Journal of Administrative Science

Vol.21, Issue 1, 2024, pp. 169-188

Available online at http:jas.uitm.edu.my

Migration Theories and Development: A Focus on Push & Pull Factors

of Filipino Migrants

Eric Paul Peralta1, Inero Ancho2*, and Daisy Pelegrina3

1,2,2
College of Human Ecology, University of the Philippines Los Baños Philippines

Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract

Migration has been an integral part of the lives of Filipinos. It is a phenomenon that has already been
existing for several centuries and is motivated by various factors. For this systematic review of related
literature, the researchers aim to determine the prominent push and pull factors that influence Filipino
international migration from the year 2009 to 2019 as well as to analyze the trends of the socio-
demographic characteristics of OFWs or the Overseas Filipino Workers through the years. Everett Lee’s
(1966) push-pull theory was used by the researchers to determine the push factors that encourage
Filipinos to leave their homes and migrate to another country as well as the pull factors that attract
Filipinos to migrate and work in their chosen country of destination. Several related pieces of literature
found through the Google and Google Scholar search engines were acquired for this systematic review
including data on the population of OFWs based on their socio-demographic aspects. The collected data
exhibited that the factors which encourage Filipinos to migrate and work overseas from 2009 to 2019
remained similar through the years. Studies revealed that OFWs are mainly motivated by economic push
and pull factors, including unemployment, income, and job opportunities while a study also indicated
social factors that are focused on personal development as well as family and friends who also influence
the migrant’s decision to move to another country. The researchers were able to conclude that based on
the acquired data from studies within the years 2009 to 2019, the factors which encourage Filipinos to
migrate and work overseas remained similar through the years. Economic issues of unemployment,
income inequalities, and limited job opportunities continued to prevail in the Philippines. Further,, the
number of OFWs continued to increase which implies that sustained development in terms of
employment, income, and job opportunities, did not occur within those years.

Keywords: migration, literature review, Push-Pull Theory, overseas Filipinos

INTRODUCTION
Received: 10 February 2-24
Accepted: 25 March 2024 Migration pertains to the semi-permanent or permanent
Published: 30 April 2024 movement or change of place from one residence to another
(Lee, 1966). According to Urbanski (2022), migration is a
phenomenon that has been existing for a long period of time
and is motivated by various aspects such as social, political, and economic factors as
well as natural disasters, urbanization, family reunification, and wars. Various
theoretical perspectives have been developed through the years to serve as a foundation
for organizing, analyzing, and understanding different concepts involved in migration.
 Journal of Administrative Science
Vol.21, Issue 1, 2024, pp. 169-188
Available online at http:jas.uitm.edu.my
One of the well-known theories is the push-pull theory which was formulated by
Everett Lee (1966). Based on Everett Lee’s theory (1966), there are factors that should
be taken into consideration such as push factors or factors related to the area of origin,
the pull factors or the factors related to the place of destination, intervening obstacles, as
well as personal factors. Push factors are the aspects that encourage people to migrate
from their place of origin to another area or destination. It also includes economic
factors such as poor living conditions, low source of income, and lack of employment.
There are also social factors that “push” people to migrate such as lack of proper
healthcare system and religious tolerance while political factors that urge people to
migrate include terrorism, unjust legal systems, and war (Urbanski, 2022). On the other
hand, pull factors are those that attract people from other countries or regions to
migrate. Some examples include economic factors such as access to better opportunities
for employment and improved living conditions while social and political factors that
“pull” migrants include better healthcare services, religious tolerance, and improved
protection under the law (Urbanski, 2022).

