tom Apostle. Calculus (2 volums): Hoboken, Wiley, 1967
5 James Stewart, Calculus. Belmont: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, a division of Wadsworth, Inc., 1987
'i Deborah Hughes-Hallett, Andrew M. Gleason, et. al., Calculus. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 1994.
Preface ix
the teaching of calculus went through great changes, most of which will have lasting
benefit to students.
With these books (and we have either learned or taught from all of them) and others
we found those features which are essential and those which arc superficial. Over the
years, we have class tested our ideas and with this edition we have brought to you a book
which is as fresh as this century, but preserves all the tried-and-true techniques which
have been found to provide the necessary foundation for future work in mathematics. As
college enrollments soar past the twenty million mark, education must now be designed
for the masses. Regardless of the equipment offered at school, individual students have
access to more and more technology (computers, iPads, smartphones, calculators, and
Facebook, etc.). They use that technology not only to learn, but to communicate with
each other in a cyber community. The calculus book for next generation needs to “work”
in today's world and with today's changing technology, but at the same time, not compro
mise the student's ability to work complicated mathematical problems without relying on
technology. These issues were our guiding principle as we wrote this edition of Calculus.
Some of the distinguishing characteristics of the earlier editions arc continued with this
edition:
• It is possible to begin the course with cither Chapter I or Chapter 2 (where the calculus
topics begin).
• This edition offers an early presentation of transcendental functions: Logarithms, expo
nential functions, and trigonometric functions arc heavily integrated into all chapters
of the book (especially Chapters 1-5).
• We have taken the introduction of differential equations seriously. Students in many
allied disciplines need to use differential equations early in their studies and conse
quently cannot wait for a postcalculus course. In this edition, we introduce differential
equations in a natural and reasonable way. Slope fields are introduced as a geometric
view of antidiffcrcntiation in Section 5.1, and then arc used to introduce a graphi
cal solution to differential equations in Section 5.6. We consider separable differential
equations in Chapter 5 and first-order linear differential equations in Chapter 7, and
demonstrate the use of both, modeling a variety of applied situations. Exact and homo
geneous differential equations appear in Chapter 14, along with an introduction to
second-order linear equations. The “early and often” approach to differential equations
is intended to illustrate their value in continuous modeling and to provide a solid
foundation for further study.
• We continue to utilize the humanness of mathematics. History is not presented as
additional material to learn. Rather we have placed history into problems that lead the
reader from the development of a concept to actually participating in the discovery
process. The problems arc designated as historical Quest problems. The problems arc
not designed to be “add-on or challenge problems,” but rather to become an integral
part of the assignment. The level of difficulty of Quest problems ranges from easy to
difficult.
• This edition correctly reflects the precalculus mathematics being taught at most colleges
and universities. We assume knowledge of the trigonometric functions, and in this
edition we introduce ex and lnx in Chapter 2 after we have defined the notion of a
limit. We also assume a knowledge of the conic sections and their graphs.
• T hink T ank P roblem s Thinking about and doing mathematics is different than
solving textbook problems. When thinking about and doing mathematics, a proposition
may be true or false, whereas the typical textbook problem has a nice and concise
answer. In the T h in k T ank problems our task is to prove the proposition true or to
find a counterexample to disprove the proposition. We believe this form of problem to
X
Preface
be important in preparing the student for future work in not only advanced mathematics
courses, but also for analytically oriented courses.
• EXPLORATION PROBLEMS It has been said that mathematical discovery is
directed toward two major goals— the formulation of proofs and the construction of
counterexamples. Most calculus books focus only on the first goal (the body of proofs
and true statements), but we feel that some attention should be paid to the formulation,
exploring concepts that may prove to be true or for which a counterexample is appro
priate. These exploration problems go beyond the category of counterexample problem
to provide opportunities for innovative thinking.
• Journal P roblem s In an effort to show that “mathematicians work problems too,”
we have reprinted problems from leading mathematics journals. We have chosen prob
lems that are within reach of the intended audience of this book. If students need help
or hints for these problems, they can search out the original presentation and solution
in the cited journal. In addition, we have included problems from various Putnam
examinations. These problems, which are more challenging, arc offered in the supple
mentary problems at the end of various chapters and arc provided to give insight into
the type of problems that arc asked in mathematical competitions. The Putnam Exam
ination is a national annual examination given under the auspices of the Mathematical
Association of America and is designed to recognize mathematically talented college
and university students.
• Modeling continues as a major theme in this edition. Modeling is discussed in Section,
and then appears in almost every section of the book. These applications are desig
nated Modeling Problems or MODELING EXPERIMENTS. Some authors use the
words “Modeling Problem” to refer to any applied problem. We make a distinction
between modeling problems and application problems by defining a modeling prob
lem as follows. A modeling problem is a problem that requires the reader make
some assumptions about the real world in order to derive or come up with the neces
sary mathematical formula or mathematical information to answer the question. These
problems also include real-world examples of modeling by citing the source of the
book or journal that shows the modeling process.
Much of the difficulty students encounter learning the ideas of calculus can be
attributed to ways students study and learn mathematics in high school, which often
involves stressing rote memorization over insight and understanding. On the other hand,
some reform texts arc perceived as spending so much time with the development of insight
and understanding that students are not given enough exposure to important computational
and problem-solving skills in order to perform well in more advanced courses. This text
aims at a middle ground by providing sound development, simulating problems, and
well-developed pedagogy within a framework of a traditional tropic structure. “Think,
then do” is a fair summary of our approach.
TEXT CO NTENT
The content of this text adapts itself to either semester or quarter systems, and both
differentiation and integration can be introduced in the first course. We begin calculus
with a minimum of review. Cumulative reviews arc offered at locations that fit the way
calculus is taught at most colleges and universities. The first one includes Chapters 1-5,
the second includes Chapters 6-8. Furthermore there is a cumulative review for single-
variable calculus (Chapters 1-10) and multivariable calculus (Chapters 11-13). Chapter
14, provides an introduction to differential equations, which is often considered as a
separate course.
7.8, 11.8, and 12.8. To assist instructors with the pacing of the course, we have written
the material so each section can be reasonably covered in one classroom day, but to do
so requires the students to read the text in order to tic together the ideas that might be
discussed in a classroom setting.
Problems After the correct topics and sequence of topics, the important aspect of any
book is its problems. We believe that students learn mathematics by doing mathematics.
Therefore, the problems and applications arc perhaps the most important feature of any
calculus book, and you will find that the problems in this book extend from routine
practice to challenging. The problem sets arc divided into Level 1 Problems (routine),
Level 2 Problems (requiring independent thought), and Level 3 Problems (challenging).
In this book we also include past Putnam examination problems as well as problems
found in current mathematical journals. You will find the scope and depth of the problems
in this book to be extraordinary. Even though engineering and physics examples and
problems play a prominent role, we include applications from a wide variety of fields,
such as biology, economics, ecology, psychology, and sociology. The problems have
been in the developmental stages for over ten years and virtually all have been class
tested. In addition, the chapter summaries provide not only topical review, but also many
supplementary exercises. Although the chapter reviews arc typical of examinations, the
supplementary problems are not presented as graded problems, but rather as a random
list of problems loosely tied to the ideas of that chapter. In addition, there are cumulative
reviews located at natural subdivision points in the text.
The problem sets arc uniform in length (60 problems each), which facilitates the
assigning of problems from day-to-day. (For example 3-60, multiples of 3 works well
with the paired nature of the problems.)
