DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JORHAT-785 007, ASSAM

MODULE 1

Introduction:

Machine Design:

The subject Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the
existing ones. A new or better machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of
production and operation. The process of design is a long and time consuming one. From the
study of existing ideas, a new idea has to be conceived. The idea is then studied keeping in
mind its commercial success and given shape and form in the form of drawings.

Thus, machine design is defined as “the use of scientific principles, technical information and
imagination in the description of a machine or a mechanical system to perform specific
functions with maximum economy and efficiency”.

In designing a machine component, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of many subjects

such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, Theory of Machines,
Workshop Processes and Engineering Drawing.

Factor influencing machine design

• Safety
• Reliability
• Quality
• Productivity
• Cost
• Ecological consideration
• Availability of men, material & machines
• Working environment
• Energy conservation
• Space constraints

Classifications of Machine Design:

The machine design may be classified as follows:

1. Adaptive design: In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with adaptation of existing
designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can be attempted by
designers of ordinary technical training. The designer only makes minor alternation or
modification in the existing designs of the product.

2. Development design: This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design
ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new material or
different method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the existing
design, but the final product may differ quite markedly from the original product.

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JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JORHAT-785 007, ASSAM

3. New design: This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative thinking.
Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high order can take up the
work of a new design.

The designs, depending upon the methods used, may be classified as follows:

(a) Rational design: This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of principle of
mechanics.

(b) Empirical design: This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on the
practice and past experience.

(c) Industrial design: This type of design depends upon the production aspects to manufacture
any machine component in the industry.

(d) Optimum design: It is the best design for the given objective function under the specified
constraints. It may be achieved by minimizing the undesirable effects.

(e) System design: It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.

(f) Element design: It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like piston,
crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.

(g) Computer aided design: This type of design depends upon the use of computer systems
to assist in the creation, modification, analysis and optimization of a design.

General Considerations in Machine Design:

Following are the general considerations in designing a machine component:

1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load: The load, on a machine component, may act
in several ways due to which the internal stresses are set up.

2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine: The successful operation of any
machine depends largely upon the simplest arrangement of the parts which will give the motion
required.

The motion of the parts may be:

• Rectilinear motion which includes unidirectional and reciprocating motions.

• Curvilinear motion which includes rotary, oscillatory and simple harmonic.
• Constant velocity.
• Constant or variable acceleration.

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JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JORHAT-785 007, ASSAM

3. Selection of materials: It is essential that a designer should have a thorough knowledge

of the properties of the materials and their behaviour under working conditions. Some of
the important characteristics of materials are:

• Strength,
• Durability,
• Flexibility,
• Weight,
• Resistance to heat and corrosion,
• Ability to cast,
• Welded or hardened,
• Machinability,
• Electrical conductivity, etc.

4. Form and size of the parts: In order to design any machine part for form and size, it is
necessary to know the forces which the part must sustain. It is also important to anticipate any
suddenly applied or impact load which may cause failure.

5. Frictional resistance and lubrication: A careful attention must be given to the matter of
lubrication of all surfaces which move in contact with others, whether in rotating, sliding, or
rolling bearings.

6. Convenient and economical features: In designing, the operating features of the machine
should be carefully studied. If parts are to be changed for different products or replaced on
account of wear or breakage, easy access should be provided and the necessity of removing
other parts to accomplish this should be avoided if possible.

The economical operation of a machine which is to be used for production, or for the processing
of material should be studied, in order to learn whether it has the maximum capacity consistent
with the production of good work.

7. Use of standard parts: The use of standard parts is closely related to cost, because the cost
of standard or stock parts is only a fraction of the cost of similar parts made to order. The
standard or stock parts should be used whenever possible; parts for which patterns are already
in existence such as gears, pulleys and bearings and parts which may be selected from regular
shop stock such as screws, nuts and pins.

8. Safety of operation: A designer should always provide safety devices for the safety of the
operator. The safety appliances should in no way interfere with operation of the machine. Some
machines are dangerous to operate, especially those which are speeded up to insure production
at a maximum rate.

9. Workshop facilities: A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of his
employer’s workshop, in order to avoid the necessity of having work done in some other
workshop.

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JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JORHAT-785 007, ASSAM

10. Number of machines to be manufactured: The number of articles or machines to be

manufactured affects the design in a number of ways. The engineering and shop costs which
are called fixed charges or overhead expenses are distributed over the number of articles to be
manufactured.

11. Cost of construction: The cost of construction of an article is the most important
consideration involved in design. In some cases, it is quite possible that the high cost of an
article may immediately bar it from further considerations.

12. Assembling: Every machine or structure must be assembled as a unit before it can function.
Large units must often be assembled in the shop, tested and then taken to be transported to their
place of service.

Procedure for Designing:

The procedure for designing consists of a step-by-step approach, from given specifications
about the functional requirements of a product to the complete description in the form of
drawings of the final product. A logical sequence of steps, usually common to all design
projects is illustrated in the Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: The Design Process

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JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JORHAT-785 007, ASSAM

Steps in Machine Design:

Following are the steps involved in the process of machine design:

Step 1: Product Specifications

The first step consists of preparing a complete list of the requirements of the product. It includes
the output capacity of the machine, service life, cost and reliability. In some cases, the overall
dimensions and weight of the product are also specified.

Step 2: Selection of Mechanism

After the list of requirements, the rough sketches of different possible mechanisms for the
product are prepared. The alternative mechanisms are compared with each other and also with
the mechanism of the products that are available in the market. Also, approximate cost of each
alternative is compared with the cost of existing products. Depending upon the cost, availability
of raw materials and manufacturing facility, the best possible mechanism is selected for the
product.

Step 3: Layout of Configuration

The next step is to prepare a block diagram showing the general layout of the selected
configuration. The joining methods, such as riveting, bolting or welding to connect individual
components are specified in this step. Also, rough sketches to show the shape of individual
parts are prepared in this step.

Step 4: Design of Individual Components

The next step is to design of individual components or machine elements. It consists of

following stages:

• Determination of the forces acting on the component.

• Selection of proper material for the component, depending upon the functional
requirements such as strength, rigidity, hardness and wear resistance.
• Determination of the likely mode of failure for the component and depending upon it,
selection of the criterion of failure, such as yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,
endurance limit or permissible deflection; and
• Determination of the geometric dimensions of the component using suitable factor of
safety and modification of the dimensions from assembly and manufacturing
considerations.

Step 5: Preparation of Drawings

The last step in design process is to prepare drawings of the assembly and the individual
components. The material of the component, its dimensions, tolerances, surface finish grades
and machining symbols are specified on these drawings. Two separate lists of components are
prepared. One is standard components, to be purchased directly from the market and another is

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JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JORHAT-785 007, ASSAM

special components, to be machined in the factory. Sometimes, a prototype model is prepared

for the product and thoroughly tested before finalizing the assembly drawing.

Machine Elements:

Each part of a machine, which has motion with respect to some other part, is called a machine
element. A machine consists of various machine elements. Also, each machine element may
consist of several parts, which are manufactured separately. For example, a rolling contact
bearing is a machine element and it consist of inner race, outer race, cage and rolling element
like balls.

Machine elements can be classified into two groups:

1. General purpose machine elements and

2. Special purpose machine elements

General purpose machine elements are used in number of machines. General purpose machine
elements include shafts, couplings, clutches, bearings, springs, gears and machine frames.

Special purpose machine elements are used only in certain types of application. Special purpose
machine elements include pistons, valves or spindles.

Basic Requirements of Machine Elements:

The main objective of designing a machine element is to ensure that it preserves its operating
capacity during the stipulated service life with minimum manufacturing and operating costs.
In order to achieve this objective, the machine element should satisfy following basic
requirements:

Strength: A machine part should not fail under the effect of the forces that act upon it. It should
have sufficient strength to avoid failure either due to fracture or due to general yielding.

Rigidity: A machine component should be rigid. i.e. it should not deflect or bend too much
due to forces or moments that act upon it.

Wear Resistance: A machine component should be wear resistant. Wear is the main reason
that puts the machine part out of order. There are different types of wear such as abrasive wear,
corrosive wear and pitting. Surface hardening can increase the wear resistance of the machine
components, such as gears and cams.

Minimum Dimensions and Weight: A machine part should be sufficiently strong, rigid and
wear resistant and at the same time, with minimum possible dimensions and weight. This will
result in minimum material cost.