Migration has been an essential part of the lives of Filipinos. Over the course of
the country’s history, four fundamental waves of migration shaped the existing
perceptions and motivations that we have towards migration. The first recorded
evidence for migration occurred in 1417, where Sulu royalties went on a mission to
improve trade relations with the Chinese through the leadership of Sultan Paduka
Batara. When the Spanish colonizers took over our land, Filipino seafarers were able to
migrate to Mexico as part of the Manila-Acapulco trade, also known as the Galleon
trade which enabled Filipinos to explore other parts of the American continent. By the
19th century, these Filipinos were able to settle in different parts of the United States
such as Louisiana and California as well as some parts of Europe. The Second wave of
migration lasted from the beginning of the 20th century until the 1940s, where more
Filipinos have migrated to the United States, specifically in Hawaii, to be fruit pickers.
Others worked in Alaska’s fish canneries.

Filipino migrants were considered US nationals as the country was their colony
at the time. However, during the third wave of migration after World War II, the United
States government-imposed immigration limits which led to a decline in Filipino
migrants in the US. This sparked a new trend of migration as Filipinos started to
relocate to other Asian countries by the 1950s. Contractual labor was eminent in Sabah
and Sarawak, and there was a significant increase in Filipino employment in US Army

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Vol.21, Issue 1, 2024, pp. 169-188
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bases located in Vietnam, Thailand, and Guam. The 1960s marked another increase in
Filipino migration to the US and Canada as they have eased immigration restrictions.
During the same decade, Filipinos started to migrate to Western Europe as domestic or
health workers. By the 1970s, migration to Iran and Iraq as engineers and technicians
was the norm. The 1960s marked another increase in Filipino migration to the US and
Canada as they have eased immigration restrictions. During the same decade, Filipinos
started to migrate to Western Europe as domestic or health workers.

The fourth wave occurred during the Marcos presidency in the country, when
emigration was encouraged to revive the crashing economy. Unemployment and
poverty were widespread, driving Filipinos to seek greener pastures abroad. This
resulted in the Philippine economy relying on remittances from overseas Filipino
workers (Center for Migrant Advocacy, n.d.). Majority of these overseas workers were
men working in oil rigs and construction sites in the Middle East, particularly in Saudi
Arabia and its neighboring countries. Eventually, women overseas workers dominated
the Filipino migrant population as the service sector became in demand in other Asian
countries. The Philippines is one of the leading sources of labor migrants around the
world, specifically domestic workers, seafarers, and nurses (Santos, 2014).

As of 2019, the total number of Overseas Filipino Workers is estimated at 2.2

million, with women comprising 56% while males are at 44%, with 22.6% of the total
population belonging to the age group of 30 to 34 years old. The service, sales,
manufacturing, technology, and trade industries were among the top fields of
employment for our OFWs (Mapa, 2020). The State has devised methods of protection
and security of the welfare of our migrant fellowmen through the enactment and
implementation of laws and the establishment of special offices which act as their shield
and helping hand from any unforeseen circumstance that may happen to them abroad.
Some of these laws are the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995
(Republic Act 8042, amended by Republic Act 10022), Overseas Workers’ Investment
(OWI) Fund Act (Republic Act 7111), Medical Care Program for OFWs and
Dependents (POEA Department Order No. 4, series of 2001), while some of the specific
catering offices for Filipino labor migrants’ concerns are the Overseas Workers Welfare
Administration established through Republic Act 10801, and the Philippine Overseas
Employment Administration which was established through Executive Order 797.
Further revisions and amendments strengthening and improving the existing provisions

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 Journal of Administrative Science
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in these laws were operationalized since the Arroyo and Aquino administrations,
providing more programs and services for OFWs (Asis, 2017).

This systematic review of related literature seeks to assess the different factors
that influenced Filipino international migration from the year 2009 to 2019. It also aims
to analyze how the prominent push and pull factors that influenced Filipino migrants
changed over the years. This systematic literature review intends to answer the
following questions:

1. What is the population distribution of the Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs)

from 2009 to 2019 in terms of their socio-demographic profile?
2. What are the determining factors that influence Filipino international migrants?
3. What are the prominent push and pull factors for Filipino international migrants
from 2009 to 2019?