Parametric forms Parametric representation first appears when graphing lines in para
metric form in Section 1.3 and is then generalized to parametric curves (and lines in
R 3 ) in Section 9.5. Parametric forms are essential in the development of vector-valued
functions in Chapter 10 and area of a surface defined parametrically in Chapter 12.
Proofs
Precise reasoning has been, and we believe will continue to be, the backbone of good
mathematics. While never sacrificing good pedagogy and student understanding, we
present important results as theorems. We do not pretend to prove every theorem in
this book; in fact, we often only outline the steps one would take in proving a theorem.
We refer the reader to Appendix B for longer proofs, or sometimes to an advanced calcu
lus text. Why then do we include the heading “PROOF” after each theorem? It is because
we want the student to know that for a result to be a theorem there must be a proof. We
use the heading not necessarily to give a complete proof in the text, but to give some
direction to where a proof can be found, or an indication of how it can be constructed.
I N N O V A T IV E P R E S E N T A T IO N
Calculus (first edition) by Bradley/Smith was first published in 1995, was revised (in the
third edition) by Strauss∕Bradlcy∕Smith in 2002, and now ten years later has a new writing
team of Smith∕Slrauss∕Toda. We offer you a book designed to begin a new generation
of calculus textbooks. This edition was developed through the lens of hindsight so as
to blend the best aspects of calculus reform along with the goals and methodology of
traditional calculus. We’ve used foresight to present it in a format which is enhanced,
but not dominated, by new technology.
mathematics wields its words precisely and compactly, but because verbalization should
help students think conceptually.
Integration of Technology
Technology Notes There is a need to embrace the benefits technology brings to the
learning of mathematics. Simply adding a lab course to the traditional calculus is possible,
but this may lead to unacceptable work loads for all involved. Today it is reasonable to
assume that each student has access to a computer and the World Wide Web. Throughout
the book, many of the figures arc designated as INTERACTIVE which means that the
curves can be manipulated online to observe the characteristics involved. For example,
Figure 29, Section 2.1 shows the epsilon-delta definition of a limit. This is a difficult
concept to illustrate with a static figure, but each when you can see the figure in an
interactive format, it becomes crystal clear.
Most processes in calculus arc now available on the web, so we do not give you
specific programs or technology since those processes arc often outdated by the time a
book is printed. Work with your classmates to identify appropriate online software.
Greater Text Visualization Related to, but not cxelusively driven by, the use of
technology is the greater use of graphs and other mathematical pictures throughout this
text. Over 1,500 graphs appear— more than any other calculus text— and included arc
over 100 INTERACTIVE pieces of art which show you the dynamic process of calculus.
This increased visualization is intended to help develop greater student intuition, and to
allow the student to experiment, lest hypotheses, and formulate conclusions. Also, since
tough calculus problems arc often tough geometry (and algebra) problems, this increased
emphasis on graphs will help students’ problem-solving skills. Additional graphs arc
related to the student problems, including answer art.
AC K N O W LED G M EN TS
5 .1 A N T ID IF F E R E N T IA T IO N
Reversing Differentiation
A physicist who knows the acceleration of a particle may want to determine its velocity
or its position at a particular time. An ecologist who knows the rate at which a certain
pollutant is being absorbed by a particular species of fish might want to know the actual
amount of pollutant in the fish’s system at a given time. In each of these cases, a derivative
f ' is given and the problem is that of finding the corresponding function f . Toward this
end, we make the following definition.
for all x in 1.
Given F (x )= x 3 G (x )= x 3 - 5 H (x )= x 3 + π 2
Find: F'(.v) = 3.v2 G '(x) = 3x 2 H , (x) = 3x 2
In the following theorem, wc use the constant difference theorem of Section 4.2 to show
that any antiderivative of f can be expressed in this form.
hat this says Two antiderivatives of the same function differ by a constant.
Proof: If F and G arc both antiderivatives o f / , then F '= f and G' = f and Theorem 4.6
(the constant difference theorem) tells us that
Solution
live is G (x) = — + C .
b. Il S(x) = —c o s x , then S (x) = sin x, so G (x) = —cosx + C .
c. If /?(x) = In ∣x∣, then F '(x) = - , so G (x ) = In ∣x∣ ÷ C .
x
Recall that the slope of a function y = f ( x ) at any point (x,y) on its graph is given
by the derivative ∕' ( x ) . We can exploit this fact to obtain a “ picture” of the graph of
/ . Reconsider Example lc where y ' = 1/x. There is an antiderivative F (x) of 1/x such
that the slope of F at each point (x ,F (x )) is 1/x for each nonzero value of x . Let us
draw a graph of these slopes following the procedure shown in Figure 5.1.
Finally, notice the relationship between the slope field fory' = - and its antideriva
tive y = ln∣x∣ + C (found in Example lc). If we choose particular values for C , say
C = 0, C = —In 2, or C = 2 and draw these particular antiderivatives in Figure 5.2,
we notice that these particular solutions arc anticipated by the slope Held drawn in
Figure 5 .lb. That is, the slope field shows the entire family of antiderivatives of the
original equation.
Slope fields will be discussed in more detail in Section 5.6, when we will use the
term direction fields for what we are now calling slope fields. In general, slope fields,
and antiderivatives obtained by using slope fields, are usually generated using technology
in computers and calculators. Here is an example in which the antiderivatives cannot be
obtained as elementary functions.
2
Figure 5.4 Interactive Antiderivative of y' = ex passing through (0,0)
Antiderivative Notation
It is worthwhile to define a notation to indicate the operation of antidifferentiation.
∣f(x ) d x = F(x) + C
hat this says This is nothing more than the definition of the antiderivative, I
along with a convenient notation. We also agree that in the context of anlidiffercn- I
liation, C is an arbitrary constant.
Because each member of the family y = F(x) + C has the same derivative at x, the
slope of the graph at x is the same. This means that the graph of all functions of the
form y = F(x) ÷ C is a collection of parallel curves, as shown in Figure 5.5.
The process of finding indefinite integrals is called indefinite integration. Notice
that this process amounts to finding an antiderivative o f / and adding an arbitrary constant
C , which is called the constant of integration.
Example 3 Antidifferentiation
Find each of the following indefinite integrals,
a. ∕5 x 3 √x b. / scc2 xdx c. f ex dx
Solution
I 5x 3 <√x — ------ 1- C
J 4
sec2 x dx = tan x + C
c. Since — (e r ) = ex , we have
dx
ex dx = ex ÷ C
PROCEDURAL RULES
df f c f(u )d u = e / f( u ) d u
Constant multiple rule: — (cf) = c — i
du du J
Sum rules: ~ ( f + g) = ~ + ⅛ I∣ [/(«) + g(«)] du = / f( ιι) d u + ∫ g (u )d u
du du du J
ι d df d8
τv ff
Difference rules: A ( [ / ( « ) - g ( w ) ] du = ∣ f( ιι) d u - ∣ g ( u ) du
— (f —g) = - -----------
du du du J
cl df d 1 [α∕(zz) + z⅛(z∕)] du = a f f ( u ) d u + b f g (u)d u
Linearity rules: — (af ÷ bg} = a — + b — i
du du du J
BASIC FORMULAS
d
Constant rules: - τ ~ (c )= 0
dx
Proof: Each of these parts can be derived by reversing the accompanying derivative
formula. For example, to obtain the power rule, note that if n is any number other than
—1, then
r∕ Γ 1
— ------- u — — [(n + l)z∕"] = u n
dx [_/? ÷ 1 n+ 1 j
Power rule
Solution
χ 3∕2
= 5 —---- F 4 (—COSΛ ') ÷ C Power and trig rules
2
10 3/2 λ
= — x 3/ “ —4 COSA ' ÷ C
3
Applications
In Chapter 3, we used differentiation to compute the slope at each point on the graph of
a function. Example 6 shows how this procedure can be reversed.