Manufacturability: Manufacturability is the ease of fabrication and assembly. The shape and
material of the machine part should be selected in such a way that can be produced with
minimum labor cost.

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Safety: The shapes and dimensions of the machine parts should ensure safety to the operator
of the machine. The designer should assume the worst possible conditions and apply ‘fail-safe’
or ‘redundancy’ principle in such cases.

Conformance to Standards: A machine part should conform to the national or international

standard, covering its profile, dimensions, grade and material.

Reliability: Reliability is probability that a machine part will perform its intended functions
under desired operating conditions over a specified period of time. A machine part should be
reliable, i.e. it should perform its function satisfactorily over its lifetime.

Maintainability: A machine part should be maintainable. Maintainability is the ease with

which a machine part can be serviced or repaired.

Minimum Life Cycle Cost: Life cycle cost of the machine part is the total cost to be paid by
the purchaser for purchasing the part and operating and maintaining it over its life span.

Basic Procedure of Design of Machine Element:

In the complete procedure of machine design, the design of machine elements is the most
important step. Calculations are carried out to find out the dimensions of the machine elements.
These calculations form an integral part of the designing of machine elements. The basic
procedure of the design of machine elements is illustrated in the Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Basic Procedure of Design of Machine Element

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JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JORHAT-785 007, ASSAM

Steps of Design of Machine Element:

Design of machine elements consists of following steps:

Step 1: Specification of Function

The design of machine element begins with the specification of the functions of the element.

Step 2: Determination of Forces

A free body diagram of forces is constructed to determine the forces acting on different parts
of the machine.

Step 3: Selection of Material

The four basic factors, which are considered in selecting the material are:

(i) Availability,
(ii) Cost,
(iii)Mechanical properties, and
(iv) Manufacturing considerations

Step 4: Failure Criterion

The machine component is said to have ‘failed’ when it is unable to perform its functions
satisfactorily. To find the dimensions of the components, it is necessary to know the type of
failure by which the component will fail when put into the service. The three basic types of
failure are:

1) Failure by elastic deflection,

2) Failure by general yielding and
3) Failure by fracture

Step 5: Determination of Dimensions

The shape of the machine element depends upon two factors:

1. The operating conditions and

2. The shape of adjoining machine element

Depending upon the above factors, the shape of the machine element is decided and a rough
sketch is prepared. The geometric dimensions of the component are determined on the basis of
failure criterion. In simple cases, the dimensions are determined on the basis of allowable stress
or deflection.

Determination of geometric dimensions is an important step in design of machine elements.

Various criteria such as yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, torsional or lateral deflection
and permissible bearing pressure are used to find out these dimensions.

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Step 6: Design Modifications

The geometric dimensions of the machine element are modified from assembly and
manufacturing considerations. The process is continued till the desired values of operating
capacity, factor of safety and stresses at critical cross-sections are obtained.

Step 7: Working Drawing

The last step in the design of machine element is to prepare a working drawing of the machine
element showing dimensions, tolerances, surface finish grades, geometric tolerances and
special production requirements like heat treatment. The working drawing must have enough
views and cross-sections to show all details.

Types of Loads:

A load can be defined as the combination of one or more forces acting on the body.

There are many ways to classify the types of loads.

(I) Based on the magnitude variation, loads are divided into four types:

1. Dead or steady or Static load: A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it does not
change in magnitude or direction.

2. Live or variable load: A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it changes
continually.

3. Suddenly applied or shock loads: A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock load,
when it is suddenly applied or removed.

4. Impact load: A load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with some initial
velocity.

A machine element resists a dead load more easily than a live load and a live load more easily
than a shock load.

(II) For calculation of various types of stresses and strains in ‘strength of materials’, loads are
divided into five types:

1. Axial load or Direct load: When the axis of the body and the line of action of the load
coincides with each other then it is called as ‘axial or direct load’. This load always passes
through the center of gravity of all cross-sections of the body and acts.

Axial load can be further classified into:

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JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JORHAT-785 007, ASSAM

(a) Tensile load: When axial load acting on the body is of pull type and the body is subjected
to tension, then it is called as tensile load. The dimension which is parallel to the axis of the
body through which the load is acting tends to increase in such a case.

(b) Compressive load: When axial load acting on the body is of push type and the body is
subjected to compression, then it is called as compressive load. The dimension which is parallel
to the axis of the body through which the load is acting tends to decrease in such a case.

2. Non-Axial load or Eccentric load: When the axis of the body and the line of action of the
load does not coincide with each other then it is called as ‘non-axial or eccentric load’. This
load always acts at a distance from the center of gravity of all cross-sections of the body.

3. Shear load: When two equal and opposite loads are acting tangentially on the cross-section
under consideration of the body, it is called as shear load. Cutting of sheet metal is a good
example of a shear load. The body tends to shear off the section due to shear load.

4. Bending load: When two or more loads are acting on the body in such a way that the body
tends to bend, then the loads are called as bending loads. These loads can be point or
concentrated; uniformly distributed over a length of the body (udl) or uniformly varying over
a length (zero at one end and uniformly increasing to the other end).

5. Torsional or Twisting load: When two equal loads act like a couple on the body due to
which it tends to twist, then the couple is called as twisting or torsional loads. Various cross-
sections along the body rotate through different angles due to torsion.

Stress:

When material is subjected to external forces, it undergoes a deformation and the resisting force
is generated internally from the body against this deformation, this is called as stress. This
internal resisting force is generated because of the strength within the body.

So, Stress can be defined as the internal resisting force developed against deformation per unit
cross-section area of the body. It is denoted by letter ‘𝜎‘ (sigma: Greek letter). When we
consider the equilibrium of the body, the resisting force developed internally is always equal
to externally applied force.

Stress (𝜎) = 𝐹/𝐴, where

𝐹 = Internal resisting force or applied force.

𝐴 = Cross-sectional area

SI unit of stress is Pascal (𝑁/𝑚2 ).

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Types of Stress:

Different types of stress are produced due to different types of loads applied to the body.
Following diagram represents how stress is classified.

Figure 1.3: Types of Stress

1. Direct stress: It is also called as simple stress and it develops under direct loading
conditions. The load is acting directly in the direction of resisting area. These are further
classified into two categories, normal stress and shear stress.

(a) Normal stress: The stresses acting perpendicular to the plane on which the load acts axially
are called as normal stress. Two types of normal stress are tensile and compressive stress.

(i) Tensile stress: When two equal and opposite pulling loads are acting on the body, the body
is subjected to tensile stress.

(ii) Compressive stress: When two equal and opposite pushing loads are acting on the body,
the body is subjected to compressive stress.

(b) Shear stress: When equal and opposite forces act tangentially on the resisting section of
the body in such a way that the body tends to shear off the section then the stress developed in
the body is called as shear stress.

2. Indirect stress: In case of indirect stress, the load is not acting directly in the direction of
the resisting area. These are further classified into two categories, bending stress and torsional
stress.

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(A) Bending stress: When body is subjected to two or more loads in such a way that it tends
to bend then the stress induced in the body is called as bending stress. In this case, body is
subjected to both tension and compression.

(B) Torsional stress: When two equal loads act like a couple on the circumference of the body
due to which it tends to twist, then the stress induced in the body is called as torsional stress.

3. Combined stress: When the body is subjected to more than one type of stresses mentioned
above, then it is called as combined stress. Generally, all machine parts undergo combined
stresses always.

Some other types of stresses are:

(I) Thermal Stresses:

When a machine component is subjected to change in temperature, it expands or contracts. If

the machine component is allowed to expand or contract freely, no stresses are induced in the
component. However, if the expansion or contraction of the component is restricted, stresses
are induced in the component. Such stresses, which are caused due to variation in temperature,
are called thermal stresses.

(II) Residual Stresses:

Stresses can be classified into two groups, load stresses and residual stresses. Residual stresses
are also called internal stresses or locked-in stresses. Load stresses are those stresses which
remain within elastic limit and which are induced by external forces. Load stresses return to
zero when the external forces are removed. Such stresses can be calculated by equations from
Strength of Materials. Residual stresses are those stresses that are independent of external
forces. They are usually induced as a result of manufacturing processes and assembly
operations. When the machine component, with residual stresses, is put into service the load
stresses are superimposed on the residual stress. Residual stresses may be harmful or beneficial.
If the residual stresses add to the load stresses, they are harmful. On the other hand, if residual
stresses are opposite to load stresses and subtract, they are beneficial.

