UNlT 3 FLOW THROUGH OPEN

CHANNELSIPIPES
Structure
3.0 Objectives

3. I Introduction

3.2 Channel Types and their Characteristics

3.2.1 Parameters Influencing Channel Discharge
3.2.2 Open Channel Classification Based on Channel Shape (cross-section)
3.3 Velocity Computation in an Open Channel
3.3.1 Chezy's Equation
3.3.2 Manning's Equation
3.4 Efficient Channel Sections
3.4.1 Rectangular
3.4.2 Trapezoidal

3.5 Head Losses in Water Flows

3.5.1 Loss of Head due to Friction in a Pipe
3.6 Seepage Losses
3.6.1 Channel Lining
3.7 Let Us Sum Up

3.8 Keywords

3.9 Suggested Reading

3.10 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
~.

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• understand the characteristics of water flow in open channels and pipes;
• get acquainted with the types of open channels based on flow condition and
shape of the channel;
• compute the velocity of flowing water and discharge in an open channel for a
given cross-section of a channel using Manning's formula;
• study the efficient cross-section of a channel fora maximum discharge and
minimum wetted perimeter;
• estimate head loss due to friction in open channel and pipe; and
• determine seepage loss in unlined open channel and devise ways to control
measures for its reduction.

3. t INTRODUCTION
In the previous units, principle, importance and components of hydrologic cycle
were explained. Process of cloud formation and cloud seeding; Rainfall Intensity-
Duration Frequency relaionship and runoff phenomenon and factors influencing
runoff were also covered. You were also exposed to concept of water budget;
water balance equation and its components. 5
 ·f
j
!
L Estimation aoll Water is the most valuable and scarce resource -and'needs to be used efficiently,
Measurements of Flow Agriculture is the biggest user of water for irrigation but its share is likely to be
I.;':"

considerably reduced in future due to growing demand of competing users such

as public health and industry, Rainwater which is the main source of water needs
to be harvested and stored in ponds/tanks/lakes for different purposes as and
when required. The water is taken from the place of storage (source) to the
place of use through irrigation channel or pipe for irrigating the crops:

As you might have observe«, water surface in a river, canal, stream, channel
or pipe can be seen. which is subjected to atmospheric pressure. However, in
case of pipe flow, the water surface cannot be seen and it is not subjected to
atmospheric pressure, provided it is flowing full. Thus flowing water can be
transported or conveyed from one place to another place either through open
system (river, canal, stream, channel, ditch, flume etc.) or through closed system
(pipe). _

The open water flow system can be natural or manmade (artificial). The river and
streams are natural drainage system whereas canal, ditch, flume and channel etc.
are manmade. You might have come across manmade open water systems
I
such as road side drains in the urban and non-urban areas, big irrigation canals
transporting huge quantity of water for irrigation, ditch/drains having deep depth
to drain waterlogged or flooded areas (drainage channel) over head passing' of
irrigation or power canals (flumes) or small irrigation channels for transporting
tube wells, open wells, small tanks or canal water to agricultural field.

The domestic water supply from overhead tanks, water reservoirs-tanks, lakes in
the urban and non-urban areas and conveyance of irrigation water from
water reservoirs/tanks, lakes, .streams, rivers etc. in the rural areas laid
normally underground (or occasionally over the surface) are some of the examples
of closed system of water supply.
r
A properly designed water distribution system results in efficient use of water. It
is therefore, of utmost importance that channels or pipes are efficiently designed
(proper size of channel and pipes) to'carry the desired amount of water at minimum
cost before they are laid. The sloppy/undulating terrain and sharp or mild bends
on its way need to be considered while designing the system.