F'(,v) = 4Λ-3 - 5
F ∖x ) d x = j ( 4 x 3 - 5 ) d x
Λv 4 ∖
F (x) = 4 — - 5.v + C
∖4 /
= x 4 - 5.v + C
330 5.1 Antidifferentiation
The family of curves is y = Λ^4 — 5x ÷ C . To find the one that passes through (1,2),
substitute:
2 = 14 - 5 ( 1 ) + C
6= C
If we compare the analytic solution and the graphical solution, we see that the graph
of the equation in the analytic solution is the same as the one found by technology.
In Section 3.4, we observed that an object moving along a straight line with position
s(t) has velocity υ(f) = — and acceleration a(f) = — . Thus, we have
at dt
-2
—3 = υ(l) = —— I-Ci so Ci = —3 + 2 = -1
Since s ( I) = 5, we have
5 = 5(1) = - 2 l n ∣ l ∣ - I + C 2 or C2 = 6
Thus, 5(t) = —2 In ∣Z∣ — Z + 6 so that 5(4) ≈ —0.7726. The particle is at —0.7726 when
/=4.
Solution Let «(/), υ (∕), and s(t) denote the acceleration, velocity, and position of the
car / seconds after the brakes are applied. We shall assume that 5 is measured from the
point where the brakes are applied, so that 5(0) = 0.
v(t) = a(f)dt
Similarly,
5(/) = v(t)dt
(-22/ + 88)<√r
= - l l ∕ 2 + 88/
Finally, the car comes to rest when its velocity is 0, so we need to solve υ(∕) = 0 for /:
-22/ ÷ 88 = 0
/= 4
This means that the car decelerates for 4 sec before coming to rest, and in that time it
travels
5 (4) =
- l l ( 4 ) 2 + 88(4) = 176 ft
Indefinite integration also has applications in business and economics. Recall from
Section 4.7, that the demand function for a particular commodity is the function p (x),
which gives the price p that consumers will pay for each unit of the commodity when
x units are brought to market. Then the total revenue is /?(x) = xp(x), and the marginal
revenue is /?'(x). The next example shows how the demand function can be determined
from the marginal revenue.
Solution
R (x) = ∣ R '(x )d x
= ∣ (240 + 0. lx) dx
= 240x + 0.1 ( - x 2 ∣+ C
∖2 /
= 240x + 0.05x 2 + C
Because /?(x) = xp(x), where p(x) is the demand function, we must have /?(0) = 0 so
that
∣
<(x) 240x + 0.05X 2
p(x) = = 240 + 0.05x
x
Area as an Antiderivative
In the next section, we shall consider area as the limit of a sum, and we conclude this
section by showing how area can be computed by antidifferentiation. The connection
between area as a limit and area as an antiderivative is then made by a result called the
fundamental theorem of calculus (see Section 5.4).
Proof: Define an area function, A (/), as the area of the region bounded by the curve
y = f { x ) , the x-axis, and the vertical lines x = a , x = t for a < t < b, as shown in
Figure 5.7.
We need to show that A (∕) is an antiderivative o f/ on the interval [«,/?]; that is, we
need to show that A '(∕) = /(/).
Let lι > 0 be small enough so that t + h < b and consider the numerator o f the
difference quotient for A ( ∕) , namely, the difference A ( ∕ +//) —A ( ∕) . Geometrically, this
difference is the area under the curve y = ∕( x ) between x = / and x = / + //, as shown
in Figure 5.8.
5.1 Antidifferentiation 333
If h is small enough, this area is approximately the same as the area of a rectangle with
base Λ and height /(<?), where c is some point in the interval [t,t + ∕r], as shown in
Figure 5.8. Thus, we have
A
s
(f + ∕∕)1 - A ( r ) , ≈ ∕sl ∕( c )
' >■∣■∣.
■⅛ - z<—
*■⅜
Area under the curve on [t, t + h] Area of rectangle
A(r + Λ ) - A ( r ) .f λ
---------- -.---------- ≈ ∕( c )
h
Finally, by taking the limit as lι → 0+ , we find the derivative of the area function A(r)
satisfies
A(r + A ) - A ( r ) h f (c)
lιm ----------------------= lιm --------
Λ→ 0+ II lι→0 + II
A'(t) = f V )
The limit on the left is the definition of derivative, and on the right we see that since f
is continuous and c is in the interval [r, t + lι], c must approach t as lι → 0+ . A similar
argument works as lι → 0^. Thus, A(t) is an antiderivative o f ∕( r ) . ♦
Find the area under the parabola y = x 2 over x-axis on the interval [ 0 ,1]. This area is
shown in Figure 5.9.
Solution Let A(r) be the area function for this example— namely, the area under y = x 2
over y = 0 on [0, 1]. Since f is continuous a n d ∕( x ) > 0 on [0, 1], Theorem 5.3 tells us
that A(f) is an antiderivative o f ∕( r ) = t 2 on [0, 1]. That is,
A(r) = t 2 dt = - r 3 + C
4(0) = l( 0 ) 3 + C or C=0
P R O B L E M S E T 5 .1
Level 1 31. F '( Λ-) = Λ-2 + 3Λ- with 32. F '(x ) = (2Λ- - 1)2 with
point (0,0). point (1,3).
Find the indefinite integral in Problems I -30.
1. I 2 d x 2. / —4 d x
3. / (2Λ- + 3) dx 4. / ( 4 - 5x) dx
3 2
5. ∕( 4 f + 3r ) Λ 6. / ( -8 r 3 + 15r5 )4r
x
7. 8. / 14e dx
1 2x
f 5 ∣' dx
15. / , dy 16. 1 10(1+ x 2 )
' √ l-y 2
2
17. / Λ-(Λ-+ √ x)r∕x 18. ∣ y ( y - ^ y ) d y
35. slope -— — with point 36. slope — —ζ - - with
[ (u 2/2 — z/1/2 + ιt~' 0 )du n ^>∖x .r √ x 2 - 1
19. ( 1 >- 2 )∙ point (4,1).
3
20. / (Λ- - 3.r + V x - 5) dx •
—
t ⅛ - i * l ) * * . ∣ 'l r I
21.
.Λ
2 2
23. / (2X + 5 ) √Λ- 24. 1 ( 3 - 4 A-3 )2 6∕Λ-
f ( x 2 + 3x - 1∖ dx 26∖ Γ Λ-2 + √ Λ + 1 I
25. / ( √ ) / --------- 5------- c 'x
1 x~
fx 2 + x -2
27. / ------- o------"λι '
1 Λ-
f ( ∙ ÷ l ) ( - ⅛ ) -
28.
I χ2
/ √ l -Λ - - 1d χ 30
29. / ------ dx
' √ l-x 2 1 x 4~ ∖
5 .2 A R E A A S T H E L IM IT O F A S U M
IN THIS SECTION: Area as the limit of a sum, the general approximation scheme, summation notation, area
using summation formulas, area using special summation formulas
In this section, we shall show that it is reasonable to define area as the limit of a sum. In the process, we shall introduce
ideas that play a key role in our general development of integral calculus.