The residual stresses are induced due to following factors:

• Manufacturing processes like casting and forging,

• Machining methods like turning, milling and grinding,
• Rolling, extrusion and cold working processes,
• Chemical processes like oxidation, corrosion and electroplating,
• Heat treatment processes like quenching and
• Assembly operations involving some misalignment.

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JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JORHAT-785 007, ASSAM

It is observed that it is practically difficult to avoid residual stresses in any component. It is

very important to consider residual stresses when the component is subjected to fluctuating
stresses and failure occurs due to fatigue.

(III) Impact Stresses:

Impact is defined as a collision of one component in motion with a second component that may
either be in motion or at rest. Impact load is the load that is rapidly applied to the machine
component. The stress induced in the machine component due to impact load is called impact
stress. Impact forces are observed in machine components like hoisting ropes, hammers,
springs, punches and shears, clutches and brakes.

Designed Stress or Working Stress:

When designing machine elements, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum
or ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as the design
stress or working stress. It is also known as safe or allowable stress.

Factor of safety:

While designing a component, it is necessary to provide sufficient reserve strength in case of

an accident. This is achieved by taking a suitable factor of safety (𝑓𝑠).

The factor of safety is defined as,

𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
(𝑓𝑠) = … (1𝑎)
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑜𝑟 (𝑓𝑠) = … (1𝑏)
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

The allowable stress is the stress value, which is used in design to determine the dimensions of
the component. It is considered as a stress, which the designer expects will not exceeded under
normal operating conditions.

For ductile materials, the allowable stress 𝜎 is obtained by the following relationship:

𝑆𝑦𝑡
𝜎= … (2𝑎)
(𝑓𝑠)
For brittle materials, the relationship is:

𝑆𝑢𝑡
𝜎= … (2𝑏)
(𝑓𝑠)
Where, 𝑆𝑦𝑡 and 𝑆𝑢𝑡 are the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength of the material
respectively.

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Selection of Factor of Safety:

The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any machine element depends
upon a number of considerations, such as the material, type of manufacture, type of stress,
general service conditions and shape of the elements.

The magnitude of factor of safety depends upon the following factors:

1) Effect of Failure
2) Type of Load
3) Degree of Accuracy in Force Analysis
4) Material of Component
5) Reliability of Component
6) Cost of Component
7) Testing of Machine Element
8) Service Conditions
9) Quality of Manufacture

Stress Concentration:

Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the irregularities
present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross-section.

In order to consider the effect of stress concentration and find out localized stresses, a factor
called stress concentration factor is used. It is denoted by 𝐾𝑡 and defined as,

𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐾𝑡 =
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑂𝑟 𝐾𝑡 = = … (3)
𝜎𝑜 𝜏𝑜

Where, 𝜎𝑜 and 𝜏𝑜 are stress determined by elementary equations and 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 are
localized stresses at the discontinuities. The subscript 𝑡 denotes the theoretical stress
concentration factor. The magnitude of stress concentration factor depends upon the geometry
of the component.

Three elementary equations are used in Design of Machine Elements. These are:

𝑃
𝜎𝑡 = … (4)
𝐴
𝑀𝑏 𝑦
𝜎𝑏 = … (5)
𝐼
𝑀𝑡 𝑅
𝜏= … (6)
𝐽

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The causes of stress concentration are:

1) Variation in Properties of Materials,

2) Load Application,
3) Abrupt Changes in Section,
4) Discontinuities in Component,
5) Machining Scratches

The stress concentration factors are determined by two methods:

1. Mathematical Method, which is based on the theory of elasticity and

2. Experimental Methods, like photo-elasticity.

For simple geometric shapes, the stress concentration factors are determined by photo-
elasticity. At present, Finite Element Analysis (FEA) packages are used to find out the stress
concentration factor for any geometric shape.

Selection of Materials:

The machine elements should be made of such a material which has properties suitable for the
conditions of operation.

The engineering materials are mainly classified as:

1. Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium, etc.

2. Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.

The metals may be further classified as:

(a) Ferrous metals, and

(b) Non-ferrous metals.

The ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as cast iron,
wrought iron and steel.

The non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent,
such as copper, aluminium, brass, tin, zinc, etc.

The best material is one which serve the desired objective at the minimum cost. The following
factors should be considered while selecting the material:

1. Availability of the materials,

2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and

3. The cost of the materials.

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Physical Properties of Metals

The physical properties of the metals include luster, colour, size and shape, density, electric
and thermal conductivity, and melting point.

Mechanical Properties of Metals

The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of the
material to resist mechanical forces and load. Mechanical properties of the metal include:

1. Strength: It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking
or yielding.

2. Stiffness: It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress.

3. Elasticity: It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when
the external forces are removed.

4. Plasticity: It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently.

5. Ductility: It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force.

6. Brittleness: It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking

of a material with little permanent distortion.

7. Malleability: It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or

hammered into thin sheets.

8. Toughness: It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows.

9. Machinability: It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with which a
material can be cut.

10. Resilience: It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact
loads.

11. Creep: When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period
of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep.

12. Fatigue: When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the
yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue.

13. Hardness: Hardness has a wide variety of meanings. It means the ability of a metal to cut
another metal or resistant to indentation etc.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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Codes for Design-BIS Codes:

A code is a set of rules and specifications for the correct methods and materials used in a certain
product, building or process. Codes can be approved by local, state or federal governments and
can carry the force of law. The main purpose of codes is to protect the public by setting up the
minimum acceptable level of safety for buildings, products and processes.

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the national Standards Body of India working under
the guidance of Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution, Government of
India. It is established by the Bureau of Indian Standards Act, 1986 which came into effect on
23 December 1986. A new Bureau of Indian standards (BIS) Act 2016 which was notified on
22 March 2016, has been brought into force with effect from 12 October 2017. The Act
establishes the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) as the National Standards Body of India.

Modes of Failure:

A mechanical component may fail, that is, it may be unable to perform its functions
satisfactorily, as a result of any one of the following three different modes of failure:
(a) Failure by elastic deflection,
(b) Failure by general yielding and
(c) Failure by fracture

(a) Failure by elastic deflection: In applications like transmission shaft supporting gears, the
maximum force acting on the shaft, without affecting its performance, is limited by the
permissible elastic deflection. Lateral or torsional rigidity is considered as the criterion of
design in such cases. The moduli of elasticity and rigidity are the important properties and the
dimensions of the component are determined by the load-deflection equations.

(b) Failure by general yielding: A mechanical component made of ductile material loses its
engineering usefulness due to a large amount of plastic deformation after the yield point stress
is reached. Considerable portion of the component is subjected to plastic deformation, called
general yielding. The yield strength of the material is an important property when a component
is designed against failure due to general yielding.

(c) Failure by fracture: Components made of brittle material unable to perform their functions
satisfactorily because of the sudden fracture without any plastic deformation. The failure in
this case is sudden and total. In such cases, ultimate tensile strength of the material is an
important property for determining the dimensions of these components.

Theories of Elastic Failures:

The most usual test is the simple tensile test in which the value of the stress at yield or at
fracture (whichever occurs first) is easily determined.

In simple systems with only one kind of stress, it is easy to anticipate the failure, but in complex
stress systems in which direct as well as shear stresses act, it is not easy to do so.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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The function of the theories of elastic failure is to predict from the behavior of materials in a
simple tensile test when elastic failure will occur under any condition of applied stress.

Five main theories of failure are discussed below.

Here, 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 denotes the principal stresses in any complex system and 𝜎𝑦 the yield point
stress in the simple tensile test.

(i) Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)

This theory assumes that when the maximum principal stress in the complex stress system
reaches the yield point stress in simple tension, failure occurs.

The criterion of failure is thus

𝝈𝟏 = 𝝈𝒚 … … (𝟕𝒂)

It should be noted, however, that failure could also occur in compression if the least principal
stress 𝜎3 were compressive and its value reached the value of the yield stress in compression
for the material concerned before the value of 𝜎𝑦 was reached in tension. An additional criterion
is therefore

𝝈𝟑 = 𝝈𝒚 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆) … … (𝟕𝒃)

In case of 2-dimensional stress system

𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝒚 (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆) … … (𝟕𝒄)

Whilst the theory can be shown to hold fairly well for brittle materials, there is considerable
experimental evidence that the theory should not be applied for ductile materials. For example,
even in the case of the pure tension test itself, failure for ductile materials takes place not
because of the direct stresses applied but in shear on planes at 45° to the specimen axis.