METHODOLOGY

Systematic Review of Related Literature

The paper employs a systematic review of related literature from the

introduction to its results and discussion. Defined by Newman and Gough (2020),
systematic reviews are forms of secondary research wherein existing works of literature
or primary research are reviewed to respond to the questions formulated by the
researchers. In the academic field, the review of related literature and the conduct of
research are considered two different activities. The former requires researchers to
gather known data from previous studies.

On the other hand, conducting new research means acquiring newfound

knowledge or clearing unresolved questions from the existing body of literature. In a
systematic review of related literature, researchers follow through a rigorous process of
analyzing previous research to arrive with answers to the formulated questions, a
method that has been given much attention when conducting new research. While there
are many existing types of systematic reviews, the majority share the same processes
that can be divided into different steps. The process of review also starts by developing
the questions of the research as well as the conceptual framework. This is followed by
the protocol in selecting the literature to be used in the study. This is an important part

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 Journal of Administrative Science
Vol.21, Issue 1, 2024, pp. 169-188
Available online at http:jas.uitm.edu.my
of any systematic review, although it varies depending on the type of review employed.
Lastly, the process produces a synthesis of the reviewed literature in response to the
formulated research questions.

Publication Selection

As a step in the systematic review process, the researchers formed selection

criteria to analyze and control the quality of literature that will be used in the study.
First, it was considered that the study focuses on the push and pull factors of Filipino
migrants from 2009 to 2019. With this, the researchers used the keywords (a)
Philippines, (b) migration, (c) push and pull factors, (d) OFW, (e) statistics, and (f)
determinants of migration. Using the six keywords stated, the researchers run through
database searches and search engines such as Google and Google Scholar as the
published articles and studies found here can be considered reliable. However, with
searches ranging from thousands to millions of results, the researchers had to apply
screening criteria to the articles and publications found.

The use of keywords has allowed the researchers to extensively exhaust existing
literatures based on the established parameters. Since these words are specific and
disticnt concepts, related literatures are also flagged. The databases have allowed the
researchers to employ a useful method for searching for frequency hits of these specific
keywords or phrases. Ultimately, keyword search has been an efficient tool to capture
first hits to appear in the search engine result pages. This has been helpful in capturing
the appropriate results for the target search and the information the researchers intend to
gather.

● Year range. When searching using the keywords, search engines would
normally flash all results regardless of the date of its release or publication.
Considering that the study is dealing with data from the years 2009 to 2019, it is
decided that the same shall be applied as a screening limitation to the search
results. The researchers opted to end the range with the year 2019 as the data for
the following year, 2020, is influenced by the effects of the COVID-19
pandemic. That said, the researchers opted for 10-year data for their observation,
thus, the start of the range is 2009.

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 Journal of Administrative Science
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Available online at http:jas.uitm.edu.my
● Peer-reviewed. Not all results garnered from the search engines used are peer-
reviewed. Studies that are certified as peer-reviewed are considered to have
practiced high-quality research processes. Thus, screening the details of the
articles and publications such as their title, journal, date of publication, and DOI
is a necessary step in the process.

● Publications in the English language. The English language is a global

language, thus, understanding articles and publications written in such will be
less confusing for the researchers.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Everett Lee and A Theory of Migration

Migration pertains to the permanent or semi-permanent changes of residence

brought about by economic, political, cultural, and environmental conditions. Everett
Lee’s first model was initially presented during 1955 in Kansas City, Missouri at the
yearly meeting of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association. His groundbreaking
work entitled A Theory of Migration was published in 1966 by the Demography Journal
(Mlambo and Mpanza, 2019). Four fundamental categories affect the individuals’
decision to migrate, namely: (1) push factors or factors associated with their places of
origin, (2) pull factors or factors associated with the places of destination, (3)
intervening obstacles, and lastly (4) personal factors. The push and pull factors refer to
the forces that induce relocation to new places or force individuals to leave their
original places of residence.