In the next unit, you will study about the rainfall measurement by non-recording
and recording rain gauges. You will also be exposed to flow rate measurement in
open channel by float, current meter, weirs and flumes. Flow rate measurement
in pipes using volume and coordinate method will also be dealt with,

3.2 CHANNEL TYPES AND THEIR

; . CHARACTERISTICS
Open channel is the most common type of water conveyance system.
Irrigation canals, drainage channels and natural; streams are some of the
examples of open channel. The channels are either unlined (kachha) or lined
(pucca). Unlined channels are constructed in the natural soil without any lining
.'
material. The lined channel. are made 'of the material such asreinforcement
".. .. '

cement concrete (RCC), brick or stone masonry, prefabricated channel of '

 suitable material, wood, bituminous material etc. Unlined channels are cheap Flow Through. Open
. and easy to construct but considerable water is lost in transit. On the other ChanneJsIPipes
hand, lined channels are expensive and loss of water is significantly less
depending on the quality of the lining material. The loss of water is negligible
when it is conveyed through pipes. The flow pattern in partially flowing
'pipes is the same as in open channel.

The open channel flow is termed as uniform if the cross-section is throughout

uniform resulting in the constant velocity and depth of flow. The water surface
is parallel to the channel bottom. In case of non-uniform How, the velocity
or depth of flow are not constant.

The channels are designed to carry certain amount of discharge 'Q' (volume
of water per unit of time; cubic meter per second or cumec or mvsec) from
the source (starting point) to the destination (end point). The water flows in
the channel with velocity 'v' (meter per second or mlsec) through cross-
section of now 'a'. The channels are generally laid on some slope'S'
(expressed in per cent or meter per meter). The discharge 'Q', velocity 'v'
and channel cross-section 'a' are expressed as

Q = av (3.1)
.. Where,
{J---=. discharge in the open channel (m' sec:');
v = average velocity of flow of water in the open channel (m sec");
and
a = cross-sectional area of flow (m').

The 'discharge in the channel at any two points remains unchanged as long as
water is neither added nor it is taken out from the channel and there is no
loss of water (through seepage or evaporation).This is called equation of
continuity expressed as

(3.2)
Where,

Q; and Q2 are discharge, VI and v2 are velocity of flowing water and a,

and a2 are the area of cro s-sections of channel section 1 and 2
respecti vely.

3.2.1 Parameters Influencing Channel Discharge

Channels-run from higher to lower levels and water flows by gravity. Elements
of an open channel are shown in Fig.3.1.

I
~

d
s

.- __ u b

Fig. 3.1: Trapezoidal channel cross-section "

7
Estimation and
Measurements of Flow
b = bottom width of channel;

T = top width of channel;

t = top width of water surface;

D = depth of channel;

d = depth of water;

c = wetted side of channel;

e = angle between the sloping side and the horizontal;

s = side slope; and

f = free board.

Based on these elements, following parameters influencing discharge are

defined.

Area of cross-section: Cross-sectional area 'a' refers to the wetted section

of the channel. In case of trapezoidal channel:

b + t
a =( ) (3.3)
2
Wetted parameter: It is the sum of the lengths of sides which are in contact
with water. .

p=b+c+c (3.4)

= b+Zc
Hydraulic radius: It refers to the ratio of cross-sectional area of flow and
the wetted parameter.
'R=!!:...
(3.5)
p
Hydraulic gradient (slope): It refers to the ratio of vertical drop 'h' for a
length 'l' of the channel.

S=~
I (3.6)

Free board: Free board, f is the vertical distance between the top of the
channel wall and maximum possible water level in the channel. It is provided
to prevent overtopping due to wave action or other unforeseen reasons.

3.2.2 Open Channel Classification Based on Channel Shape

(cross-section)
Most common channel cross-sections (Fig. 3.2) are as follows:

• Rectangular

• Trapezoidal

• Triangular

• Parabolic
 T Flow Through Open
Channels/Pipes
T

d
d

sd c sd
• b
b
Rectangular section Trapezoidal section

\:: Id ;7
~

Triangular Parabolic
Fig. 3.2: Geometric parameters of various open channel sections

The unlined channels are usually of irregular shape as the water flows over a
heterogeneous soil; hence it takes varying depths over the channel width.
These channels are normally designed either trapezoidal or parabolic in shape.
But with time, they finally become parabolic. Lined channels are usually
designed with sections of regular geometric shapes such as rectangular,
trapezoidal or triangular in shape. The parameters of these channels are given
in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Parameters of Various Types of Channels

Shape of the Cross-sectional Wetted J-Iydraulic Radius Top Width

Channel Area (a) Perimeter (p) IR=(a/p)1 (T)

Rectangular b *d b+2 d (b*d) / (b +2d) b

Trapezoidal d (b+ s d ) b+ 2(d--J S2+I) [ d (b+ 5 d)] / b+(2sd)

[ b+ 2(d--J 52+1)]

Triangular d2 2.828 d d2/(2.828 d) 2d

(9 = 90°)

Parabolic 2/ (3 T d) T + (8d2/3T) (2 / 3 T d) / [T + A/(O.67 d)

(8d2/3T)] or 2d/3

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the space below for your answers.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of unit.