(ii) Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest-Tresca Theory)

This theory states that failure can be assumed to occur when the maximum shear stress in the
complex stress system becomes equal to that at the yield point in the simple tensile test.

Since the maximum shear stress is half the greatest difference between two principal stresses,
the criterion of failure becomes
1 1
(𝜎1 − 𝜎3 ) = (𝜎𝑦 − 0)
2 2
∴ 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟑 = 𝝈𝒚 … … (𝟖𝒂)

The value of 𝜎3 being algebraically the smallest value, i.e. taking account of sign.

In case of 2-dimensional stress system

𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝒚 … … (𝟖𝒃)

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This theory produces fairly accurate correlation with experimental results particularly for
ductile materials, and is often used for ductile materials in machine design.

(iii) Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint-Venant Theory)

This theory assumes that failure occurs when the maximum strain in the complex stress system
equals that at the yield point in the simple tensile test.

The criterion of failure is thus

𝜎1 𝜎2 𝜎3 𝜎𝑦
−𝜈 −𝜈 =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
∴ 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝂𝝈𝟐 − 𝝂𝝈𝟑 = 𝝈𝒚 … … (𝟗𝒂)

In case of 2-dimensional stress system

𝝈𝟏 − 𝝂𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝒚 … … (𝟗𝒃)

This theory is contradicted by the results obtained from tests on flat plates subjected to two
mutually perpendicular tensions. The Poisson’s ratio effect of each tension reduces the strain
in the perpendicular direction so that according to this theory failure should occur at a higher
load. This is not always true.

This theory holds reasonably well for cast iron but is not generally used in design procedures.

Strain Energy (Three-Dimensional Stress System):

Figure 1.4: Three-Dimensional Stress System

Let us consider a unit cube acted upon by three principal stresses 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 . Let the
corresponding strains be 𝜀1 , 𝜀2 and 𝜀3 .

Then for gradually applied stresses, Strain energy per unit volume

1 1 1
𝑢 = 𝜎1 𝜀1 + 𝜎2 𝜀2 + 𝜎3 𝜀3
2 2 2
1 𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎3 1 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎3 − 𝜈𝜎1 1 𝜎3 − 𝜈𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2
⇒𝑢= 𝜎1 ( ) + 𝜎2 ( ) + 𝜎3 ( )
2 𝐸 2 𝐸 2 𝐸

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𝟏
∴𝒖= {𝝈 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑 𝟐 − 𝟐𝝂(𝝈𝟏 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟑 + 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝟏 )} … … (𝟏𝟎)
𝟐𝑬 𝟏
(iv) Maximum Total Strain Energy per Unit Volume Theory (Haigh Theory)

The theory assumes that failure occurs when the total strain energy in the complex stress system
is equal to that at the yield point in the simple tensile test.

The criterion of failure is thus

1 2 2 2
𝜎𝑦 2
{𝜎 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 − 2𝜈(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )} = [𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞 𝑛 (10)𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒]
2𝐸 1 2𝐸
∴ 𝝈𝟏 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑 𝟐 − 𝟐𝝂(𝝈𝟏 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟑 + 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝟏 ) = 𝝈𝒚 𝟐 … … (𝟏𝟏𝒂)

In case of 2-dimensional stress system

𝝈𝟏 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟐𝝂𝝈𝟏 𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝒚 𝟐 … … (𝟏𝟏𝒃)

This theory gives fairly good results for ductile materials but is seldom used in preference to
the maximum shear strain energy per unit volume or distortion energy theory.

Shear Strain Energy (Three-Dimensional Stress System):

Let us consider a unit cube acted upon by three principal stresses 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 . Let the
corresponding strains be 𝜀1 , 𝜀2 and 𝜀3 .

The total work done by the external forces cause

(i) change of volume due to application of direct stresses and

(ii) distortion due to shearing stresses which do not affect the volumetric change

Thus,

Total strain energy = Volumetric strain energy + Shear strain energy

Or, Shear strain energy = Total strain energy (𝑈) − Volumetric strain energy (𝑈𝑣 )

Or, Shear strain energy per unit volume

= Total strain energy per unit volume (𝑢) − Volumetric strain energy per unit volume (𝑢𝑣 )

From Equation (10), we know that total strain energy per unit volume

1
𝑢= {𝜎 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 − 2𝜈(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )}
2𝐸 1
Now, Volumetric strain energy per unit volume

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1
𝑢𝑣 = (𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠) × (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)
2
1 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3
⇒ 𝑢𝑣 = ( ) × (𝜀1 + 𝜀2 + 𝜀3 )
2 3
1 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎3 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎3 − 𝜈𝜎1 𝜎3 − 𝜈𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2
⇒ 𝑢𝑣 = ( ) × [( )+( )+( )]
2 3 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
1 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 ) − 2𝜈(𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )
⇒ 𝑢𝑣 = ( )×[ ]
2 3 𝐸

𝟏
∴ 𝒖𝒗 = (𝝈 + 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑 )𝟐 (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝂) … … (𝟏𝟐)
𝟔𝑬 𝟏
Therefore, shear strain energy per unit volume

= 𝑢 − 𝑢𝑣

1 1
= {𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 − 2𝜈(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )} − (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )2 (1 − 2𝜈)
2𝐸 6𝐸
1
= {3(𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 ) − 6𝜈(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )}
6𝐸
1
− {𝜎 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 + 2(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )}(1 − 2𝜈)
6𝐸 1
1
= [3(𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 ) − 6𝜈(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 ) − (𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 )
6𝐸
− 2(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 ) + 2𝜈(𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 )
+ 4𝜈(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )]

1
= [(𝜎 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 )(3 − 1 + 2𝜈) − (𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )(6𝜈 + 2 − 4𝜈)]
6𝐸 1
1+𝜈
= [2(𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 ) − 2(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )]
6𝐸
1+𝜈
= [(𝜎 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 ]
6 × 2𝐺(1 + 𝜈) 1

𝟏
= [(𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 )𝟐 ] … … (𝟏𝟑)
𝟏𝟐𝑮
(v) Maximum Shear Strain Energy per Unit Volume Theory or Distortion Energy Theory
(Maxwell-Huber-von Mises Theory)

The strain energy of a stressed component can be divided into volumetric strain energy and
shear strain energy components. Volumetric strain associated with volume change and no
distortion. But shear strain energy producing distortion of the stressed elements.

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This theory states that failure occurs when the maximum shear strain energy component in the
complex stress system is equal to that at the yield point in the simple tensile test.

The criterion of failure is thus

1 𝜎𝑦 2
[(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 ] = [𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞 𝑛 (13)𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒]
12𝐺 6𝐺

∴ (𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 )𝟐 = 𝟐𝝈𝒚 𝟐 … … (𝟏𝟒𝒂)

In case of 2-dimensional stress system

𝝈𝟏 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝈𝟏 𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝒚 𝟐 … … (𝟏𝟒𝒃)

This theory has received considerable verification in practice and is widely regarded as the
most reliable basis for design, particularly when dealing with ductile materials. It is often
referred to as the “von Mises” or “Maxwell” criteria and is probably the best theory of the five.
It is also sometimes referred to as the distortion energy or maximum octahedral shear stress
theory.