Estimate the area under the parabola y = x 2 and above the x-axis on the interval [ 0 ,1].
Solution In the previous section we found this area using the area function. In this
example, we will estimate the area by adding the areas of approximating rectangles
constructed on subintcrvals of [0,1], as shown in Figure 5.10b. To simplify computations,
we will require all approximating rectangles to have the same width and will take the
height of each rectangle to be the y-coordinate of the parabola above the right endpoint
of the subinterval on which it is based.*
For the first estimate, we divide the interval [0, 1] into 5 subintervals, as shown in
Figure 5.1 la . Because the approximating rectangles all have the same width, the right
endpoints are x∣ = 0.2, X2 = 0.4, X3 = 0.6, X4 = 0.8, and X5 = 1. This subdivision is
called a partition of the interval.
The width of each subdivision is denoted by ∆ x and is found by dividing the length
of the interval by the number of subintcrvals:
1- 0
∆ x = ------- = 0.2
5
’ Actually, there is nothing special about right end-points, and we could just as easily have used any other point in the
base subinterval— say, the left endpoint or the midpoint.
5.2 Area as the Limit of a Sum 337
Let S∣
l be the total area of n rectangles. For
the case where n = 5,
Even though S5 = 0.44 serves as a reasonable approximation of the area, we see from
Figure 5 .1 la that this approximation seems too large. Let us rework Example I using a
general scheme rather than a specified number of rectangles. Partition the interval [0,1]
into n equal parts, each with width
I -0 1
n n
' k - 1 A'
For k = 1,2,3, ∙ ∙ ∙ , n , the Ath subinterval is , and on this subinterval we
n ’n
Figure 5.12 Interactive The area estimate is improved by taking more rectangles
If we increase the number of subdivisions /1, the width ∆.v = — of each approxi
mating rectangle will decrease, and we would expect the area estimates Sll to improve.
Thus, it is reasonable to define the area A under the parabola to be the limit o f S,l as
∆x → 0 or, equivalently, as n → 00. We can attempt to predict its value by seeing what
happens to the sum as n grows large without bound. It is both tedious and difficult to
338 5.2 Area as the Limit of a Sum
evaluate such sums by hand, but fortunately we can use a calculator or computer to
obtain some (rounded) values for S,l . For the area in Example 1, for example, we could
use a computer to find S JOO = 0.338, S,ι.ooo = 0.334, and S5,000 = 0.333.
For k = 1,2,3 ,..., n the Ath subinterval is [a + (k — l)∆ x ,α + AΔΛ ], and the Ath
approximating rectangle is constructed with width ∆.v and height f ( a + k A x ) equal
to the height of the curve y = ∕( x ) above the right endpoint of the subintcrval. Adding
the areas of these n rectangles, we obtain
Area o f first rectangle Area o f second rectangle Area o f nth rectangle
S∣
t = f(cι ÷ Δ Λ')Δ,V + f (a ÷ 2 Δ . V)Δ Λ∙ 4----- ∖-f(a + n∆ x)∆ x
as an estimate of the area under the curve. In advanced calculus, it is shown that the
continuity of/ guarantees the existence of lim S∣ , and we use this limit to define the
Δ.r→0 l
required area, as shown in the following box.
b —a
where ∆.v = -------
n
The definition of area as a limit of a sum is consistent with the area concept intro
duced in plane geometry, and with the area function defined in Section 5.1. For example,
it would not be difficult to use this formula to show that a rectangle has area A = tw or
that a triangle has area A = ∖bh. You will also note that we maintained everyday usage
in saying that the formula for the area of a rectangle is A = £w or the area of the region
under the curve y = f( x ) is a limit, but what we are really doing is defining area as a
limit.
The problem we now face is how to implement this definition of area as the limit of
a sum. The immediate answer (discussed in this section) is to use summation formulas
and technology. The long-range goal is to develop integral calculus, which is discussed
in the next section.
Summation Notation
The expanded form of the sum for the definition of area makes it awkward to use.
Therefore, we shall digress to introduce a more compact notation for sums, and that
notation will motivate integral notation. Using this summation notation, we express the
sum a ∖÷ ci2 4---- ÷ an as follows:
II
a 1 4- ∏2 T- ∙ ∙ ∙ + all = y ' a∣
i
k=∖
5.2 Area as the Limit of a Sum 339
The summation notation is sometimes called the sigma notation because the upper
case Greek letter sigma (Σ) is used to denote the summation process. The index k is
called the index of summation (or running index). The terminology used in connection
with the summation notation is shown:
Σ ⅛
Jt=l ‘
Index of summation
Lower limit o f summation
Note that in the summation process, the choice of summation index is immaterial.
For example, the following sums are all exactly the same:
7 7 7 7
Σ*2=Σ>2=Σ'-2=Σ λ2
⅛=3 j=3 i=3 λ=3
In general, an index (A',y, /, or λ) that represents a process in which it has no direct effect
on the result is called a dummy variable.
Several useful properties of sums and sum formulas are listed in Theorem 5.4. We
shall use the summation notation throughout the rest of this text, especially in this chapter,
Chapter 6, and Chapter 8.
2. Sum rule ∑ + bk ) = ∑ ak + ∑ bk
k =∖ k= ∖ k= ∖
Il II / ∣
l ∖
3. Scalar multiple rule ∑ cak = c ∑ ak = ∑ ak c
A= l λ= l V=l /
Proof: These properties can all be established by applying well-known algebraic rules.
For example, to prove the linearity rule, use the associative, commutative, and distributive
properties of real numbers.
Il
22(cc∕⅛ + dbk ) = (cci∖÷ db ∖) + (cr∕2 + db2) 4-------1- (can ÷ dbll )
/.-=/
) 4- (db∖4* db2 4^ ∙ ∙ ■4^ db∣
= (cct∖+ c∏2 4- ∙ ∙ ∙ ÷ ccιl∣ l)
Sec the Problems 57-60 for the proofs of the other parts.
340 5.2 Area as the Limit of a Sum
where ∆x = ------- . Thus, the formula for the definition of area is shown:
n
From algebra we recall certain summation formulas (which can be proved using
mathematical induction) that wc will need in order to find areas using the limit definition.
SUMMATION FORMULAS
II
∑ l= n
λ -l
∑ k — I ÷ 2÷ 3÷ ∙∙∙+ n
∑ t k 2 = l 2 + 22 + 3 2 + ∙ → n 2 =
k=∖
∑ k 3 ≈ l 3 + 2 3 + 33 + ∙ ∙∙ + n 3 =
A=l
Use the summation definition of area to find the area under the parabola y = x 2 on the
interval [0, 1]. You estimated this area in Example 1.