I) Write down the uses of water stored in ponds/tanks/lakes etc.

9
Estimation and 2) How is water conveyed from source (ponds/tanks/lakes) to the place of
Measurements of Flow use (field, home etc.)? -:

. .:

3) Depending upon the material of the channel, the channels are classified
as:

4)pefine uniform flow. Write equation of continuity.

5) Write down three most common channel shapes you have seen in the
field .

.......... ; ......................................................................................................•..

6) Draw a rectangular channel with width 'b' and depth 'd' and describe (i)
cross-section (ii) wetted perimeter and (iii) hydraulic radius of the channel.
Also compute the above three parameters for a rectangular channel if
the width of the channel is 50 cm and depth of the channel is 25 cm.
 Flow Through Open
3.3 VELOCITY COMPUTATION IN AN OPEN Channels/Pipes
CHANNEL
The velocity of flow in an open channel/canal is calculated by empirical formula
which express mean velocity of flow as a function of roughness of the channel,
hydraulic radius and hydraulic slope. There are various empirical equations to
compute the velocity of flow of water in a channel/canal. The following methods
are most common:
(i) Chezy's formula
(ii) Manning's Equation

3.3.1 Chezy's Equation

Chezy developed a relationship between mean velocity of flow, hydraulic radius
and hydraulic slope in a channel as given below.
v = C ..JRS (3.7)
Where,

v mean velocity of flow of water, ml/sec;

R = hydraulic radius, m;
S slope of the channel, dimensionless; and
C a constant.

'C' depends on the size, character of slope, depth of flow of stream and nature of
channel surface. Determination of value of C is relatively difficult. Therefore,
Manning's formula is generally used for computation of mean velocity of flow in an
open channel.

3.3.2 Manning's Equation

. Manning's formula is widely applied to compute velocity of flowing water in an
open channel using channel cross-section, slope of the channel and channel surface
roughness providing resistance to flow of water, known as Manning's roughness
coefficient. The formula is used to design the cross-section (bottom width, water
depth and side slope of the channel) of the channel for conveying desired amount
of water for a given slope of the land surface.
R2/3 SI/2 (3.8)
v=---
n
Where,
v mean velocity of water flowing in the channel, mlsec;
R hydraulic radius of the channel flow, m;

S hydraulic slope, dimensionless, (mlm); and

n Manning's roughness coefficient of the channel.

Permissible slope of earthen channels: The natural slope of the land usually
decides the channel bed slope. The steeper the slope, more will be the velocity
and discharge for the same cross-section. The steeper slopes result in high
flow velocities causing erosion. Generally, the bed slope should be about
0.1 %. The slope less than 0.05% may result in silting of channel and thus
reduction in carrying capacity.
11
Estimation and Mean flow velocity: The mean velocity of flow in the earthen (unlined) as
Measurements of Flow well as lined channels should not be too little to allow deposition of silting
material. However, in the unlined channels, excessive velocity of flow may
result in erosion or scouring of bottom and sides of the channels. Very few
soils can withstand velocities exceeding 1.5 m1sec. Permissible velocities
depending on the type of soil are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Permissible Velocities for Different Soil Textures

Type of Soil Permissible Velocity, cm/sec

Bare channel
Sand and silt 45
Loam, sandy loam and silt loam 60
Clay loam 65
Clay 70

Vegetative channel
Poor vegetation 90
Fair vegetation 120
Good vegetation 150
Source: Michael and Ojha(2006)
The value of Manning's roughness coefficient for various types of channel
material is given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Values of Manning's Roughness Coefficient 'n'
Type of Channel Manning's 'n'
Earth channel
Straight and uniform 0.023
Winding, sluggish 0.025