Equations of Theories of Elastic Failure using Factor of Safety:

(i) Maximum Principal Stress Theory

𝝈𝒚
𝝈𝟏 = ( ) … … (𝟏𝟓𝒂)
𝒏
𝝈𝒚
𝝈𝟑 = ( ) (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆) … … (𝟏𝟓𝒃)
𝒏
In case of 2-dimensional stress system
𝝈𝒚
𝝈𝟐 = ( ) (𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆) … … (𝟏𝟓𝒄)
𝒏
(ii) Maximum Shear Stress Theory
𝝈𝒚
𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟑 = ( ) … … (𝟏𝟔𝒂)
𝒏
In case of 2-dimensional stress system
𝝈𝒚
𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 = ( ) … … (𝟏𝟔𝒃)
𝒏
(iii) Maximum Principal Strain Theory
𝝈𝒚
𝝈𝟏 − 𝝂𝝈𝟐 − 𝝂𝝈𝟑 = ( ) … … (𝟏𝟕𝒂)
𝒏
In case of 2-dimensional stress system

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𝝈𝒚
𝝈𝟏 − 𝝂𝝈𝟐 = ( ) … … (𝟏𝟕𝒃)
𝒏
(iv) Maximum Total Strain Energy per Unit Volume Theory

𝝈𝒚 𝟐
𝝈𝟏 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑 𝟐 − 𝟐𝝂(𝝈𝟏 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟑 + 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝟏 ) = ( ) … … (𝟏𝟖𝒂)
𝒏
In case of 2-dimensional stress system

𝝈𝒚 𝟐
𝝈𝟏 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟐𝝂𝝈𝟏 𝝈𝟐 = ( ) … … (𝟏𝟖𝒃)
𝒏
(v) Maximum Shear Strain Energy per Unit Volume Theory or Distortion Energy Theory

𝝈𝒚 𝟐
(𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 )𝟐 = 𝟐 ( ) … … (𝟏𝟗𝒂)
𝒏
In case of 2-dimensional stress system

𝝈𝒚 𝟐
𝝈𝟏 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝈𝟏 𝝈𝟐 = ( ) … … (𝟏𝟗𝒃)
𝒏
Graphical Representation of Theories of Failures

In a 2-dimensional stress system, the limits of principal stresses according to different theories
can be shown graphically as below.

In a 2-dimensional system, 𝜎3 is taken to be zero and the values of principal stresses 𝜎1 and
𝜎2 are taken along 𝑥- and 𝑦- axes respectively. Positive values of 𝜎1 are taken towards right
of the 𝑦- axis and negative towards left. Similarly, positive values of 𝜎2 are taken upwards and
negative downwards of the 𝑥- axis. The yield point stress 𝜎𝑦 may be taken to be the same
both in tension as well as in compression, i.e. 𝜎𝑦 𝑡 = 𝜎𝑦 𝑐 = 𝜎𝑦 .

(a) Maximum principal stress theory

According to maximum principal stress theory, the maximum principal stress 𝜎1 (or 𝜎2 ) must
not exceed the yield point stress 𝜎𝑦 .

Suppose, 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 and 𝜎1 is tensile, then 𝜎1 = +𝜎𝑦 . Then a vertical line 𝐵𝐶 is constructed
such that 𝜎1 = +𝜎𝑦 .

Suppose, 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 and 𝜎1 is compressive, then 𝜎1 = −𝜎𝑦 . Then a vertical line 𝐴𝐷 is

constructed such that 𝜎1 = −𝜎𝑦 .

Suppose, 𝜎2 > 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 is tensile, then 𝜎2 = +𝜎𝑦 . Then a horizontal line 𝐷𝐶 is constructed
such that 𝜎2 = +𝜎𝑦 .

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Suppose, 𝜎2 > 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 is compressive, then 𝜎2 = −𝜎𝑦 . Then a horizontal line 𝐴𝐵 is

constructed such that 𝜎2 = −𝜎𝑦 .

Thus, maximum value of 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 can be

𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎1 = −𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎2 = −𝜎𝑦

This provides a square boundary 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 as shown in the Figure. This boundary is known as the
region of safety for maximum principal stress theory.

Figure 1.5: Graphical Representation of Theories of Failures

(b) Maximum shear stress theory

For like stresses, i.e. 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 , both tensile or both compressive i.e. both lie in first or third
quadrant, the maximum shear stress criterion is

𝜎1 = ±𝜎𝑦 and 𝜎2 = ±𝜎𝑦

Suppose, both 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are tensile and 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 , then 𝜎1 = +𝜎𝑦 . Then a vertical line 𝐹𝐶 is
constructed such that 𝜎1 = +𝜎𝑦 .

Suppose, both 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are tensile and 𝜎2 > 𝜎1 , then 𝜎2 = +𝜎𝑦 . Then a horizontal line 𝐺𝐶
is constructed such that 𝜎2 = +𝜎𝑦 .

Suppose, both 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are compressive and 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 , then 𝜎1 = −𝜎𝑦 . Then a vertical line
𝐻𝐴 is constructed such that 𝜎1 = −𝜎𝑦 .

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Suppose, both 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are compressive and 𝜎2 > 𝜎1 , then 𝜎2 = −𝜎𝑦 . Then a horizontal line
𝐴𝐸 is constructed such that 𝜎2 = −𝜎𝑦 .

These values generate the boundary lines 𝐹𝐶, 𝐶𝐺, 𝐻𝐴 and 𝐴𝐸 in the first and third quadrants.

For unlike stresses, i.e. if one is tensile, the other is compressive, the criterion becomes

𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = ±𝜎𝑦

Suppose, 𝜎1 is tensile and 𝜎2 is compressive, then 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = +𝜎𝑦 , which provides a straight

boundary 𝐸𝐹 in the fourth quadrant.

Suppose, 𝜎1 is compressive and 𝜎2 is tensile, then 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = −𝜎𝑦 , which provides a straight

boundary 𝐺𝐻 in the second quadrant.

Thus, the boundary for this criterion is 𝐴𝐸𝐹𝐶𝐺𝐻𝐴. This boundary is known as the region of
safety for maximum shear stress theory.

(c) Maximum principal strain theory

In case of 2-dimensional principal strain theory, we have

𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 = ±𝜎𝑦

For like principal stresses, the limits are provided by

𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 = ±𝜎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎1 = ±𝜎𝑦

Suppose, both 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are tensile and 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 , then 𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 = +𝜎𝑦 . Then an inclined line
𝐹𝑃 is constructed such that 𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 = +𝜎𝑦 .

Suppose, both 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are tensile and 𝜎2 > 𝜎1 , then 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎1 = +𝜎𝑦 . Then an inclined line
𝑃𝐺 is constructed such that 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎1 = +𝜎𝑦 .

Suppose, both 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are compressive and 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 , then 𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 = −𝜎𝑦 . Then an
inclined line 𝐻𝑅 is constructed such that 𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 = −𝜎𝑦 .

Suppose, both 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are compressive and 𝜎2 > 𝜎1 , then 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎1 = −𝜎𝑦 . Then an
inclined line 𝑅𝐸 is constructed such that 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎1 = −𝜎𝑦 .

Therefore, for like principal stresses, the lines generated are 𝐹𝑃, 𝑃𝐺, 𝐻𝑅 and 𝑅𝐸.

For unlike principal stresses, the limits are provided by

𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 = ±𝜎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎1 = ±𝜎𝑦

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Suppose, 𝜎1 is tensile and 𝜎2 is compressive and 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 , then 𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 = +𝜎𝑦 . Then an
inclined line 𝑆𝐹 is constructed such that 𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 = +𝜎𝑦 .

Suppose, 𝜎1 is tensile and 𝜎2 is compressive and 𝜎2 > 𝜎1 , then 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎1 = +𝜎𝑦 . Then an
inclined line 𝐸𝑆 is constructed such that 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎1 = +𝜎𝑦 .

Suppose, 𝜎1 is compressive and 𝜎2 is tensile and 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 , then 𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 = −𝜎𝑦 . Then an
inclined line 𝐻𝑄 is constructed such that 𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 = −𝜎𝑦 .

Suppose, 𝜎1 is compressive and 𝜎2 is tensile and 𝜎2 > 𝜎1 , then 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎1 = −𝜎𝑦 . Then an
inclined line 𝑄𝐺 is constructed such that 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎1 = −𝜎𝑦 .

Therefore, for unlike stresses, the lines generated are 𝐺𝑄, 𝑄𝐻, 𝐸𝑆 and 𝑆𝐹.

Thus, the boundary for this criterion is 𝐹𝑃𝐺𝑄𝐻𝑅𝐸𝑆. This boundary is known as the region of
safety for maximum principal strain theory.

(d) Maximum strain energy per unit volume theory

In maximum strain energy theory, the equation in 2-dimensional system is

𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 − 2𝜈𝜎1 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦 2 [𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞 𝑛 (11𝑏)𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒]

2 2
𝜎1 𝜎2 𝜎1 𝜎2
𝑖. 𝑒. ( ) + ( ) − 2𝜈 ( ) ( ) = 1
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦

Which is the equation of an ellipse with major and minor axes at 45° to the coordinate axes.
It passes through the points 𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐻.

