POLITICAL SCIENCE 3 UNIT 4

POWER

INTRODUCTION

Power, the cornerstone of politics, has long dominated human relations. It encompasses influence,
authority, and capability, often intertwined but distinct. Kautilya in ancient India defined power as
strength derived from knowledge, military prowess, and valor. Hans Morgenthau later echoed this,
defining power as the ability of one political actor to control the actions of another.

DEFINITION

Weber – “Power is the chance of a man or a number of men to realize their own will in a

communal action even against the resistance of others who are participating in the action”.

Alvin Genldner – “Power is, among other things, the ability to enforce one’s moral claims”.

MEANING

Power can be understood as the ability of individuals or groups to influence or control the behavior,
actions, or outcomes of others, often to achieve their own interests or objectives. It can manifest in
various forms, such as physical strength, wealth, authority, knowledge, or social connections. In essence,
power denotes the capacity to exert influence and shape outcomes in social, political, or economic
contexts.

SOURCES

Force: This involves the direct or threatened use of coercion to impose one's will on others. It can be
physical, such as imprisonment or execution of political dissidents, or latent, where the potential for
force influences behavior. However, force alone may not always achieve complex goals as people cannot
be compelled to perform intricate tasks solely through coercion.

Influence: Influence operates through persuasion, affecting the decisions and actions of others. For
instance, a political leader's compelling speech at a rally may sway citizens to change their stance on an
issue. This demonstrates how persuasive efforts can alter opinions and behavior.

Authority: Authority denotes institutionalized power recognized by those over whom it is exercised. It is
legitimized and accepted by society, granting individuals or institutions the right to make decisions and
issue directives. Legitimacy is crucial here, as it implies consent from those subjected to authority. For
example, people obey the orders of a police officer because they recognize the officer's right to exert
power in certain situations. Sociologists differentiate between power and authority, emphasizing the
acceptance and legitimacy inherent in the latter.
Expertise: This refers to the power derived from specialized knowledge or skills. Individuals or groups
possessing expertise in particular fields hold influence over decisions and actions related to those
domains. For example, a medical specialist may wield power in healthcare settings due to their extensive
knowledge and expertise, influencing treatment plans and medical policies.

Charisma: Charismatic individuals possess a magnetic charm and persuasive ability that captivates and
inspires others. Their charisma allows them to exert influence and attract followers who are drawn to
their personality and vision. Leaders with charisma can rally support, motivate action, and shape
opinions through their compelling presence and communication skills.

Resources: Power can also stem from control over valuable resources, including financial assets, material
possessions, or access to essential services. Individuals or entities with significant resources wield
influence by leveraging their control over these assets. For instance, corporations may hold power
through their control over economic resources, enabling them to influence market dynamics, policy
decisions, and societal outcomes.

KINDS OF POWER

Max Weber's classification of power:(IMPORTANT)

Economic Power: Economic power, as conceptualized by Marx, forms the bedrock of societal dynamics. It
originates from individuals' or groups' control over resources and means of production. This control
allows them to exert influence and shape events by leveraging their material advantages. Economic
power is rooted in the objective relationships within the modes of production and an individual's or
group's position within the labor market. It encompasses factors such as wealth, ownership of capital,
and access to economic opportunities. Economic power enables individuals or groups to pursue their
interests and objectives, impacting various aspects of social, political, and economic life.

Social Power: Social power revolves around informal structures and dynamics within society. It is based
on factors such as community opinions, family status, honor, prestige, and lifestyle choices. Unlike
economic power, which is primarily driven by material resources, social power derives from intangible
factors that influence individuals' social standing and interactions. Weber emphasized the significance of
social power, highlighting how it often takes precedence over economic interests in shaping societal
norms, values, and behaviors. Social power can manifest through social networks, cultural affiliations,
and societal norms, exerting significant influence on individuals' behavior and societal dynamics.

Political Power: Political power is institutionalized within formal structures of governance, including legal
systems, political parties, and bureaucratic institutions. It encompasses individuals' or groups'
relationships with these institutions, as well as their ability to influence decision-making processes and
policy outcomes. Political power extends beyond national boundaries, with networks of political
influence spanning across countries and regions. It involves the authority to enact laws, enforce
regulations, levy taxes, and allocate resources. Political power is often associated with elites or privileged
groups who wield significant influence over governmental institutions and policies. However, it also
encompasses grassroots movements and civil society organizations that mobilize to challenge existing
power structures and advocate for change.