Stony bed, weeds on bank 0.035

Small drainage ditches 0.040
Lined channels
Concrete 0.015

Masonry, rubble 0.017 - 0.030

Metal, smooth 0.011 - 0.015

Wooden 0.011 - 0.014

Vegetated waterways 0.020 - 0.040

Pipes
Cast iron 0.012 - 0.013

Clay or concrete drain tile 0.011

Steel 0.015 - 0.017

Vitrified sewer pipe 0.013 - 0.015

12 Source: Michael (2008)
Angle of repose (8): The maximum angle of the sloping sides measured Flow Through Open
from the horizontal is known as angle of repose. Clay soils have steeper Channels/Pipes
angles while sandy soils have flatter angle ..

Example 3.1
Compute discharge from a trapezoidal section with base width as 20 cm,
depth of flow as 10 cm, side slope as 1 (vertical): 1.5 (horizontal), channel
slope of 1 m drop in 1000 m length for a good earthen canal (straight and
uniform) using Manning's equation. Refer Fig. 3.1.

b = 0.20 m

d = 0.10 m
s = 1.5

n = 0.023 (Straight and uniform)

h 1
S =[= 1000 = 0.001
t=b+2ds

= 0.20 + 2 x 0.10 x 1.5

= 0.20 + 0.30
= 0.50 m

a=e~b )=(0.5;0.2)=0.35m2

p = b+ 2(d"'; S2+ 1)
= 0.20 + 2(0.10" 1.502+ 1)

= 0.56 m

Wetted perimeter is the length of that portion of the channel cross-section

which is in contact with flowing water.

'd' ra
H Y d rau IlC IUS,
0.35 =0 .625m
R =-a =--
P 0.56
R2/3 SII2
v=---
n
(0.625)2, 3 (0.00 1)112
- .
0,023

O.73xO.031
=--_.
0.023
= 1.0 m/sec

Q=vxa
= l.0 x 0.35

= 0.35 m 1/sec

= 350 litre/sec (1111' = WOO litre) 13

Estimation and-
Measurements of Flow 3.4 EFFICIENT CHANNEL SECTIONS
The cross-sections of a channel should be such that it provides the largest
possible hydraulic radius under the natural surface conditions. Theoretically,
the most efficient cross-section for an open channel is a semi-circle, as the
wetted perimeter is minimum and its hydraulic radius maximum.
3.4.1 Rectangular
For a rectangular cross-section, half a square i the hydraulically best
discharging rectangular channel.
d = bl2 (3.9)
The semi-circular and rectangular cross-sections are possible only in case of
channels lined with concrete or brick or stone masonry. For carrying capacity
up to 60 litre per second, lined rectangular channels should beused as their
embankments will not require supporting earth embankments which occupy
a considerable land area and result in breaches also.
3.4.2 Trapezoidal
Lined channels of large capacity, generally adopt trapezoidal cross-section.
Hydraulically, the most efficient cross-sections under favourable structural
conditions is:
b= 2 d tan- 812 (3.10)
The terms in equation 3.9 and 3.10 are defined earlier.
Check Your Progress 2
"/'

Note: a) ~se the space below for your answers.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of unit.

1
i 1) Describe Manning's equation.
Compute velocity of flowing water and the discharge in a rectangular
ch~nnel with the following characteristicslinformation.
i) C~annel width = 40 cm
ii) --Depth of flowing water in the channel = 20 cm
'. <

iii) Elevation of channel bottom above mean sea level at length zero
m=603.6m
iv) Elevation of channel bottom above mean sea level at length 50 m
4'" =603.4 ill
v) Channel made with bricks in cement mortar .