Push factors are conditions that coerce individuals to leave their places of origin.
These usually reflect the detrimental circumstances experienced by migrants such as
unemployment, underdevelopment, poverty, natural disasters, and poor economic,
political, and social conditions. On the other hand, Pull factors are those conditions that
attract individuals to relocate to the places of destination, which include abundant and
better job opportunities, better living conditions, systematic transportation, and
communication technologies, and established medical, educational, and political
systems, among others (Thet, 2014).

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Intervening obstacles pertain to cultural or environmental factors that may
hamper the individual’s process of migration. These include the distance between the
places of origin and destination, immigration policies, lack of proper transport,
ethnocentrism, technological divide, and topographic barriers like rivers, borders, and
mountains. The last category is personal factors, which refer to the individuals’
perception of the other categories which affect the decision-making processes enforced
regarding migration (Lee, 1966). The simplistic model of Lee’s factors in action, with
the left side representing the place of origin, the right side representing the place of
destination, and the link between them representing the intervening obstacles. The + and
- symbols represent the attracting and repelling conditions that affect the individuals’
personal perceptions and choices towards migration.

Criticisms

Lee’s push and pull theory faced criticisms despite its elementary approach to
explaining migration. Loopholes in this theory include the lack of standardization and
uniformity techniques as to how push and pull factors are perceived by individuals, it
does not consider the power and authority dynamics in migration decisions (e.g. being
children of migrants, peer pressure), and it takes little to no account of the decision-
making processes of individuals on why they choose to migrate. The encompassing
focus on economic reasons such as the unequal distribution of wealth among different
areas posits the lack of attention on other factors present in the places of origin and
destination that may be deemed as legitimate reasons to leave or relocate such areas; it
only focuses on the relocation of individuals from low-wage areas to high-wage areas in
general.

In some ways, this theory can be used to reinforce inequality and discriminatory
practices due to circumstances that favor the privileged classes in terms of attractive and
legal migration opportunities while excluding lower societal classes through the
deprivation of their rights and subjecting them to exploitation (de Haas, 2021). On
another note, the theory focuses more on the aspects of the accessibility and desirability
of migration, leaving behind ways to deal with intervening obstacles and personal
preferences and gray areas on where to draw the line between major and minor
influences on the migration decisions of individuals (Geography Lessons, 2020). Along
with this, the clashing thoughts and sentiments of individuals who have the desire to
migrate but are not able to do so are also not considered (King, 2012). In other words,

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this theory fails to describe migration as a social process and sticks to a structural-
functionalist perspective on maintaining economic equilibrium in areas with higher
rates of development and modernization, compared to areas with little to no
development, and only focuses on the premise that individuals make rational choices to
increase utility or income (de Haas, 2021).

What is the population distribution of the Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) from
2009 to 2019 in terms of their socio-demographic profile?

The number of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) every year has been
increasing since 2009. In 2009, the OFWs population was around 1.9 million, steadily
increasing to 2.3 million in 2013. It can also be seen that the population of OFWs from
2012 until 2019 has been ranging from 2.2 million to 2.4 million. On the other hand,
there has been a decrease in the population of OFWs from 2015 to 2016 and from 2018
to 2019.

In relation to the population distribution of the Overseas Filipino Workers

(OFWs) from the years 2009 to 2019 in terms of their sex, it was the record in 2015
which depicts the largest number of OFWs with a total of 2,447,000 OFWs,
specifically, 1,250,000 females and 1,197,000 for the male population. On the other
hand, the lowest population recorded was in 2009 with a total of 1,911,000 Filipinos,
wherein 1,010,000 were males, and 901,000 were female OFWs. It can be also observed
that the number of female OFWs from the year 2009 until the succeeding years was
continuously increasing except for the year 2018 wherein a decrease in the population
of female OFWs occurred. On the other hand, the number of male OFWs has also been
steadily increasing except for the years 2016, 2017, and 2019.