OTHER SOURCES

Knowledge Power: According to Foucault, power and knowledge are intertwined. Knowledge is not
merely a neutral tool but a means of surveillance and control. Those who possess knowledge can wield
power over others by monitoring and regulating their behavior. This type of power operates through the
dissemination and manipulation of information, influencing individuals' perceptions and actions.

Military Power: Military power involves the use of physical coercion and force to achieve strategic
objectives. Warfare has historically played a significant role in politics and international relations.
Modern military systems have evolved into bureaucratic organizations, reshaping the nature of warfare
and power dynamics. While military might is a potent source of power, few groups solely rely on force to
maintain their dominance.

Coercive Power: Coercive power revolves around the ability to dispense punishments or impose
consequences if expectations are not met. It encompasses the capacity to intimidate, threaten, or inflict
harm on others who fail to comply with demands. Coercive power can be exercised through physical
strength, verbal coercion, or control over resources, making it effective for enforcing compliance,
particularly in crisis situations.

Ideological Power: Ideological power involves influencing and shaping beliefs, values, and ideologies.
Certain political ideologies, such as communism, fascism, or nationalism, wield power by controlling
narratives, shaping public discourse, and mobilizing supporters. Ideological power plays a crucial role in
organizing individuals into political movements, parties, or sects, often challenging dominant institutions
and societal norms.

AUTHORITY

INTRODUCTION

Authority represents the sanctioned ability to influence or direct others within a social framework. It's
the accepted right to make decisions, issue commands, or enforce rules within a given context. Unlike
mere power, authority carries legitimacy, often derived from traditions, legal systems, or personal
charisma. Understanding authority is crucial for grasping how societies organize themselves, allocate
responsibilities, and maintain order.

DEFINITION

Herbert A Simon, “Authority is the power to make decisions which guides the action of

another.”

Mac Iver, “Authority is often defined as being power, the power to command obedience.”
MEANING

Authority refers to the legitimate and accepted power or right to command, make decisions, enforce
rules, or influence others within a specific context or social structure. Unlike mere power, which can be
exerted through coercion or force, authority is recognized by those subjected to it as rightful and
justified. It often derives from formal positions within hierarchical systems, cultural norms, legal
frameworks, or personal charisma. Authority plays a fundamental role in governing societies,
organizations, and interpersonal relationships, providing a framework for order, decision-making, and
social cohesion.

KINDS

Traditional Authority: Derived from long-established customs, habits, and social structures, traditional
authority is rooted in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of those exercising
authority. Examples include hereditary monarchs, tribal chiefs, or heads of families and villages. Tradition
holds supreme importance in this form of authority, often outweighing rationality or reason.

Charismatic Authority: Charismatic authority is based on the exceptional sanctity, heroism, or exemplary
character of an individual leader. It arises from the devotion inspired by the unique qualities and
charisma of the leader. Examples include figures like Hitler or Dr. A. P. J Abdul Kalam, whose
extraordinary qualities and vision garner devotion and loyalty from followers.

Legal-Rational Authority: This form of authority derives legitimacy from formal rules and established
laws of the state, typically codified and often complex. It is based on the rational-legal framework of a
society, as outlined in its constitution. Government officials in modern societies exemplify legal-rational
authority, operating within the framework of established laws and regulations. Weber observed that
societies evolve from primarily traditional and charismatic authorities to predominantly rational and
legal ones, as the instability of charismatic authority necessitates its routinization into more structured
forms of authority, typically characterized by bureaucratic structures.

Expert Authority: Expert authority arises from specialized knowledge, skills, or expertise in a particular
field or domain. Individuals or institutions with expertise in specific areas often wield influence and
authority over decisions and actions related to those domains. For example, medical professionals have
expert authority in healthcare settings, guiding treatment plans and medical policies based on their
specialized knowledge.

Informal Authority: Informal authority stems from personal relationships, influence, or reputation rather
than formal positions or structures. It is based on trust, respect, and interpersonal dynamics rather than
codified rules or regulations. Informal authority can emerge within social groups, communities, or
organizations, where individuals with influential personalities or extensive networks exert significant
sway over others' decisions and behaviors.