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• >! •••••••••••••••••

.....................................................................................................................
2) The width of the channel and depth of flow of water in the channel have
some relationship for a most economical cross-section. Write down the
relationship for (i) rectangular section, and (ii) trapezoidal section .
......• ~ - ~ ~ .
...........................•............................................... ' -, .. _ .
14 .............................................................................................................. ; .....
 Flow Through Open
3.5 HEAD LOSSES IN WATER FLOWS ChannelslPipes
,,:".'
The resistance provided by the surface to water flow is termed as head loss
due to friction. More the contact with the surface, more will be friction loss.
More the flow velocity and cross-sectional area, more will be, the resistance
to flow. The head loss depends on the type of surface (degree of roughness)
in contact with water. For ,.instance, the head loss will be more in concrete
surface than in glass surface. The flowing water loses its energy (velocity,
commonly termed as head) in overcoming the resistance provided by the
roughness of the surface over which it is flowing. The hydraulic gradient or
the hydraulic grade line in open channel flow is the water surface. In both
open channel and pipe flow, the energy gradient for a given length of channel .
or pipe represents the loss of energy by friction the hydraulic gradient is the
difference in hydraulic head divided by the distance between the points
measured along the path of flow (Fig.3.3).
h1- h2 ~h
Hydraulic gradient =
I I
lcP1 / w) + z1J + lcP2 / w) ~ z2J
=
I
Where,

hi' h2 = hydraulic head at points 1 and 2 respectively, m;

PI' '~= pressure at points 1 and 2 respectively, kg/m";

w = specific weight of water" kg/m';

ZI/ Z2 = elevation of the point above reference level, .m; and

I = distance between points 1 and 2, m.

p/w relative to the atmospheric pressure is equal to zero

t·
, Pl/W

Zl
I
J_: R_e_fu_re_n_ce_l_ev_e_l Q ~

Fig. 3.3: Head loss in a pipe 15

Estimation and 3.5.1 Loss of Head due to Friction in a Pipe
Measurements of Flow
The velocity of flow under full pipe flow is a function of frictional resistance
provided by the pipe material (frictional coefficient), length and diameter of
pipe (wetted perimeter), head causing flow (acceleration due to gravity and
slope of the pipe). The Darcy formula is generally used for velocity
computation. The frictional losses in the pipe are expressed by Darcy formula
as given below:

Where,
hf = head loss due to friction, m;
f = Darcy's frictional coefficient, dimensionless;
1 = length of the pipe, m;
v = velocity of flow of water, mlsec;
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81, m/sec"; and
d = pipe diameter, m.

The values of f are given in Table 3.4 for different diameter of pipe (cm),
velocity (cmlsec) and material of pipe.

Table 3.4: Values of Coefficient '.f for Pipe Flow

Diameter of Pipe Velocity (centimeter per second)
(cm) 30 60 90 120 150

Galvanised iron pipe

15 0.0056 0.0047 0.0043 0.0042 0.0038

22.5
30
. 0.0051
0.0047
0.0044
0.0042
0.0041
0.0038
0.0038
0.0035
0.0036
0.0034
45 0.0044 0.0037 0.0035 0.0033 0.0032
60 0.0042 0.0035 0.0033 0.0032 0.0030
90 0.0037 0.0033 0.0031 0.0029 0.0029
120 0.0035 0.0032 0.0029 0.0028 0.0027

Cast iron pipe

15 0.0061 0.0059 0.005R 0.0057 0.0055

22.5 0.0057 0.0055 0.0054 0.0053 0.0052
30 0.0054 0.0052 0.0051 0.0050 0.0048
45 0.0052 0.0051 0.0050 0.0048 0.0047
60 0.0050 0.0048 0.0045 0.0043 0.0041
90 0.0042 0.0040 0.0037 0.0036 0.0034
120 0.0036 0.0034 0.0032 0.0032 0.0031

Concrete pipe

15 0.0]02 0.0094 0.0090 0.0086 0.0084

22.5 0.0080 0.0074 u.0070 0.0067 0.0064
30 0.0067 0.0062 , 0.0059 0.0056 0.0054
45 0.0056 0.0051 0.0048 0.0046 0.0044
60 0.0050 0.0046 0.0044 0.0042 0.0040
90 0.0044 0.0040 0.0038 0.0036 0.OU34
150 0.0039 0.0037 0.0035 0.0033 0.0030
16
 Example ..~ . {~ . , FlowThrough Open'
Channels/Pipes
'Compute thehead loss 'fr~m a concrete pipe of l,5'cm diameter and "200'm
length. Velocity of flow is 90 cm/sec.