Solution Partition the interval [0,1] into n subintervals with width ∆.v = The
right endpoint of the Ath subinterval is a + A∆x = a n d ∕( ^ ∙) = ⅛ . Thus, from the
definition of area wc have
n
A= lim y~y f ( a + k ∆ x )∆ x
δ ^'→0 A=1
5.2 Area as the Limit of a Sum 341
= l i m Σ 2 ~
Note that —ris independent o f the index o f summation, k .
n→∞ ★
—' ∏-y ni
1 n
3
This is the same as the answer found by antidifferentiation in Example 10 of
Section 5.1.
nπ
a + n An = -r = b
2n )
Thus,
II II
5z∕ = ‰
Jt=l k=∖
P R O B L E M S E T 5 .2
41. Show that the region under the curve y = x 3 on the a. Use the basic rules for sums to show that
interval [0,1] has area ∣ square units. ιι . n . n
- i ) 2 ] + ∣ ∑ ι
∑ * = ∣ ∑ [ ^ - ⅛
42. Use the definition of area to show that the area of a rect
angle equals the product of its length (, and its width w. k≈l k= ∖ k=∖
43. Show that the triangle with vertices (0,0), (0, ∕z), and = ⅛ 2 - ( * - D 2] + 5"
(b, 0) has area A = ∖bh using the area as the limit of
a sum. Jt=l
44. a. Compute the area under the parabola y = 2x 2 on the
b. Show that
interval [1,2] as the limit of a sum.
b. Let∕ ( Λ') = 2x 2 and note thatg(x) = ∣ x 3 defines f [ P - ( A ∙ - l ) 2] = √
a function that satisfies g'(x) = f (x) on the inter
Jt= l
val [ 1, 2]. Verify that the area computed in part a
satisfies A = g (2) —g ( 1). Hint: Expand the sum by writing out a few terms.
c. The function defined by Note the internal cancellation.
c. Combine parts a and b to show that
2
Λ(Λ∙) = - , r 31 + C
, _ n (∏ ÷ 1)
- 2
for any constant C also satisfies ∕ι'(x ) = f (x). Is it k=∖
true that the area in part a satisfies A = h (2) — ∕z ( 1) ?
54. a. First find constants a , b , c , and d such that
Use the tabular approach to compute the area under the
curve y = ∕( x ) on each interval given in Problems 45-51 k 3 = a [A'4 - (A - I )4 ] + bk 2 + c k + d
as the limit o f a sum o f terms.
45. ∕( x ) = 4x on [0, Γ∣ b. Modify the approach outlined in Problem 53 to
46. ∕( x ) = x 2 on [0,4] establish the formula
47. f (x) = cosA' on [—⅞, θ] (Compare with Problem 23.) n{n + 1)(2/7 + 1)
48. f (x) = x ÷ sinx on [θ, ≡∙] (Compare with 6
Problem 24.)
49. ∕ ( Λ-) = ln(x 2 + l)o n [0,3] 55. The purpose of this problem is to verify the results
50. f (x) = e~ 3 x ~ on [0, 1] shown in Figure 5.12. Specifically, we shall find the
area A under the parabola y = x 2 on the interval [0,1]
51. f (x) = cos- 1 (x + 1) on [—1, 0]
using approximating rectangles with heights taken at
52. a. Use the tabular approach to compute the area under the left endpoints. Verify that
the curve y = sinx + cosx on the interval [θ, ⅞] as
the limit of a sum. 1
b. L c t ∕( x ) = sinx + cosx and note that 3
g(x) = —cosx ÷ sinx satisfies g'(x) = ∕( x ) on the
interval [θ, ⅞]. Verify that the area computed in part
Compare this with the procedure outlined in
a satisfies/! = g (⅝) —g(0).
Example 1. Note that when the interval [0, 1] is
c. The function ∕z(x) = —cosx + sinx + C for con
subdivided into n equal parts, the A th subinlcrval is
stant C also satisfies ∕z'(x) = ∕( x ) . Is it true that the
area in part a satisfies A = h (⅞) — /? (0)? k - 1 k
n ’n
5 .3 R IE M A N N S U M S A N D T H E D E F IN IT E I N T E G R A L
IN THIS SECTION: Riemann sums, the definite integral, area as an integral, properties of the definite integral,
distance as an integral
In this section, we lay the groundwork for the third great idea of calculus (after limit and derivative), namely the idea
of integration.
We shall soon discover that not just area, but other useful quantities such as dis
tance, volume, mass, and work, can be first approximated by sums and then obtained
exactly by taking a limit involving the approximating sums. The special kind of limit
of a sum that appears in this context is called the definite integral, and the process of
finding integrals is called definite integration or Riemann integration in honor of the
German mathematician Georg Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866), who pioneered the mod
ern approach to integration theory. We begin by introducing some special notation and
terminology.
Riemann Sums
Recall from Section 5.1 that to find the area under the graph of the function y = f( x )
on the closed interval [«,b] using sums where f is continuous an d ∕(.r) > 0, we proceed
as follows:
2. Evaluate f at the right endpoint a + AΔΛ' of the Ath subintcrval for k = 1,2, ∙ ∙ ∙ ,n.
3. Form the approximating sum of the areas of the n rectangles, which we denote by
n
fl
This approach to the area problem contains the essentials of integration, but there
is no compelling reason for the partition points to be evenly spaced or to insist on
evaluating / at right endpoints. These conventions are for convenience of computation,
but to accommodate easily as many applications as possible, it is useful to consider a
more general type of approximating sum and to specify what is meant by the limit of such
sums. The approximating sums that occur in integration problems arc called Riemann
sums, and the following definition contains a step-by-step description of how such sums
are formed.
5.3 Riemann Sums and the Definite Integral 345
Step 2 Choose a number arbitrarily from each subinterval. For A = 1,2, ∙ ∙ ∙ ,n the
number A∕ chosen from the Ath subinterval [A⅛ -∣, X ⅛] is called the kth
subinterval representative of the partition P .
Step 3 Form the sum
n
R,, = f ( r f ) ∆ x l + ∕( Λ∙2, ) Δ Λ∙2 + ■∙ ■+ ∕⅛ ) ∆ Λ ∙,, = ] Γ ∕⅛ ∙ ) Δ ⅛
k=∖
This is the Riemann sum associated w ith/, the given partition P , and the chosen
subinterval representatives
* $ ≈÷=
x 1 ,x 2 , ∙ ∙ ∙ , ⅞
hat this says: We will express quantities from geometry, physics, economics,
and other applications in terms of a Riemann sum
n
k= l
Riemann sums are generally used to model a quantity for a particular application.
Note that the Riemann sum does not require that the function / be nonnegative, nor
does it require that all the intervals must be the same length. In addition, Λ∕ is any
point in the Ath subintcrval and docs not need to be something “ nice” like the left
or right endpoint, or the midpoint.
k *k — Xk-∖ = Δ A-X,∙ A *
Λ ∏
=
1 - 1 .6 - ( - 2 ) = 0.40 -1.81 / ( -1 .8 1 ) = -3 .6 2
2 - 0 .9 3 - ( - 1 .6 ) = 0.67 -1 .1 2 / ( -1 .1 2 ) = -2 .2 4
3 -0.21 - (-0 .9 3) = 0.72 -0 .5 5 / ( -0 .5 5 ) = -1 .1 0
4 0 .3 5 - ( - 0 .2 1 ) = 0.56 -0 .1 7 / ( -0 .1 7 ) = -0 .3 4
5 0.82 - 0.35 = 0.47 0.43 /(0.43) = 0.86
6 1 .0 0 -0 .8 2 = 0.18 0.94 /(0.94) = 1.88
From this table, we sec that the largest subintcrval width is Δ Λ'3 = 0.72, so the
partition has norm ∣∣P∣∣ = 0.72. Finally, by using the definition, we find the Riemann
sum:
Notice from Example I that the /?6 = (-3.62)(0.4) + (-2.24)(0.67) + (-1.10)(0.72) + (-0.34)(0.56)
Riemann sum does not necessarily
+ (0.86)(0.47) + (1.88)(0.18)
represent an area. The sum found
= -3.1886
is negative (and areas must be
nonnegative).