Cultural or Moral Authority: Cultural or moral authority is grounded in shared values, beliefs, or ethical
principles within a society or community. It is often vested in religious or spiritual leaders, moral
exemplars, or cultural figures who embody and uphold societal norms and values. Cultural or moral
authorities guide behavior, shape attitudes, and provide moral guidance, influencing individuals' actions
and societal dynamics through their adherence to cultural or moral principles.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POWER AND AUTHORITY

Definition: Power refers to the ability to influence and control others' actions, while authority is the
formal right to give orders, make decisions, and command obedience.

Nature: Power is often a personal trait or acquired ability, whereas authority is a formal right vested in
high officials or management personnel.

Source: Power typically stems from knowledge and expertise, whereas authority derives from one's
position or designation within an organization or hierarchy.

Direction of Flow: Power can flow in any direction—upward, downward, or lateral—while authority flows
only downward, from superiors to subordinates.

Attachment: Power lies in the individual, whereas authority is attached to one's designation or position.

Legitimacy: Authority is legitimate and sanctioned by rules and regulations, while power may not be
inherently legitimate.

Nature: Authority is institutionalized power, whereas power can be latent force or potential influence.

Reasoning: Authority is based on reasoned elaboration, while power is often a psychological factor.

Effect: Authority enables a person to get their proposals accepted, while power changes others'
behavior.

Dominance: Authority typically involves dominance, whereas power may or may not possess dominance.

Accountability: Authority is responsible and accountable for its actions, whereas power may not be.

Loss: Loss of authority can result from hastiness or emotionalism, while loss of power may stem from
factors like loss of wealth or influence.

Roots: Authority is rooted in government rules and regulations, while power arises from the polarization
of people's desires and interests.

LEGITIMISATION OF POWER

Legitimization of power refers to the process by which authority or governance structures gain
acceptance and recognition as rightful and justified within a society. This process is crucial for
maintaining social order, stability, and the functioning of political systems. There are various approaches
to understanding how power becomes legitimized, ranging from classical perspectives to modern
theories.

Classical Approach:

Thomas Hobbes: Hobbes argued that humans naturally exist in a state of conflict and competition,
known as the "state of war." To escape this condition, individuals enter into a social contract,
surrendering their natural rights to a sovereign power in exchange for peace and security. The legitimacy
of the sovereign is derived from the consent of individuals to relinquish their private strength to a single
entity, forming a Leviathan.

Modern Approach:

Karl Marx: Marx viewed power as being held by different social classes, particularly the working and
ruling classes. Power is seen as limited and is held by a dominant class that controls the means of
production. Marx's analysis focuses on the struggle between these classes and the mechanisms by which
the ruling class maintains its power and legitimacy.

Max Weber: Weber's perspective on legitimacy emphasizes the role of power and domination in political
systems. He distinguishes between traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational authority. Legitimacy can
stem from obedience based on fear or moral obligation. Weber also critiques democratic systems,
arguing that they may only appear democratic due to formal processes like elections, while power
remains concentrated in certain groups or institutions.

In modern liberal democratic societies, legitimacy is often tied to constitutional frameworks and
principles that reflect widely held values and beliefs. Governments gain legitimacy through their
responsiveness to popular pressure and adherence to constitutional norms. Legitimization of power is a
complex and multifaceted process influenced by historical, cultural, and institutional factors, and it plays
a critical role in shaping the relationship between rulers and the ruled in society.

LIMITATIONS AND CONDITIONS OF AUTHORITY

on the basis of three conditions the following limitations of authority can be identified

Conditions

• An individual ruler or master or a group of ruler or masers.

• An individual or group that is ruled.

• The will of the ruler to influence the conduct of the ruled which may be expressed throughcommands.

Limitations

• Authority can be seen as a threat to reason and critical understanding.

• Authority demands unconditional, unquestioning obedience and can therefore lead to a

climate of deference and avoidance of responsibility which comes from an uncertain trust

in the judgment of others.

• Fascism depends on authority.

• The right of resisting a tyrant has always been a controversial topic. A tyrannical deposition

lacks ab initio the basis of consent on which the governments of all organic states are

founded.

• Anarchism, syndicalism and anti-authoritarian socialism have always refused to

acknowledge the sovereign and supreme authority of the state.

• This was shown in Milgram experiments people with a strong inclination to obey authority

can be more easily led to behave in barbaric fashion.

RESPONSIBILITY

INTRODUCTION

Responsibility is about recognizing and fulfilling our duties and obligations in various aspects of life. It
involves being accountable for our actions and their consequences, both for ourselves and for others.
Whether in personal relationships, work settings, or broader societal contexts, responsibility guides our
behavior and decisions, shaping our roles as ethical and contributing members of society.