Solution

hf = 4 fl y2 / igd
d = 0.15 m

1 = 200 m

v = 90 'cm/sec
f = 0.0090 (Table
, .
3.3) .'

hf =.(4 x '0.0090 x 200 ?< 0.9 x 0.9) / (2 x 9.81 x 0.15)

,/

= 5.83912~943
!.:= 1.98 m

'·3.6 SEEPAG,E LOSSES

)
.Seepage loss refers to water loss in open conveyance or transit system. A
considerable amount of water is lost through water conveyance system
_ comprising of main canal, branch canals, distributaries, minors and water
to
courses conveying water. the fields. The earthen' channels los~ significant
amount of water depending on the type.of soil through which it passes. The
. 'water loss through water courses through which water flows during irrigation
is considerably higher. as comparedto other cpmponents of conveyance
system. The seepage loss through .sandy soils is significantly higher as
compared' to clay soils. The lined channels depending on the type and quality
of lining material help in controlling seepage loss significantly. the lining is
a costly option and as fan as possible local. and cheap but effective material
should be used 'for lining to minimize investment. The periodic repair and
maintenance are absolutely essential for effective control of seepage. The
.studies have-shown that even one per cent breach can result in as high seepage
as from an earthen channel. Depth of water table, soil porosity, physical
properties of the canal water such as temperature and quantity of suspended
load carried by the water (turbidity of water) and condition of thecanal system
are the factors which influence extent of seepage losses.
l ,
The investment on uning 'can be justified if the water saved' is optimally
used in the fields .. It is of paramount importance that on-farm water'
management practices such as proper leveling, irrigation scheduling and
appropriate method of ~ater application are integrated with water' conveyance ,
system. The studies have shown that if water is applied without adoption of
on-farm water mariagement practices, the water saved in the conveyance
system is lost in thefields (Table 3.5). If the lining of conveyance system is
coupled with adoption of properly designed surface irrigation and innovative
.micro-irrigation (sprinkler and drip) methods, 'significantly higher irrigation
'efficiency can be achieved. ' !i

17
Estimation and Table 3.5: Water Losses and Utilization Efficiency under Different Components of
Measurements of Flow Canal Irrigation System
System Water Losses (% ) Net
Characteristics Canals Distributaries Field Water Field Total Utilization
Courses Application
Entire system 15 7 22' 27 71 29
unlined f

Only canals lined 4 ,7 25 30 66 34

Canal and lined, 4 2 26 32 64 36
distributaries

Whole system 4 2 6 42 54 46
lined
Whole system 4 2 6 6 18 82
lined and
sprinkler method

Whole system 4," 2 1 3 10 90

lined and drip
method I
3.6.1 Channel Lining
As explained earlier, the channels for conveying water are lined to minimize
the seepage losses. This is essential to use limited water as efficiently as
possible to cover more area with irrigation. However, lining should be planned
in such a way that it is cost effective. As far as possible, the locally available'
material should be used for lining without compromising with its effectiveness
to reduce cost of lining.
Concrete, stone or brick masonry, clay tiles and rubber and plastic compounds
are some of the most common lining materials. Cement concrete lining and
single layer brick or stone used with cement and lime motor serve as effective
water proof lining. Lining should be strong, durable and water tight. Lining
of concrete or cement mortar is more strong and durable and is therefore
more common. .While selecting a particular line material, the cost of lining
and' extent of seepage should be considered. Presently, PVC lining material
of different thicknesses is quite effective in minimizing water loss. However"
they are always vulnerable to damage by rodents or puncturing particularly
in channels where the drying and wetting cycles occur due to intermittent
water flow. To overcome this problem, the J;>VClining material can be
provided in between the soil layers and brick layer. It is effective in water
storage tanks as this problem is not encountered as tanks generally remain
full of water.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: a) Use the space below for your answers.
b) , Compare your answers with those given at the end of unit.
1) Explain head loss in a water channel. "
................................................................................................................................
, '

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• A ••••••••••••••••••

18
 2) Write an expression for head loss in pipe flow. Explain different terms Flow Througll Open
used in the equations. ChannelslPipes .