The Definite Integral
By comparing the formula for the Riemann sum with that of area in the previous section,
we recognize that the sum S n used to approximate area is actually a special kind of
Riemann sum that has
b —a
∆x∣
i = ∆.v = -------- and x∣
, = a + k ∆.v
n
for A' = 1 ,2 ,∙ ∙ ∙ , it. Because the subinlcrvals in the partition P associated with S l ∣are
equally spaced, it is called a regular partition. When we express the area under the
curve y = f ( x ) as A = lim S ∣ l , we arc actually saying that A can be estimated to any
ΔΛ →0
desired accuracy by finding a Riemann sum of the form S„ with norm
IIP II =
/1
sufficiently small. We use this interpretation as a model for the following definition.
n
l = lim ∕( x ,* ) ∆ Λ γ
ι∣p∣ι→o ^
exists. This limit is called the definite integral o f/ from a to b. The definite integral
is denoted by
Cb
1 = / f(x )d x
W hat this says To say that / is integrable with definite integral I means the
fl> ’•
/ f ( x ) d x = lim Y Λ ∕ ( X J1* ) ∆ A∙
A IIΠ→0 ⅛ ↑
5.3 Riemann Sums and the Definite Integral 347
Formally, I is the definite integral of f on [«,/;] if for each number € > 0, there
exists a number δ > 0 such that if
∑ ∕( ¾ , ) Δ ⅛
is any Riemann sum o f / whose norm satisfies ∣∣P∣∣ < <5, then
In advanced calculus, it is shown that when this limit exists, it is unique. Moreover,-
its value is independent of the particular way in which the partitions of [«,£?] and the
subintcrval representatives A∕ arc chosen.
’ Take a few minutes to make sure you understand the integral notation and
terminology.
upper limit of integration
integrand
f(x )d x dx
variable o f integration
lower limit of integration
The function / that is being integrated is called the integrand; the interval [π, b] is
the interval of integration; and the endpoints a and b are called, respectively, the lower
and upper limits of integration.
In the special case where a = b , the interval of integration [«,/?] is really just a
point, and the integral of any function on this “ interval” is defined to be 0; that is,
Also, at limes, we shall consider integrals in which the lower limit of integration is a
larger number than the upper limit. To handle this case, we specify that the integral from
b to a is the opposite of the integral from a to b:
f(x )d x = - f( x } d x
To summarize;
f( x ')d x = - f(x )d x
Al first, the definition of the definite integral may seem rather imposing. How are we
to tell whether a given function/ is integrable on an interval ∣Λ , ∕ P]7 If/ is integrable, how
are we supposed to actually compute the definite integral? Answering these questions is
not easy, but in advanced calculus, it is shown that / is integrable on a closed interval
[ a ,b] if it is continuous on the interval except at a finite number of points and if it is
bounded on the interval (that is, there is a number M > 0 such that ∣∕(.v )∣ < M for all
Λ^ in the interval). We will state a special case of this result as a theorem.
Exploring the Variety of Random
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Staubfäden, kurz dies ist eine von den Juwelen der Blumen-Welt,
und ließe sich mit einem von Amethysten umgebnen Smaragd-Ringe
vergleichen. Der Farben-Contrast bei dieser Blume ist äußerst
angenehm und gefällig, und die schönrothen Knospen und
glänzenden, immer grünen Blätter erregen fast die nämliche
Bewunderung, wie die Blüthe. Sie würden dieses schöne Gewächs
gewiß für einen großen Gewinn für Ihre Sammlung von
amerikanischen Sträuchern halten, allein ich zweifle, daß es, entfernt
aus den Schatten der Fichten-Wälder, zur Blüthe kommen würde. Es
scheint die von P u r s h beschriebne C h i m a p h i l a c o r y m b o s a zu sein,
nur daß dieser Botaniker in Angabe der Farbe der Blumen-Blätter
von den meinigen etwas abweicht.
Ein andres bei uns heimisches Wintergrün wächst in großer Menge
auf den Reis-Ebnen; diese Pflanze wird nicht über vier Zoll hoch; die
Blüthen stehen in kleinen losen Büscheln, sind blaß grünlich weiß
und gleichen in Gestalt den Blüthen der Sandbeere (A r b u t u s); die
Beeren sind hell scharlachroth und unter dem Namen Winter- und
Rebhuhn-Beere bekannt; jedenfalls ist dies die G u a l t h e r i a
p r o c u m b e n s. Ein noch schöneres kleines Immergrün derselben
Gattung wächst in unsern Cedern-Mooren, unter dem Namen
Tauben-Beere (p i g e o n - b e r r y), es gleicht der Sandbeere in Blatt und
Blüthe mehr als die zuvor erwähnte Pflanze; die scharlachrothe
Beere sitzt in einem Kelche oder Behälter, der am Rande in fünf
Spitzen ausläuft, fleischig ist, und mit der Frucht selbst von einerlei
Beschaffenheit zu sein scheint. Die Blüthen dieses hübschen kleinen
Strauches erscheinen, wie die des Arbutus, wovon er gleichsam das
Miniatur-Bild ist, in hängenden Büscheln zu der nämlichen Zeit, wo
die Beere des vorigen Jahres ihre vollkommne Reife erlangt hat;
dieser Umstand trägt nicht wenig zu der reizenden Erscheinung der
Pflanze bei. Wenn ich mich nicht irre, so ist es die G u a l t h e r i a
S h a l l o n, welche P u r s h mit dem A r b u t u s vergleicht; sie gehört
ebenfalls zu unsern Immergrünen.
Wir haben ferner eine niedliche kriechende Pflanze, mit zarten
kleinen trichterförmigen Blumen und einem Ueberfluß an kleinen
dunkelgrünen runden buntfarbigen Knospen und hellrothen Beeren,
die an den Zweig-Enden sitzen. Die Blüthen dieser Pflanze stehen
paarweise und sind am Fruchtknoten so eng mit einander
verbunden, daß die scharlachrothe Frucht, welche der Blüthe folgt,
einer doppelten Beere gleicht, — jede Beere enthält die Samen
beider Blüthen und ein doppeltes Auge. Die Pflanze wird auch
Winter-Grün oder Zwillings-Beere (t w i n - b e r r y) genannt; sie gleicht
keinem der andern Wintergrüne; sie wächst in moosreichen
Wäldern, kriecht an der Erde hin und scheint gern kleine Hügelchen
und Ungleichheiten des Bodens zu überziehen. In Zierlichkeit des
Wuchses, Zartheit der Blume und Farbenglanz der Beere, steht
dieses Wintergrün den zuvor beschriebnen wenig nach.
In unsern Wäldern kommt eine Pflanze vor, welche unter dem
Namen M a n - d r a k e (Mandragore), M a y - a p p l e (Mai-Apfel) und d u c k s -
f o o t (Enten-Fuß) bekannt ist. Die Botaniker nennen sie
Podophyllum[53], und sie gehört, was Klasse und Ordnung betrifft,
der P o l y a n d r i a m o n o g y n i a an. Ihre Blüthe ist gelblich weiß, die
Blumenkrone besteht aus sechs Blumen-Blättern; die Frucht ist
länglichrund und, reif, grünlich gelb; in Größe gleicht dieselbe einer
Olive, oder großen Mandel; nach Erlangung ihrer völligen Reife
schmeckt sie, wie eingemachte Tamarinden, angenehm säuerlich; sie
scheint wenig zu tragen, wiewohl sie auf reichem nassem
Waldboden schnell überhand nimmt. Die handförmigen Blätter
kommen einzeln hervor, und beschatten, stehen mehre Pflanzen
beisammen, den Boden ziemlich dicht, sind mit ihrem Mittelpunkt an
den Blattstiel befestigt und gleichen, wenn sie zuerst über der Erde
erscheinen, zusammen gefalteten Regen- oder Sonnen-Schirmen,
indem ihre Kanten sämmtlich abwärts stehen, mit der Zeit entfalten
sie sich und bilden eben so viele kleine, schwach convexe
Baldachins. Die Frucht dürfte sich mit Zucker sehr gut zum
Einmachen eignen.