DEFINITIONS

❖Allen – “Responsibility is the obligation to carry out assigned activities to the best of his

abilities.”

❖G R Terry - “Responsibility is the obligation of a person to achieve the results mutually

determined through participation by the superiors and himself”

MEANING

Responsibility refers to the state or condition of being accountable for one's actions, decisions, and
obligations. It involves recognizing the duties or tasks that one is expected to fulfill and being willing to
accept the consequences, whether positive or negative, that result from those actions. Responsibility
entails a sense of ownership and commitment to carrying out tasks or duties to the best of one's ability,
with integrity and consideration for the well-being of oneself and others. It is a fundamental aspect of
ethical behavior and social functioning, guiding individuals in their interactions with others and their
contributions to society.

KINDS

Personal Responsibility

Personal responsibility refers to the accountability individuals have for their own actions, decisions, and
well-being. It involves recognizing that one's choices and behaviors have consequences and taking
ownership of them.

Personal responsibility encompasses several key aspects:

Self-awareness: Understanding one's values, beliefs, strengths, and weaknesses.

Decision making: Making conscious and informed choices based on personal values and goals.

Acceptance of consequences: Taking responsibility for the outcomes of one's actions, whether positive
or negative.

Self-discipline: Exercising self-control and commitment to fulfill obligations and resist impulsive
behaviors.

Adaptability: Being flexible and proactive in responding to challenges and setbacks.

Self-care: Prioritizing physical, emotional, and mental well-being through healthy habits and stress
management.

Institutional Responsibility:

Definition: Institutional responsibility refers to the duty of administrative agencies or organizations to

serve the public interest and promote public welfare through their actions, policies, and decisions.

Implementation: This responsibility is enacted through the enforcement of laws, regulations, and ethical
standards that govern the conduct of institutions. These regulations are designed to prevent illegal or
unethical behavior that may harm individuals or society.

Examples: Institutions such as government agencies, regulatory bodies, and law enforcement
organizations uphold institutional responsibility by investigating wrongdoing, ensuring compliance with
laws and regulations, and addressing issues that impact public welfare. For instance, the Central Bureau
of Investigation (CBI) in India investigates cases of corruption and other criminal activities to uphold
institutional responsibility and maintain public trust in the justice system.

Professional Responsibility:

Definition: Professional responsibility refers to the ethical standards, codes of conduct, and duties that
individuals in specific professions are expected to adhere to in their professional roles.

Scope: This responsibility encompasses various aspects of professional conduct, including honesty,
integrity, competence, confidentiality, and accountability.

Application: Professionals are expected to act in a manner consistent with these standards while
performing their duties, interacting with clients or stakeholders, and representing their profession. For
example, lawyers have a professional responsibility to provide competent legal representation, maintain
client confidentiality, and uphold the principles of justice and fairness.

Oaths and Codes of Ethics: Many professions require practitioners to take oaths or adhere to codes of
ethics that outline their professional responsibilities. For instance, medical professionals take the
Hippocratic Oath, which emphasizes principles such as patient confidentiality, beneficence, and non-
maleficence.

Consequences of Violations: Failure to uphold professional responsibility can have serious consequences,
including disciplinary action, loss of licensure or accreditation, damage to professional reputation, and
legal liabilities.

Continuous Development: Professionals are expected to engage in continuous learning and professional
development to enhance their skills, stay updated on industry standards and best practices, and fulfill
their professional responsibilities effectively.

RELATIONSHIP WITH AUTHORITY

Interdependence: Responsibility and authority are interdependent elements of organizational roles.

Authority grants the power to make decisions, while responsibility ensures individuals are answerable
for the outcomes of those decisions.

Accountability: Responsibility and authority are closely linked through the concept of accountability.
Those who hold authority are responsible for the actions taken within their sphere of influence. This
accountability ensures that authority is exercised judiciously and in alignment with organizational goals.

Delegation: Responsibility and authority often involve delegation. Individuals with authority may
delegate tasks or decision-making power to others, but they remain ultimately responsible for the
outcomes. Effective delegation requires clear communication of responsibilities and accountability.

Trust: The relationship between responsibility and authority is built on trust. When individuals
demonstrate accountability for their actions and decisions, trust is established between them and their
colleagues, superiors, and subordinates. Trust is essential for effective collaboration and teamwork
within organizations.