.....

,
•••••••••••••••••.••• o. •.•.•••••••••••••••.••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••• 0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ •••••• ~ ••••••••

3) Explain seepage phenomenon in an open channel.

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4) Explain the role of lining material in controlling the seepage loss in open
channel.

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3.7 LET US SUM UP

.• Open channel is the most common type of water conveyance system.
Irrigation canals, drainage channels and natural streams are some of the
examples of open channel.

.• Open channels are either unlined or lined. Unlined 'channels are cheap
and easy to construct resulting in considerable water loss whereas lined:
channels are expensive and loss of water is significantly less depending
on the quality of the lining material. Generally, rectangular trapezoidal of..
cross-sections are used for lined channels.

• The hydraulically most efficient channel cross-section provides maximum ,

area. of cross-section and, minimum wetted perimeter under the, ~~ral
surface conditions. Theoretically, the most efficient cross-section for an .
open channel is a semi -circle, as the wetted perimeter is minimum and .
its hydraulic radius maximum. For a rectangular channel, half a square
is the hydraulically best discharging rectangular channel.

• The head loss in open channels and pipes is influenced by the type of
surface (degree of roughness) in contact with water. Water surface in
open channel flow denotes the hydraulic gradient. The velocity of flow
.under full pipe flow is a function of frictional resistance provided by the
pipe material, length and diameter of pipe and head causing flow. 1,9
,Estimation and • The- extent of see page loss to be controlled depends on the type 'and
Measurements of Flow quality of lining material, Local and cheap but effective material should
be used for .lining to minimize investment The periodic repair and
maintenance are absolutely essential for effective control of seepage. .,
• On-farm water management practices need to be adopted at the field
f,
level so that the positive impact of lining in terms of ~ater savings is
fully realized and water saved helps in increasing irrigation command.

3.8 KEYWORDS
Angle of Repose «(J) The maximum angle of the sloping sides
measured from the horizontal is known
as angle of repose.
Area of Cross-section Area of channel.
Best Hydraulic Section The hydraulically most efficient cross-
'section of a channel is one which gives'
maximum area of cross-section and
minimum wetted perimeter.
Cumec mvsec = 1000 litre/sec.
Freeboard It is the vertical distance between the top ,
of the channel wall and maximum
possible water level in the channel.
Head Loss The resistance provided by the surface to
water flow is termed as head loss due to
friction.
Hydraulic Gradient (slope): Ratio of vertical drop and a given length
of flow.
,
Hydraulic Radius (R) , , Expressed as the ratio of cross-sectional,'
area Qf flow (a) divided by the wetted
perimeter (p).
Lined Channels Channel provided with linning materials '
such as' concrete; brick masonry etc.
Open Channel Refers to water surface open to
atmosphere.
Pipe Flow, "
, Refers to water flow under pressure and
not open to the atmosphere. Flow in
partially flowing pipes is the same as open
.channel flow.
Prismatic Channel A channel is called a prismatic channel .
when it has unvarying cross-section and
constant bottom slope. ,
Seepage Losses Refers to water' loss through the cross-
section of the channel (bottom and sides).
Unlined Channels These are made through the natural"
material (soil or rocks) from which they
are passing.
Wetted Perimeter
,
"
. Surface of channel in contact with water
20 " " channel.
 Flow Through Open·
3.9' SUGGESTED READING . ~hannelsfPipes

Michael, A.M. and Ojha, T.P. 2006. Principals of Agricultural Engineering -

Vo!. II, Jain Brothers; Jodhpur (Rajasthan), India.
Michael, A.M. 2008. Irrigation: Theory and Practices; Second Edition, Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 768.
Murty, V.V.N, 2004 Land and Water Engineering, Kalyani Publishers, New
l?elhi, pp. 594.
Raghunath, H.M. 1985. Hydrology, Principle, Analysis and Design. Wiley
EasternLimited, New Delhi.
Schwab, GO., Fangmeier, D.D., Elliot, W.J. and Frewert, R.K. 1993. Soil
and Water Conservation Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
,
pp.507: )

·Sharma,R.K. 1993. A Text Book ofHydrology and Water Resources. Dhanpat

Rai & Sons Publisher, New Delhi
Ven Te Chow. 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics, Me Graw Hill Book
Company, Inc. pp. 680.