(e) Maximum shear strain energy per unit volume theory

In this, the equation in the 2-dimensional system is

𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦 2 [𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞 𝑛 (14𝑏)𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒]
2 2
𝜎1 𝜎2 𝜎1 𝜎2
𝑖. 𝑒. ( ) + ( ) − ( ) ( ) = 1
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦

Which is again an equation of an ellipse with semi-major axis as (√2 𝜎𝑦 ) and semi-minor axis
as (√2/3 𝜎𝑦 ) at 45° to the coordinate axes as shown in the Figure. The ellipse will
circumscribe the maximum shear stress hexagon.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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Problem 1.1:

A material is subjected to a simple tension test shows an elastic limit of 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝑴𝑵/𝒎𝟐 .
Calculate the factor of safety provided if the principal stresses set up in a complex two-
dimensional stress system are limited to 𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝑴𝑵/𝒎𝟐 tensile and 𝟒𝟓 𝑴𝑵/𝒎𝟐
compressive. The appropriate theories of failure on which your answer should be based
are:

(a) the maximum shear stress theory

(b) the maximum shear strain energy theory

Solution:

Given

𝜎𝑦 = Elastic limit of the material = 240 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2

𝜎1 = Major principal stress = 140 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 (tensile)

𝜎2 = Minor principal stress = 45 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 (compressive)

Let, 𝑛 = Factor of safety

(a) The maximum shear stress theory

According to this theory

𝜎𝑦
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 =
𝑛
240
∴ 140 − (−45) =
𝑛
240
∴𝑛= = 1.3
185
The required factor of safety is 𝟏. 𝟑 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

(b) The maximum shear strain energy theory

According to this theory

𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 = ( )
𝑛

240 2
∴ (140)2 + (−45)2 − (140) × (−45) = ( )
𝑛

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(240)2
∴𝑛=√ = 1.44
27925

The required factor of safety is 𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Problem 1.2:

A steel tube has a mean diameter of 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 and a thickness of 𝟑 𝒎𝒎. Calculate the
torque which can be transmitted by the tube with a factor of safety of 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 if the criterion
of failure is

(a) maximum shear stress,

(b) maximum strain energy

(c) maximum shear strain energy

The elastic limit of the steel in tension is 𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝑴𝑵/𝒎𝟐 and Poisson’s ratio is 𝟎. 𝟑.

Solution:

Given

𝑑𝑜 = Mean diameter of the steel tube = 100 𝑚𝑚

𝑡 = Thickness of the steel tube = 3 𝑚𝑚

𝑛 = Factor of safety = 2.25

𝜎𝑦 = Elastic limit of the material = 225 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2

𝜈 = Poisson’s ratio = 0.3

From the torsion theory

𝑇 𝜏
=
𝐼𝑃 𝑅

𝑇𝑅
∴𝜏=
𝐼𝑝

Where,
𝐷 𝑑𝑜 + 𝑡 100 + 3
𝑅= = = = 51.5 𝑚𝑚
2 2 2
and

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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𝐼𝑝 = Polar moment of inertia

𝜋
= (𝐷4 − 𝑑4 )
32
𝜋
= [(𝑑𝑜 + 𝑡)4 − (𝑑𝑜 − 𝑡)4 ]
32
𝜋
= [(100 + 3)4 − (100 − 3)4 ]
32
= 2358315.065 𝑚𝑚4

= 2.36 × 10−6 𝑚4

Therefore, shear stress

𝑇 × 51.5 × 10−3
𝜏=
2.36 × 10−6
= 21.82 × 103 𝑇 𝑁/𝑚2

Torsion introduces pure shear onto the element within the tube material.

Also we know that pure shear produces an equivalent principal direct stress system, one tensile
and one compressive and both equal in magnitude to the applied shear stress.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜎1 = 𝜏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 = −𝜏

(a) Maximum shear stress

According to maximum shear stress theory,

𝜎𝑦
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 =
𝑛
𝜎𝑦
⇒ 𝜏 − (−𝜏) =
𝑛
225 × 106
⇒ 2 × 21.82 × 103 𝑇 =
2.25
225 × 106
⇒𝑇 =
2.25 × 2 × 21.82 × 103
∴ 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟐𝟗𝟏 𝑵𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

(b) Maximum strain energy

According to this theory

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𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 − 2𝜈𝜎1 𝜎2 = ( )
𝑛
2
225 × 106
⇒ (𝜏)2 + (−𝜏)2 − 2 × 0.3 × (𝜏)(−𝜏) = ( )
2.25

⇒ 2.6 𝜏 2 = 1016

⇒ 2.6 × (21.82 × 103 𝑇)2 = 1016

∴ 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟖𝟒𝟐 𝑵𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

(c) Maximum shear strain energy

According to this theory

𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 = ( )
𝑛
2
225 × 106
⇒ (𝜏)2 + (−𝜏)2 − (𝜏)(−𝜏) =( )
2.25

⇒ 3 𝜏 2 = 1016

⇒ 3 × (21.82 × 103 𝑇)2 = 1016

∴ 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟔𝟒𝟔 𝑵𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Problem 1.3:

A structure is composed of circular members of diameter 𝒅. At a certain position along

one member the loading is found to consist of a shear force of 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑵 together with an
axial tensile load of 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑵. If the elastic limit in tension of the material of the members is
𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝑴𝑵/𝒎𝟐 and there is to be a factor of safety of 𝟒, estimate the magnitude of 𝒅
required according to

(a) the maximum principal stress theory, and

(b) the maximum shear strain energy per unit volume theory.

Poisson’s ratio is 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟑.

Solution:

Given

𝑄 = Magnitude of shear force = 10 𝑘𝑁

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𝑃 = Tensile load = 20 𝑘𝑁

𝜎𝑦 = Elastic limit of the material = 270 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2

𝑛 = Factor of safety = 4

𝜈 = Poisson’s ratio = 0.283

Let, 𝑑 = Diameter of the member in 𝑚

The stress system at the point concerned is shown in the Figure.

Figure 1.6: Problem 1.3

Now the direct stress along the axis of the bar is tensile, i.e. positive, and given by

𝑃 20 × 103 × 4 80 × 103
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜋 = 2
= 2
𝑁/𝑚2
2 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
4𝑑
And the shear stress is

𝑄 10 × 103 × 4 40 × 103
𝜏=𝜋 = 2
= 2
𝑁/𝑚2
2 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
4𝑑
Now the principal stresses are given by

𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥 2
𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = ± √( ) + 𝜏 2
2 2

2 2
80 × 103 80 × 103 40 × 103
= ± √( ) + ( )
2𝜋𝑑2 2𝜋𝑑2 𝜋𝑑 2

2 2
40 × 103 40 × 103 40 × 103
= ± √( ) + ( )
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋𝑑 2

40 × 103
= (1 ± √2)
𝜋𝑑2

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30738.72 5273.93
𝜎1 = 𝑁/𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 = − 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑑2 𝑑2
(a) Maximum principal stress theory

According to this theory

𝜎𝑦
𝜎1 =
𝑛
30738.72 270 × 106
⇒ =
𝑑2 4

4 × 30738.72
⇒𝑑=√
270 × 106

∴ 𝒅 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

(b) Maximum shear strain energy per unit volume theory

According to this theory

𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 = ( )
𝑛
2
30738.72 2 5273.93 2 30738.72 5273.93 270 × 106
⇒( ) + (− ) −( ) (− )=( )
𝑑2 𝑑2 𝑑2 𝑑2 4

1134797102
⇒ = 4556.25 × 1012
𝑑4
1
1134797102 4
⇒𝑑=( )
4556.25 × 1012

∴ 𝒅 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Problem 1.4:

A cylindrical shell made of mild steel plate and 𝟏. 𝟐 𝒎 in diameter is to be subjected to an

internal pressure of 𝟏. 𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂. If the material yields at 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂, calculate the thickness
of the plate on the basis of the following two theories, assuming a factor of safety 𝟑 in each
case.

(i) maximum principal stress theory,

(ii) maximum shear stress theory, and
(iii) maximum shear strain energy theory

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Solution:
Given

𝑑 = Diameter of the shell = 1.2 𝑚

𝑝 = Internal pressure in the shell = 1.5 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2

𝜎𝑦 = Yield stress of the material = 200 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2

𝑛 = Factor of safety = 3

Let, 𝑡 = Thickness of the plate of the shell in 𝑚

Now,
Circumferential stress,

𝑝 × 𝑑 1.5 × 106 × 1.2 0.9 × 106

𝜎𝑐 = = = 𝑁/𝑚2
2𝑡 2×𝑡 𝑡
And, longitudinal stress,

𝑝 × 𝑑 1.5 × 106 × 1.2 0.45 × 106

𝜎𝑙 = = = 𝑁/𝑚2
4𝑡 4×𝑡 𝑡
At any point, in the material of cylindrical shell, above two stresses which are tensile are
perpendicular to each other. Also there is no shear stress. Hence these stresses are also principal
stresses.