Asis (2017) stated that Filipino women are also significantly present in
international migration since they are a part of the settlers who decided to reside
permanently such as those belonging to family migration, likewise, they are also widely
visible in labor migration alongside men. It was also stated that there was an emergence
of domestic work in various countries as it was the top occupation for new hires in
2015.

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When the population distribution of OFWs in terms of their age groups is
analyzed, OFWs within the age group of 25-29 years old had the highest record of the
population over the ten years span. The age group 30-34 years old followed this
sequence. On the contrary, the lowest population emanated from the 15-19 age group,
from 2009 to 2019, respectively. It depicted similar results to the International
Migration Report of the United Nations (2016) as it exhibited that 39 years old was the
median age of international migrants in 2015 which was higher compared to the median
age among migrants in 2000 which was 38 years old. In Asian countries, the median
age of migrants was at 35 years (UN, 2016), wherein the number of OFWs who are
within the age range of 35 to 39 has been steadily increasing from 2009 to 2019.

National Statistical Coordination Board (as cited in OFW Guide, 2012;

Olchondra, 2012) stated that the results of various surveys indicated that most Filipinos
decide to spend their productive years by leaving their homeland and family due to the
job opportunities provided by other countries. On the other hand, the low population for
the youth sector or the age group of 15-24 was due to the OFW requirements
established in terms of the minimum age, which is above 18 years old, or at least 23
years old for a person to be eligible for domestic work (ILO, n.d.).

Most OFWs came from Region IV-A which is composed of different provinces,
specifically, Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal, and Quezon, It was followed by OFWs
who came from Region III which included Bataan, Bulacan, Aurora, Nueva Ecija,
Tarlac, Pampanga, Zambales. The National Capital Region garnered a population in
thousands. On the other hand, Region XIII had the lowest record of OFWs population.
Moreover, the top three regions with the highest population of Overseas Filipino
Workers (OFWs) were Region IV-A, National Capital Region, and Region III, which
are also considered as the Greater Metro Manila or NCR Plus, as there areas are located
around the Metropolitan Manila (Google Arts and Culture, n.d.). According to the
Department of Trade and Industry (n.d.), the National Capital Region or the
Metropolitan Manila is considered to be the educational, economic, and political center
of the Philippines.

When it comes to population distribution of the Overseas Filipino Workers in

terms of the continents of their place of work, Asia has the highest population in
thousands from 2009 to 2019, with the values. The next continent recorded was Europe,
with a population that is significantly lower than Asia in the 10 years being assessed.

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The third continent was the combined population of North and South America. Lastly,
Africa has the least number of OFWs in their continent. In 2015, there was also a
population of 2000 OFWs who worked in other countries.
What are the determining factors that influence Filipino international migrants?

As stated in the Push and Pull theory by Lee (1966), distance is one of the
influencing factors when it comes to an individual’s decision-making about migration.
It was stated that the longer distances of the destination countries, people are less likely
to choose that country to migrate in, at the same time, countries with shorter distances
from their homelands shall more likely be the destination country of a person (Lee,
1966; European Commission, 2000, & Head, 2003, as cited by Cavero & Capuno.
2018).

When the population distribution of Overseas Filipino Workers in terms of their

work position is analyzed, the position with the highest OFW population was the
laborers and unskilled workers. This was followed by those in service and sales
workers. The work position with the lowest record of the population was the skilled
agricultural forestry and fishery workers. It can also be observed that in 2009, there was
a record of 2000 OFWs with the position of special occupations, however, there were
no more records for this job position in the succeeding years.

A report by POEA reveals that Filipino emigrants mostly acquire less-skilled

jobs in the countries they migrated to (OECD, 2017). Since these types of occupations
are highly in demand in other countries, young Filipino migrants tend to attain
employment in this sector. Moreover, there has been a recurring concern about the de-
skilling of OFWs as Filipinos with ages 24 and below tend to acquire jobs abroad that
are less skilled which is also common with the general employment pattern of OFWs
(Asis & Battistella, 213, Battistella and Liao, 2013 as cited in OECD, 2017). The
education level also has an influence on young Filipinos’ plans to migrate. Based on the
data of IPPMD Philippines, as individuals gain higher levels of education, they are
mostly the ones who have the intention or plans to emigrate (OECD, 2017).