Alignment: Successful organizations ensure alignment between responsibility and authority. This
alignment ensures that individuals have the necessary autonomy and resources to fulfill their
responsibilities effectively. Misalignment can lead to inefficiencies, conflicts, and a lack of clarity in
decision-making processes.

Performance management: Responsibility and authority are key components of performance

management within organizations. Performance expectations are often tied to both the responsibilities
assigned to individuals and the authority they have to accomplish those responsibilities. Performance
evaluations assess how effectively individuals exercise their authority and fulfill their responsibilities.

Decision-making: Responsibility and authority play crucial roles in decision-making processes. Individuals
with authority have the power to make decisions, but they must consider the responsibilities associated
with those decisions. Responsible decision-making involves weighing various factors, including ethical
considerations and the potential impact on stakeholders.

Organizational culture: The relationship between responsibility and authority shapes the organizational
culture. A culture that values accountability and empowers individuals to exercise their authority fosters
a positive work environment where employees feel trusted and supported.

Development and growth: Organizations that foster a healthy relationship between responsibility and
authority provide opportunities for individuals to develop and grow professionally. Empowering
individuals with increasing levels of authority as they demonstrate competence and accountability
promotes career advancement and enhances organizational effectiveness.

ACCOUNTABILITY

Accountability is a cornerstone of effective governance and organizational management. It refers to the

obligation of individuals and entities to accept responsibility for their actions, decisions, and the
outcomes thereof. In essence, it involves answerability and the willingness to be transparent about one's
conduct and performance. Accountability promotes trust, integrity, and ethical behavior within both
public and private sectors, ensuring that actions align with established standards, laws, and ethical
principles. It is a vital aspect of fostering transparency, fairness, and credibility in decision-making
processes, ultimately contributing to the overall success and sustainability of organizations and societies.

MEANING

Accountability is the principle by which individuals or organizations acknowledge and take ownership of
their actions, decisions, and the outcomes that result. It encompasses being answerable to others,
whether it be superiors, peers, stakeholders, or the public, and involves being transparent about one's
conduct and performance. Accountability is essential for maintaining trust, integrity, and ethical
standards within both personal and professional contexts. It ensures that individuals and organizations
are held responsible for their actions and that they operate in alignment with established rules,
regulations, and ethical guidelines. Ultimately, accountability fosters a culture of transparency, fairness,
and responsibility, which are essential for the effective functioning of societies and organizations.

KINDS

Political Accountability: This type of accountability is crucial in democratic systems where elected
officials and government bodies are answerable to the public and legislative bodies. It ensures that those
in power are held responsible for their actions, decisions, and policies. Political accountability
mechanisms include elections, inquiries, and impeachment processes. Through these mechanisms,
citizens can hold their representatives accountable for their conduct and performance during their term
in office.

Professional Accountability: Professionals, such as doctors, lawyers, accountants, and engineers, have a
duty to adhere to ethical standards and provide quality services to their clients or patients. Professional
accountability involves being responsible for one's actions, decisions, and the outcomes thereof within
the scope of one's profession. This may include maintaining professional competence, acting in the best
interests of clients or patients, and upholding ethical codes of conduct.

Personal Accountability: Personal accountability is about individuals taking ownership of their actions
and decisions. It involves being proactive and accepting responsibility for the consequences of one's
choices, both in professional and personal contexts. This may include admitting mistakes, making
amends, and striving for continuous improvement. Personal accountability fosters trust, reliability, and
integrity in relationships and contributes to a positive work culture.

Ethical Accountability: Ethical accountability goes beyond legal or professional obligations and focuses on
promoting ethical behavior and responsible practices. It involves individuals and organizations striving to
make decisions and conduct themselves in ways that are morally right and just. Ethical accountability
may include advocating for social justice, environmental sustainability, and corporate social
responsibility. It encompasses a commitment to integrity, fairness, and respect for human rights.

Financial Accountability: In organizational contexts, financial accountability is essential for ensuring fiscal
responsibility and stewardship of resources. It involves creating transparent budgets, monitoring
expenditures, and minimizing waste. Financial accountability helps organizations allocate resources
efficiently, mitigate financial risks, and achieve their financial objectives. It also involves compliance with
financial regulations, reporting standards, and ethical principles in financial management.

Constituency Accountability: This form of accountability emphasizes representation and responsiveness

to the interests and needs of constituents. Government officials and agencies are accountable for
considering the diverse perspectives and voices within their constituencies when making decisions and
formulating policies. Constituency accountability ensures that marginalized or underrepresented groups
have a say in governance processes and that policies reflect the interests of the broader population.