0.9 × 106
𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑐 = 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑡
And, longitudinal stress,

0.45 × 106
𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑙 = 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑡
(i) Maximum principal stress theory

According to this theory

𝜎𝑦
𝜎1 =
𝑛
0.9 × 106 200 × 106
⇒ =
𝑡 3
3 × 0.9 × 106
⇒𝑡=
200 × 106
∴ 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓 𝒎𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

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(ii) Maximum shear stress theory

According to this theory

𝜎𝑦
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 =
𝑛
0.9 × 106 0.45 × 106 200 × 106
⇒ − =
𝑡 𝑡 3
3 × 0.45 × 106
⇒𝑡=
200 × 106

∴ 𝒕 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

(iii) Maximum shear strain energy theory

According to this theory

2 2
𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 = ( )
𝑛
2 2 2
0.9 × 106 0.45 × 106 0.9 × 106 0.45 × 106 200 × 106
⇒( ) +( ) −( )( )=( )
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 3

0.6075 × 1012
⇒ 2
= 66.67 × 1012
𝑡

0.6075
⇒𝑡=√
4444.89

∴ 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟕 𝒎𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Problem 1.5:

A cantilever beam of rectangular cross-section is used to support a pulley as shown in the

figure. The tension in the wire rope is 𝟓 𝒌𝑵. The beam is made of cast iron 𝑭𝑮 𝟐𝟎𝟎 and
the factor of safety is 𝟐. 𝟓. The ratio of depth to width of the cross-section is 𝟐. Determine
the dimensions of the cross-section of the beam.

Figure 1.7: Problem 1.5

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Solution:
Given:
𝑃 = Tension in the wire rope = 5 𝑘𝑁

Material of the beam = Cast iron FG 200

∴ 𝜎𝑢𝑡 = Ultimate tensile strength of cast iron = 200 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

𝑛 = Factor of safety = 2.5

𝑑
= Depth to width ratio of the cross-section = 2
𝑏

∴ 𝑑 = 2𝑏

Now, allowable stress of the beam material is given by

𝜎𝑢𝑡 200
𝜎𝑡 = = = 80 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑛 2.5
The forces acting on the beam are the tensions in the wire in both horizontal and vertical
directions as shown in the Figure (b).

Figure 1.8: Solution of Problem 1.5

Bending moment at the point 𝐵 due to the horizontal load of 5 𝑘𝑁 is given by

𝑀𝐵 = 5 𝑘𝑁 × 500 𝑚𝑚 = 2500 × 103 𝑁𝑚𝑚

Bending moment at the point 𝐴 due to the horizontal load of 5 𝑘𝑁 and the vertical load of 5 𝑘𝑁
is given by
𝑀𝐴 = 5 𝑘𝑁 × 500 𝑚𝑚 + 5 𝑘𝑁 × 1500 𝑚𝑚 = 10000 × 103 𝑁𝑚𝑚

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Therefore, maximum bending moment of the beam will be

𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑀𝐴 = 10 × 106 𝑁𝑚𝑚

Let,
𝑑 = Depth of the beam cross-section in 𝑚𝑚

𝑏 = Width of the beam cross-section in 𝑚𝑚

Therefore, moment of inertia of the beam cross-section

𝑏𝑑3 𝑏 × (2𝑏)3 2 4
𝐼= = = 𝑏 𝑚𝑚4
12 12 3
Maximum bending stress induced in the beam,

𝑑
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 . 𝑦 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 . 2 10 × 106 × 𝑏 15 × 106
𝜎𝑏 = = = = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐼 𝐼 2 4 𝑏 3
3𝑏
Now, by equating this maximum bending stress with the allowable stress of the beam material

15 × 106
= 80
𝑏3

3 15 × 106
∴𝒃= √ = 57.24 𝑚𝑚 ≅ 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒎 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
80

∴ 𝒅 = 2𝑏 = 2 × 60 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝒎

Problem 1.6:

A wall bracket with a rectangular cross-section is shown in the figure. The depth of the
cross-section is twice of the width. The force 𝑷 acting on the bracket at 𝟔𝟎° to the vertical
is 𝟓 𝒌𝑵. The material of the bracket is grey cast-iron 𝑭𝑮 𝟐𝟎𝟎 and a factor of safety is 𝟑. 𝟓.
Determine the dimensions of the cross-section of the bracket. Assume maximum principal
stress theory of failure.

Figure 1.9: Problem 1.6

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Solution:
Given:
𝑑
= 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2
𝑏
∴ 𝑑 = 2𝑏

𝑃 = Force acting on the bracket = 5 𝑘𝑁

𝜃 = Angle made by the force 𝑃 with the vertical = 60°

Material of the bracket = Grey cast-iron FG 200

∴ 𝜎𝑢𝑡 = Ultimate tensile strength of grey cast-iron = 200 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

𝑛 = Factor of safety = 3.5

Now, allowable stress of the bracket material is given by

𝜎𝑢𝑡 200
𝜎𝑡 = = = 57.14 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑛 3.5

Figure 1.10: Solution of Problem 1.6

The horizontal and vertical components of the force 𝑃 are

𝑃ℎ = 𝑃 sin 60° = 5 × 103 × sin 60° = 4.33 × 103 𝑁

𝑃𝑣 = 𝑃 cos 60° = 5 × 103 × cos 60° = 2.5 × 103 𝑁

Now, maximum bending moment at section 𝑋𝑋 is given by

𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃ℎ × 150 + 𝑃𝑣 × 300

= 4.33 × 103 × 150 + 2.5 × 103 × 300

= 1399.5 × 103 𝑁𝑚𝑚

Let,
𝑑 = Depth of the beam cross-section in 𝑚𝑚

𝑏 = Width of the beam cross-section in 𝑚𝑚

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Therefore, moment of inertia of the bracket cross-section

𝑏𝑑3 𝑏 × (2𝑏)3 2 4
𝐼= = = 𝑏 𝑚𝑚4
12 12 3
Maximum bending stress induced in the bracket,

𝑑
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 . 𝑦 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 . 2 1399.5 × 103 × 𝑏 2.1 × 106
𝜎𝑏 = = = = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐼 𝐼 2 4 𝑏 3
3𝑏
The direct tensile stress induced in the bracket due to horizontal component of the force 𝑃

𝑃ℎ 4.33 × 103 2.165 × 103

𝜎𝑡 = = = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑏×𝑑 𝑏 × (2𝑏) 𝑏2

Shear stress is also induced at the section 𝑋𝑋, due to vertical component 𝑃𝑣 , which is very small
and neglected.

The maximum resultant tensile stress at the point 𝐴 of the section 𝑋𝑋 is given by

2.1 × 106 2.165 × 103

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑏 + 𝜎𝑡 = +
𝑏3 𝑏2
Now, by equating this maximum resultant tensile stress with the allowable stress of the bracket
material

2.1 × 106 2.165 × 103

+ = 57.14
𝑏3 𝑏2
⇒ 57.14 𝑏 3 − 2.165 × 103 𝑏 − 2.1 × 106 = 0

∴ 𝒃 = 33.63 𝑚𝑚 ≅ 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒎 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)

∴ 𝒅 = 2𝑏 = 2 × 35 = 𝟕𝟎 𝒎𝒎

Problem 1.7:

Figure 1.11: Problem 1.7

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The shaft of an overhang crank subjected to a force 𝑷 of 𝟏 𝒌𝑵 is shown in the figure. The
shaft is made of plain carbon steel 𝟒𝟓𝑪𝟖 and the tensile yield strength is 𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐.
The factor of safety is 𝟐. Determine the diameter of the shaft using the maximum shear
stress theory.

Solution:
Given:
𝑃 = Force subjected to the shaft of the overhang crank = 1 𝑘𝑁

Material of the shaft = plain carbon steel 45𝐶8

𝜎𝑦𝑡 = Tensile yield strength of the shaft material = 380 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

𝑛 = Factor of safety = 2

Now, allowable shear stress of the shaft material is given by

𝜏𝑦𝑡 0.5𝜎𝑦𝑡 0.5 × 380

𝜏= = = = 95 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑛 𝑛 2

Figure 1.12: Solution of Problem 1.7

The stresses are critical at point 𝐴, which is subjected to combined bending and torsional
moments.