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What are the prominent push and pull factors for Filipino international migrants from
2009 to 2019?

As the number of OFWs remains high at around 2 million, this depicts that they
are still encountering various push and pull factors that drive them to migrate from the
Philippines to other countries.

The Economic Factors

Several of the gathered data revealed economic push and pull factors that
influence Filipino migrants. This section showed that many Filipino migrants choose to
leave and move to another country due to factors related to employment, income, and
remittances, as they seek better opportunities in foreign lands.

Job Opportunities & Income

Filipinos are also attracted to migrate to other countries where there are more
job opportunities compared to their country of origin wherein there is a lack of
opportunities and low wages. According to Alonso-Garbayo and Maben (2009), some
of the pull factors among Filipino and Indian nurses who migrate are the salary in the
Arab Gulf States which is relatively higher as well as the availability of jobs abroad.
Another study also depicted findings that respondents tend to migrate to another country
for a similar job due to higher income or salaries compared to what is offered in the
Philippines (Dalisay & Tan, 2021; Dy Kam, 2016).

Another significant push factor that motivates Filipinos to migrate is income

inequality. According to the findings of a study by Cavero and Capuno (2018), an
increase in income inequality also causes the number of OFWs leaving the country to
increase, depicting that growing inequality means more Filipinos earn lower income in
our country which drives them to move abroad to improve their income level. Castro-
Palaganas and colleagues (2016) also stated that human health resources pushed to
migrate to other countries to work due to its benefits, as well as to counteract the poor
wages offered to healthcare workers in the country. In addition to that, it was presented
that overseas health professionals are entitled to have migration incentives.

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Remittances

A study by Samonte and colleagues (2019) depicted that the flow of remittances
received by their country of origin is a significant factor as it positively influences
Filipino emigration. This exhibits that Filipinos are attracted to migrate and settle
abroad if the inflow of remittances is high. If the economic conditions of a host country
are better, Filipinos tend to move overseas since it can significantly increase the
remittances that the Philippines receives.

Unemployment

Unemployment in the Philippines is one of the main economic push factors that
were identified. Based on the findings of the study conducted by Cavero & Capuno
(2018), as the unemployment rate increases, there is also an increase in the number of
OFWs leaving the Philippines. This depicts that Filipinos are forced to migrate and
work in other countries due to their experience of being unemployed in their country of
origin. Another study also revealed findings that the top push factor of labor migration
of Filipinos in Bahrain is unemployment (Dy Kam, 2016). In the medical field, Filipino
healthcare workers choose to seek employment in other countries due to the
underfunding of the health system which resulted in massive unemployment for
healthcare workers, both in the public and private sectors (Castro-Palaganas and
Caricativo, 2017).

The Social Factors

Some of the collected data depicted social push and pull factors that influence
Filipino migrant workers. This section shall include factors that are related to being in
close proximity with family and friends as well as acquiring a better quality of living in
another country.

Personal Development

The study done by Alonso-Garbayo & Maben (2009) discussed the reasons why
nurses recruited from the Philippines and India decide to migrate to the United
Kingdom. As stated, the factors identified by the overseas Filipino workers were more
than the economic advantages as these workers experienced working in other countries

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before resulting in migration to another country, in this case, the United Kingdom.
Based on the findings, many nurses asserted that by migrating, they have the ability to
improve their capabilities professionally while practicing in an environment or region
with higher standards in terms of healthcare.