3.10 MODEL ANSWERS, TO CHECK' voua

P~OGRESS
'Check Your Progress 1. "
, .
1) Irrigation; public health and industry.

: 2) .Open channels and pipes.

3) Unlined and lined channels .
.,
4) The open channel flow is termed as uniform if the cross-section is
throughout uniform resulting in the constant velocity and depth of flow-

Where"
, QI .and Q2 ate discharge, VI and v2 are velocity of flowing water'
and al and a2 are, the area of cross-sections. of channel section I
, and 2 respectively. ' ,
, 5)' Trapezoidal, rectangular and parabolic.

, 25 cm

II+-~ --- 50cm

Area of cross-section: Cross-sectional area 'a' refers to the wetted section

of the channel. In case of trapezoidal channel:
a=-(bxd)
21
 Estimatjon and ,Wetted parameter: It is the sum of the lengths of sides which are in contact
-Measurem~nts of Flow with water.
,
p;:;: b +2ll.

Hydraulic radius: It refers to the ratio of cross-sectional area of flow and

the wetted parameter .

. R=~=(bxd)
P (b+2d)

b == 50 cm = 0.5 m

d =25 cm = 0.25 m

O.5q, )(,.0;25= 0.125,m2

J~a=

.p = 0.5 + 2 x 0.25 = 1.0 m

a 0.125
R=-=-1- = 0.125 m
p
(
C~ YO\lf 'Pr9gress 2
. --+

. ., R2/3 SI!2 r .

1) v=---
, n

.),
Where, .

v = mean velocity of water flowing in the channel, m/sec;

R=; hydraulic radius of the channel flow, m;
.;. .' •• .",,-.~ I I •

S = hydraulic slope, dimensionless, (rn/rnj.and

1.1 = manning's roughness coefficient of the channel.

a = 0.40 x 0.20 = 0.08 m?

p == 0,20 +0.40 + 0.20 = 0.8,m\
a 0.080
R = -=
0.8
; . ...,"l

= 0.1 m
h = (603.60-603.40)
= 0.20 m

I =50m

hO.20
S ;;: T= 50
r ..
. "

,,"" = 0.004 m/m

n = 0.017 (newly constructed channel, Table 3.3).

R 2/3 S"2
v =~--:-
"n
s:
'22 <.-,.
 Flow Through Open
(0.10)2/3 (0.004)"2
ChannelsIPipes
0.017
0.215 x 0.063
-
0.017
= 0.80 mJsec

Q =vxa
= 0.08 X 0.80
= 0.064 mvsec
= 64 litre/sec ( 1 m = 3 1000 litre)
2) i) Rectangular section, b = 2d
ii) Trapezoidal section, b = 2d t~n8/2

Where,
b = bottom width, m;
d = depth of flow, m; and
-\ 8 = angle between the sloping side and horizontal

Head loss depends on the type of surface (degree of roughness) in contact

with water.

Check Your Progress 3

1) The resistance provided by the surface to water flow in water channel is
termed as head loss due to friction. More the contact with the surface
more will be friction loss.

Where,
hf = head loss due to friction, m;
f = Darcy's frictional coefficient, dimensionless;
I length of the pipe, m;
v = velocity of flow of water, m/sec;
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81, m/sec"; and
d pipe diameter, m

3) Seepage loss refers to water loss in open conveyance or transit system. A

considerable amount of .water is lost through ~ater conveyance system
comprising of main canal, branch canals, distributaries, minors and water
courses conveying water to the fields. The earthen channels lose
.significant amount of water depending on the type of soil through which
it passes.

4) Channels for conveying water are lined to minimize the seepage losses.
This is essential to use limited· water as efficiently as possible to cover
. more area with irrigation. However, lining should be planned in such a
way that it is cost effective. Concrete, stone or brick masonry, clay tiles
and rubber and plastic compounds are-some of the most common lining
materials. Cement concrete lining and single layer brick or stone used
with cement and lime motor serve as effective water proof lining.