Das Lilien-Geschlecht bietet eine große Mannigfaltigkeit, von den
kleinsten bis zu den größten Blumen, dar. Die rothe Martagon-Lilie
(Gelbwurz) wächst in großer Menge auf unsern Ebnen. Der gemeine
Hundszahn (E r y t h r o n i u m d e n s c a n i s), mit seinen gefleckten Blättern,
glockenförmigen hängenden, gelben, inwendig mit hochrothen
Tüpfeln zart gefleckten und auswendig mit feinen Purpur-Linien
gezeichneten Blumen, verleiht unsern Wäldern, wo er sich schnell
vermehrt, einen großen Reiz; er bildet ein schönes Blumenbeet, die
Blätter kommen einzeln hervor, von jeder besondern Knolle eins. Es
giebt zwei Varietäten von dieser Pflanze, die blaßgelbe, ohne Tüpfeln
und Linien, und die dunkelgelbe, mit Tüpfeln und Linien; die
Staubwege der letztern sind röthlich orangenfarben und dick mit
feinen Blumenstaub bepudert[54].
Der Daffodil unsrer Wälder ist eine zarte hängende, blaßgelbe
Blume; die Blätter stehen längs dem Blumenschaft, von einer
Entfernung zur andern; drei oder mehre Blüthen folgen gewöhnlich
an der Spitze des Schaftes, eine nach der andern; dieses Gewächs
liebt dunkelschattige, feuchte Waldstellen.
Eine sehr schöne Pflanze, dem Lilien-Geschlecht angehörig, wächst
in großer Menge in unsern Wäldern und Lichtungen; in Ermangelung
eines passenderen Namens nenne ich dieselbe D o u r i - L i l i e,
wiewohl sie weit über einen großen Theil des Continents verbreitet
ist. Die Amerikaner nennen die weiße und rothe Spielart dieser
Species »weißen und rothen Tod.« Die Blume ist entweder
dunkelroth oder glänzend weiß, jedoch findet man die weiße
bisweilen mit einem zarten Rosenroth oder einem dunkeln Grün
betupft; letztere Farbe scheint durch den Uebergang des Kelches in
das Blumen-Blatt bewirkt zu werden. Warum sie einen so
furchtbaren Namen erhalten, ist mir bis jetzt ein Räthsel geblieben.
Die Blumenkrone besteht aus drei Blumen-Blättern, der Kelch ist
dreitheilig; sie gehört der H e x a n d r i a m o n o g y n i a an, der Griffel ist
dreispaltig; der Samenbehälter dreiklappig; sie liebt drockne Wälder
und gelichteten Boden; die Blätter stehen zu dreien, entspringen von
den Gelenken, sind groß, rund und an den Enden etwas zugespitzt.
Wir haben Mai-Blumen (l i l i e s o f t h e v a l l e y) und die mit ihnen
zugleich erscheinende Meisterwurz, einen kleinblumigen Türkenbund
von blaßgelber Farbe, nebst einer endlosen Mannigfaltigkeit von
kleinen Liliaceen, die sich sowohl durch ihre schönen Blätter als ihre
zarten Formen auszeichnen.
Unsre Farnkräuter sind sehr zierlich gestaltet und zahlreich; ich habe
nicht weniger als acht verschiedne Arten in unsrer unmittelbaren
Nachbarschaft gesammelt; einige davon nehmen sich ganz allerliebst
aus, vorzüglich eine, welche ich wegen ihrer leichten zierlichen Form
»Elfen-Farn« (f a i r y - f e r n) nenne. Ein elastischer Stamm von
purpurartigem Roth trägt mehre leichte Seiten-Zweige, die sich
mannigfaltig verästeln und mit zahllosen Blättchen besetzt sind;
jedes Blättchen hat einen Stiel, welcher es mit dem Zweige
verbindet, und dieser Stiel ist so leicht und haarartig, daß der
leiseste Luftzug die ganze Pflanze in Bewegung setzt.
Könnte man sich nur einbilden, daß Canada einst der Schauplatz von
Elfen-Festen gewesen, so würde ich ohne weiteres behaupten, daß
dieses zierliche Gewächs sich wohl geeignet, den Elfen-Hof von
O b e r o n und T i t a n i a zu beschatten.
Wenn dieses Farnkraut zuerst über der Erde erscheint, so ist es von
dem verwitterten Holze der umgestürzten Fichten kaum zu
unterscheiden; es hat dann eine licht röthlichbraune Farbe und ist
seltsam zusammengerollt. Im Mai und Juni entfalten sich die Blätter
und nehmen bald das zarteste Grün an; sie sind fast durchsichtig;
das Vieh frißt sehr gern davon.
Die Mocassin-Blume (Ginster) Frauen-Schuh[55], (bemerken Sie die
seltsame Aehnlichkeit zwischen der indianischen und unsrer
Benennung der Pflanze) ist eine unsrer bemerkenswerthesten
Blumen, sowohl wegen ihres eigenthümlichen Baues als auch wegen
ihrer Schönheit. Unsre Ebnen und trocknen sonnigen Weideplätze
bringen verschiedne Spielarten hervor; unter diesen sind der gelbe
Frauen-Schuh[56], (C y p r i p e d i u m p u b e s c e n s) und C y p r i p e d i u m
A r i e t i n u m die schönsten.
Die Honiglippe des erstern ist lebhaft canariengelb und mit dunkel
carmosinrothen Flecken betupft. Die obern Blumen-Blätter bestehen
in zwei kurzen und zwei langen; in Gefüge und Farbe gleichen sie
der Scheide von einigen der Narzissen-Gattungen; die kurzen stehen
aufrecht, wie ein paar Ohren, die langen oder seitlichen sind dreimal
so lang als die erstern, sehr schmal und zierlich gewunden, wie die
spiralförmigen Hörner des wallachischen Widders; lüftet man eine
dicke gelbe fleischige Art von Deckel, in der Mitte der Blume, so
sieht man
das genaue Gesicht eines indianischen Hundes, vollkommen in allen
seinen Theilen, — Nase, Augen und Schnauze; darunter hängt ein
offner Sack herab, der rings um die Oeffnung leicht zusammen
gezogen ist, wodurch er ein hohles und bauchiges Ansehn erhält; die
innere Seite dieses Sackes ist zart mit Dunkelcarmosin getupft oder
schwarz gefleckt; der Blumen-Schaft schwillt nach oben zu an und
bildet eine Krümmung; die Blätter sind groß, oval, etwas zugespitzt
und gerippt. Die Pflanze wird nicht viel über sechs Zoll hoch; die
schöne Farbe und das seidenartige Gewebe der Unterlippe oder des
Sackes macht, daß ich für meinen Theil ihrer Blüthe den Vorzug vor
der purpurnen und weißen Varietät gebe, wiewohl letztre wegen der
Größe der Blume und der Blätter, außer dem Contrast zwischen der
weißen und rothen oder weißen und purpurnen Farbe, weit mehr in
die Augen fällt.