Family and Peers

In the study done by Alonso-Garbayo & Maben (2009), it was also stated that
the decision of many nurses to migrate was the influence of their friends and other
colleagues. According to one of the participants in this study, her migration experience
was influenced by her friends, who currently reside in the country, which encouraged
her to move to the UK. The nurse also stated that the presence of her friends who
willingly offer to help in case a crisis might occur also weighed in her decision to
migrate. In addition to that, groups or ‘batches’ by Filipina nurses, also administered a
social support channel and system in adapting to work abroad. Family also affects the
decision-making process for the Filipina nurses, which was evident not only in the
decision of migrating but also in pursuing a specific field of study, which in this case
was nursing.

CONCLUSIONS

Migration has been an integral part of the lives of millions of Filipinos. It is a

phenomenon that have been existing for a long period of time and is motivated by
different economic, social, political, and environmental factors. Several theoretical
perspectives have been developed to further understand the concepts involved in
migration.

This systematic review of related literature made by the researchers focused on

determining the various factors that influence Filipino international migrants from the
year 2009 to 2019 while also taking into account the trends of the socio-demographic
characteristics of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) through the years. The theory that
was chosen by the researchers is Everett Lee’s (1966) push-pull theory which
emphasizes the four fundamental categories that affect the individuals’ decision to
migrate: push factors or factors associated with their places of origin; pull factors or
factors linked with places of destination; intervening obstacles; as well as personal
factors.

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Push factors are described as the conditions that urge individuals to migrate
from their areas of origin to another place while the pull factors refer to the conditions
that attract people to move or relocate to their chosen area of destination. Various
related literature found through the Google and Google Scholar search engines were
gathered for this systematic review and these consist of studies regarding the factors
affecting Filipino migration as well as records on the population of OFWs based on
their socio-demographic aspects.

Based on the results, the number of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) every
year was increasing from 2009 until 2019. The number of male and female OFWs has
also been increasing except for 2016, 2017, and 2019 wherein there has been a decrease
in the number of male OFWs while the population of female OFWs also decreased in
2018. There has also been an increase in the number of Filipinos who work overseas
during their productive years due to employment opportunities that are offered by
foreign countries (National Statistical Coordination Board, n.d., as cited in OFWGuide,
2012; Olchondra, 2012). On the other hand, compared to other regions in the
Philippines, a large number of OFWs originated from Region IV-A. Moreover, most
OFWs from 2009 to 2019 decided to migrate to Asian countries. The collected data also
depicted that the occupation with the highest number of OFWs is the unskilled workers
and laborers. It was also mentioned that young Filipino migrants tend to obtain jobs that
are less skilled as these are mostly being offered by other countries even though several
of them have attained higher levels of education fit for high-skilled employment
(OECD, 2017).

For the push and pull factors that affect Filipino international migrants, the
gathered data exhibited that the factors which encourage Filipinos to migrate and work
overseas from 2009 to 2019 remained similar through the years. According to the data
collected from related studies, the prominent economic push factors that influence
migrants are lack of job opportunities, low wages, and unemployment in the
Philippines. On the other hand, economic pull factors include benefits, incentives,
relatively higher income, and availability of more job opportunities overseas.
Additionally, if the country of destination has better economic conditions, it attracts
Filipinos to migrate due to the high flow of remittances that the Philippines receives.
Social factors that influence Filipino migration were also gathered from the related
studies. One of these factors is personal development which was indicated in a study

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conducted by Alonso-Garbayo & Maben (2009) wherein several nurses also migrate to
other countries with higher healthcare standards for the improvement of their
professional capabilities.

Another identified social pull factor is the influence of family and peers since
some respondents of the study by Alonso-Garbayo & Maben (2009) stated that they
have friends who have migrated to the country of destination while their families also
contributed to the choice they made about working in a particular field and migrating to
another country. It can be observed from the acquired data by the researchers that
economic issues of unemployment, income inequalities, and limited job opportunities
still continued to prevail in the Philippines even after 10 years. From 2009 to 2019, the
number of Filipino international migrants continued to increase which implies that
sustained development in terms of employment, income, and job opportunities, did not
occur within those years.

Funding

The paper is self-funded.

Conflict of interest

Not applicable.

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