Public Accountability: Public accountability extends accountability mechanisms beyond government

bodies to include private entities involved in public service provision. It emphasizes transparency,
openness, and responsiveness to public concerns and interests. Public accountability mechanisms may
include public hearings, citizen feedback mechanisms, and independent audits to ensure that private
entities delivering public services adhere to standards of accountability and efficiency.

Administrative Accountability: Within government administrations, administrative accountability involves

ensuring that civil servants and government agencies uphold standards of conduct, efficiency, and
integrity. This includes adherence to rules and regulations, responsiveness to superiors and oversight
bodies, and accountability to the public. Independent oversight bodies and internal audit mechanisms
help hold government officials and agencies accountable for their actions and decisions, promoting
transparency and integrity in governance.

ACCOUNTABILITY AS AN ADJUNCT OF RESPONSIBILITY

Citizen-Led Accountability Initiatives: There's a shift towards citizen-led accountability initiatives, which
sometimes focus on catching officials in the act of wrongdoing. This approach emphasizes punishment as
a means to induce accountability, which could be counterproductive if the primary goal is to improve
government responsiveness rather than just enforcing rules.

Role of Punishment: While punishment is crucial for enforcing accountability, it might not be the most
effective approach if the aim is to enhance government responsiveness. Punishment alone may not
address the underlying issues that hinder effective service delivery.

Building Capacities of Public Officials: Effective accountability requires building the capacities of public
officials to respond to citizen engagement in service delivery. There's a need for adequate training and
learning opportunities for officials to handle increased accountability demands effectively.

Collaborative Accountability Initiatives: Accountability initiatives in India involve collaborative efforts

between the government, civil society, research institutes, and media to strengthen state accountability
through policy research and information collection.

:Responsibility: Refers to the duty or obligation to perform a task as assigned. It involves doing what one
is asked to do, and responsibility is often delegated from a higher authority to a subordinate.

Accountability: Involves being answerable for the outcomes of actions, decisions, or tasks. It goes
beyond mere task completion and includes taking ownership of results, whether positive or negative.
Accountability is accepted rather than assigned, and it arises from the responsibility delegated to an
individual or group.

Origin and Delegation: Responsibility originates from assigned authority and is delegated to individuals,
while accountability arises from responsibility and is accepted by individuals. Responsibility can be
delegated, but accountability cannot be transferred entirely; individuals remain accountable for the
outcomes of their actions.

This distinction helps clarify that while responsibility involves performing assigned tasks, accountability
entails taking ownership and being answerable for the results. Both concepts are essential for effective
governance and organizational management

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RESPONSIBILTY AND ACCOUNTABILITY

Definition:

Accountability: Being answerable for the outcomes of actions, decisions, or tasks.

Responsibility: The duty or obligation to perform a task as assigned.

Origin:

Accountability: Arises from responsibility and is accepted by individuals.

Responsibility: Originates from assigned authority and is delegated to individuals.

Acceptance:

Accountability: Accepted by individuals or groups who agree to be answerable for the results.

Responsibility: Assigned to individuals by higher authorities, and they are expected to fulfill their duties.

Delegation:

Accountability: Cannot be fully delegated; individuals remain ultimately responsible for the outcomes.

Responsibility: Can be delegated from higher authorities to subordinates, but ultimate accountability
remains with the delegator.

Nature:

Accountability: Focuses on outcomes and results, emphasizing ownership and answerability.

Responsibility: Focuses on tasks and duties, emphasizing the obligation to perform assigned roles.

Scope:

Accountability: Encompasses a broader range of actions, decisions, and their consequences.

Responsibility: Focuses on specific tasks or duties assigned within a defined scope.

Transferability:

Accountability: Cannot be transferred entirely; individuals retain responsibility for their actions.

Responsibility: Can be transferred from one individual to another through delegation.

Accountability to Whom:

Accountability: Involves being answerable to stakeholders, superiors, or the public for actions or
decisions.

Responsibility: Involves fulfilling duties assigned by superiors or higher authorities.

Outcome Focus:

Accountability: Emphasizes the final results or outcomes achieved.

Responsibility: Emphasizes the completion of tasks or duties as assigned.

Enforcement:

Accountability: Often enforced through mechanisms such as audits, reviews, or performance

evaluations.

Responsibility: Enforced through supervision, monitoring, and assessment of task completio