In Bildung und Structur gleicht diese Species der andern, nur mit
dem Unterschiede, daß die Hörner nicht gewunden sind, und das
Gesicht mehr dem eines Affen ähnelt; sogar der komische Ausdruck
des Thieres ist mit so bewundernswürdiger Treue nachgeahmt, daß
man bei Erblickung der seltsamen, unruhig erscheinenden Fratze,
mit ihren schwarzen, unter ihrer Capuze hervorschauenden Augen,
unwillkührlich lächeln muß.
Diese Pflanzen gehören der G y n a n d r i a d i a n d r i a an; P u r s h
beschreibt sie mit einigen Abweichungen, und vergleicht z. B. das
Gesicht der letztern mit dem des Schafs; wenn aber ein Schaf zu
diesem Gemälde saß, so muß es das verschmitzteste und
boshafteste der ganzen Heerde gewesen sein.
Ein seltsames Wasser-Gewächs kommt in seichten, stockenden und
langsam fließenden Gewässern vor; es enthält ein ganzes Weinglas
Wasser. Ein armer Soldat brachte mir ein Exemplar und fügte die
Bemerkung hinzu, es gleiche einer Pflanze, die er oft in Egypten
gesehn, und die von den Soldaten »S o l d a t e n - B e c h e r« genannt
werde, und daß er selbst manchen Trunk frischen Wassers daraus
geschlürft habe.
Ein andres Exemplar erhielt ich von einem Herrn, der meine Vorliebe
für fremde Gewächse kannte, er gab ihm sehr passend den Namen
Krug-Pflanze (P i t c h e r- P l a n t) höchst wahrscheinlich gehört sie zu
dem Geschlecht, welches diesen Namen führt.
Die geruchreichsten und würzigsten Blumen sind unsre wilden
Rosen, welche die Luft mit den angenehmsten Düften füllen, die
purpurne Monarde, die von der Blüthe bis zur Wurzel Wohlgeruch ist,
selbst nachdem sie Monate lang der kalten Winter-Atmosphäre
ausgesetzt gewesen; ihre getrockneten Blätter der Samen-Behälter
sind so aromatisch, daß sie Händen und Kleidern ihren angenehmen
Parfume mittheilen. Alle unsre Münzen haben einen sehr starken
aromatischen Geruch; das Maiblümchen verbreitet den süßesten
Duft; hierher gehören auch meine Königin der Seen (die weiße
Wasser-Lilie) und ihr Gefährte, der Wasser-König, nebst vielen
andern Blumen, die ich jetzt nicht aufzählen kann. Gewiß ist indeß,
daß es unter einem so großen Verein von Blumen, verhältnißmäßig
nur wenige giebt, welche aromatische Gerüche aushauchen; einige
unsrer Waldbäume verbreiten einen angenehmen Parfume. Ich bin
auf meinen Spaziergängen oft stehen geblieben, um an sonnigen
Tagen den wohlriechenden Duft von einem Cedern-Moor, während
die dicht verschränkten Aeste und Zweige noch voll Thautropfen von
einem frischgefallnen Schauer hingen, in vollen Zügen einzuathmen.
Nicht unerwähnt darf hier die Balsam-Pappel oder Tacamahac
bleiben, welche die Luft um sich her mit Wohlgerüchen schwängert,
vorzüglich wenn die Gummi-Knospen sich eben zu entfalten
anfangen; die Balsam-Pappel bildet sich zu einem schönen zierlichen
Baume aus, versteht sich, wo sie Raum genug zur Ausbreitung ihrer
Aeste hat. Sie wächst vorzüglich an den Ufern der Seen und in
offnen Mooren, bildet aber auch eine Hauptzierde unsrer Ebnen und
nimmt sich mit ihren silberfarbigem runden, wehenden Laube sehr
schön aus; die Rinde schwitzt ein klares Gummi-Harz in
durchsichtigen Kügelchen aus, und die Knospen überziehen sich mit
einer in hohem Grade aromatischen gummösen Flüssigkeit.
Unsre Gräser verdienen alle Aufmerksamkeit; es giebt hier
Varietäten, die mir ganz neu sind und getrocknet eine elegante
Zierde unsrer Kamine bilden; auf dem Kopfe einer Dame würden sie
sich sehr hübsch ausnehmen, wenn nur nicht die Mode stets
künstlichen Putz dem natürlichen vorzöge.
Eine oder zwei Gras-Arten, die ich gesammelt habe, zeigten, ihre
Kleinheit abgerechnet, große Aehnlichkeit mit dem indianischen
Korn; sie haben eine Troddel oder Quaste, und eine achtseitige
Aehre; die kleinen Körner sind reihenweise um die Spindel
angeordnet. Das S i s y r i n c h i u m oder blauäugige Gras hat eine
niedliche kleine azurblaue Blume, mit einem goldfarbigen Fleck an
der Basis jedes Blumenblattes; die Blätter sind steif und fahnenartig;
diese niedliche Pflanze wächst büschelweise auf leichtem sandigen
Boden.
Ich habe Ihnen in Vorliegendem eine Beschreibung der
bemerkenswerthesten Pflanzen gegeben; und wenn auch meine
Mittheilungen zum Theil der ächt botanischen Nomenclatur nicht
ganz entsprechen mögen, so habe ich sie doch mindestens gerade
so geschildert, wie sie mir erschienen sind.
Mein holdes Knäbchen scheint bereits Geschmack an Blumen zu
finden, und ich will diesen so sehr als möglich befördern. Botanik ist
ein Studium, welches zur Veredlung und Verfeinerung der Seele
beiträgt, es kann auf eine einfache Weise zur Himmelsleiter gemacht
werden, wenn man ein Kind lehrt, mit Liebe und Bewunderung auf
jenen allmächtigen und gütigen Gott zu blicken, der die Blumen so
schön schuf und bildete, um diese Erde zu befruchten und zu
schmücken.
Leben Sie wohl Theuerste Freundin.
Fußnoten:
[51] B l i t u m ( S t r a w b e r r y - b e a r i n g s p i n a c h , I n d i a n S t r a w b e r r y. )
[52] Die Engländer durchkreuzen häufig in ihren Briefen die der Quere
nach mit schwarzer Tinte geschriebnen Zeilen mit andern der Länge nach
verlaufenden, wozu sie rothe Tinte nehmen.
[53] Nach W i l l d e n o w ist die Wurzel dieser Pflanze arzneikräftig.
[54] Der gemeine Hundszahn wächst auch im südlichen Europa. Die
knollige weiße Wurzel ist schleimig und nahrhaft, sie kann wie der Salep
als ein Nahrungsmittel für Entkräftete und Abzehrende gebraucht werden.
[55] L a d y ' s - s l i p p e r.
[56] T h e y e l l o w m o c a s s i n f l o w e r.
Fünfzehnter Brief.
Nochmalige Betrachtung verschiedner Punkte. — Fortschritte der
Ansiedlungen. — Canada, das Land der Hoffnung. — Besuch bei der Familie
eines See-Offiziers. — Eichhörnchen. — Besuch bei einem ausgewanderten
Geistlichen; seine Geschichte. — Schwierigkeiten, womit er Anfangs zu
kämpfen hatte. — Temperament, Charakter und Gewohnheiten der
Emigranten sind von großem Einfluß auf das Gedeihen oder Nichtgedeihen
ihrer Ansiedlung.