The bending moment at point 𝐴 is given by

𝑀 = 𝑃 × 250 = 1 × 103 × 250 = 250 × 103 𝑁𝑚𝑚

The torsional moment at point 𝐴 is given by

𝑇 = 𝑃 × 500 = 1 × 103 × 500 = 500 × 103 𝑁𝑚𝑚

The bending stress induced due to the bending moment, 𝑀 is given by

3 𝑑
𝑀. 𝑦 250 × 10 × 2 2546.48 × 103
𝜎𝑥 = = = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐼 𝜋𝑑4 𝑑3
64

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The shearing stress induced due to the torsional moment, 𝑇 is given by

3 𝑑
𝑇 . 𝑟 500 × 10 × 2 2546.48 × 103
𝜏𝑥𝑧 = = = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐼𝑝 𝜋𝑑4 𝑑3
32

Figure 1.13: Bending Stresses and Shearing Stresses of Problem 1.7

The Mohr’s circle for this condition is as given below:

Figure 1.14: Mohr’s Circle of Problem 1.7

From Mohr’s circle, the maximum shear stress is given by

𝜎𝑥 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √( ) + (𝜏𝑥𝑧 )2
2

2 2
2546.48 × 103 2546.48 × 103
= √( ) + ( )
2𝑑3 𝑑3

2847.05 × 103
= 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑑3
According to maximum shear stress theory, equating the maximum shear stress with the
allowable shear stress of the shaft material

2847.05 × 103
= 95
𝑑3
∴ 𝒅 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒎

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Interchangeability:

The term interchangeability is normally employed for the mass production of identical items
within the prescribed limits of sizes. In order to maintain the sizes of the part within a close
degree of accuracy, a lot of time is required. But even then, there will be small variations. If
the variations are within certain limits, all parts of equivalent size will be equally fit for
operating in machines and mechanisms.

In order to control the size of finished part, with due allowance for error for interchangeable
parts is called limit system.

Enveloped Surface and Enveloping Surface:

When an assembly is made of two parts, the part which enters into the other, is known as
enveloped surface (or shaft for cylindrical part) and the other in which one enters is called
enveloping surface (or hole for cylindrical part).

The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular shaft, but it is also used to designate
any external dimension of a part. Similarly, the term hole refers not only to the diameter of a
circular hole, but it is also used to designate any internal dimension of a part.

Important Terms used in Limit System:

1. Nominal size: It is the size of a part specified in the drawing as a matter of convenience.

2. Basic size: It is the size of a part to which all limits of variation (i.e. tolerances) are applied
to arrive at final dimensioning of the mating parts. The nominal or basic size of a part is often
the same.

3. Actual size: It is the actual measured dimension of the part. The difference between the
basic size and the actual size should not exceed a certain limit, otherwise it will interfere with
the interchangeability of the mating parts.

Figure 1.15: Limits of sizes

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4. Limits of sizes: There are two extreme permissible sizes for a dimension of the part as shown
in Figure 1.6. The largest permissible size for a dimension of the part is called upper or high
or maximum limit, whereas the smallest size of the part is known as lower or minimum limit.

5. Allowance: It is the difference between the basic dimensions of the mating parts. The
allowance may be positive or negative. When the shaft size is less than the hole size, then the
allowance is positive and when the shaft size is greater than the hole size, then the allowance
is negative.

6. Tolerance: Tolerance is defined as maximum permissible variation in the dimensions of a

component. It is the difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a dimension.

The tolerance may be of

(i) Unilateral or
(ii) Bilateral.

When all the tolerance is allowed on one side of the nominal size, e.g. 20 +0.000
−0.004 , then it is said
to be unilateral system of tolerance.

When the tolerance is allowed on both sides of the nominal size, e.g. 20 +0.002
−0.002 , then it is said
to be bilateral system of tolerance. In this case +0.002 is the upper limit and – 0.002 is the
lower limit.

7. Tolerance zone: It is the zone between the maximum and minimum limit size, as shown in
the Figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16: Tolerance zone

8. Zero line: It is a straight line corresponding to the basic size. The deviations are measured
from this line. The positive and negative deviations are shown above and below the zero line
respectively.

9. Upper deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the maximum size and the basic
size. The upper deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol 𝐸𝑆 (Ecart Superior) and of a
shaft, it is represented by 𝑒𝑠.

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10. Lower deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the minimum size and the basic
size. The lower deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol 𝐸𝐼 (Ecart Inferior) and of a
shaft, it is represented by 𝑒𝑖.

11. Actual deviation: It is the algebraic difference between an actual size and the
corresponding basic size.

12. Mean deviation: It is the arithmetical mean between the upper and lower deviations.

13. Fundamental deviation: It is one of the two deviations which is conventionally chosen to
define the position of the tolerance zone in relation to zero line, as shown in Figure 1.17.

Figure 1.17: Fundamental deviation

Fits:

When two parts are to be assembled, the relationship resulting from the difference between
their sizes before assembly is called a fit. The degree of tightness or looseness between the two
mating parts is known as a fit of the parts.

The surfaces that make contact are the mating surfaces and their dimensions are known as
mating dimensions. The dimensions of the part not connected with the mating surfaces are the
free dimensions.

Types of Fit:

According to Indian standards, depending upon the limits of the shaft and the hole, the fits are
classified into the following three groups:
(1) Clearance fit,
(2) Transition fit and
(3) Interference fit

Clearance fit: Clearance fit is a fit, which always provides a positive clearance between the
hole and the shaft over the entire range of tolerances. In this case, the tolerance zone of the hole
is entirely above that of the shaft.

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𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡

Figure 1.18: Clearance fit

In a clearance fit, maximum and minimum clearances are given by:

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡)𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 − (𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡)𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡

= 2 × 𝐸𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡)𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 − (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡)𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡

= 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

The clearance fits may be:

• slide fit,
• easy sliding fit,
• running fit,
• slack running fit and
• loose running fit

Interference fit: Interference fit is a fit, which always provides a positive interference over the
whole range of tolerances. In this case, the tolerance zone of the hole is completely below that
of the shaft.
𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡

Figure 1.19: Interference fit

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Interference fit is just opposite to clearance fit. Here maximum and minimum interferences are
given by:

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡)𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 − (𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡)𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒

𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡)𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 − (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡)𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒

The interference fits may be

• shrink fit,
• heavy drive fit and
• light drive fit

Transition fit: Transition fit is a fit, which may provide either a clearance or interference,
depending upon the actual values of the individual tolerances of the mating components. In this
case, the tolerance zones of the hole and the shaft overlap.

𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡

Figure 1.20: Transition fit

Here upper limit of one component lying in between lower limit and upper limit of the other
component.

The transition fits may be

• force fit,
• tight fit and
• push fit.

Procedure for Finding Types of Fit:

To find the types of fit, following procedures are followed:

(i) Maximum and minimum clearances are found,

(ii) If both the clearances are positive, then the fit will be clearance fit
(iii) If both the clearances are negative, then the fit will be interference fit, and
(iv) If one clearance is positive and the other is negative, then the fit will be transition
fit.

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Figure 1.21: Types of fits

Basis of Limit System:

There are two bases of limit system, they are:

(1) Hole-basis system and
(2) Shaft-basis system

Figure 1.22: Bases of limit system

Hole-basis system: When the hole is kept as a constant member (i.e. when the lower deviation
of the hole is zero) and different fits are obtained by varying the shaft size, then the limit system
is said to be on a hole basis.
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

(𝑖) 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑡 (𝑖𝑖) 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑡 (𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑡

Figure 1.23 (a): Hole-basis system

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In this system, hole tolerance zone is not changing its position with respect to zero line, whereas
the shaft tolerance zone is changing its position to get the required fit. Here, the fundamental
deviation of hole matching with the zero line and this fundamental deviation of hole is denoted
by “H”. Therefore, this hole-basis system is also denoted by ‘H’.

𝟑
𝟑
𝟑
𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝟐
𝟐
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝟐
𝟏
𝟏 (1) 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑡
𝟏 (2) 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑡
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒
(3) 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑡

Figure 1.23 (b): Hole-basis system

Shaft-basis system: When the shaft is kept as a constant member (i.e. when the upper deviation
of the shaft is zero) and different fits are obtained by varying the hole size, then the limit system
is said to be on a shaft basis.

𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

(𝑖) 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑡 (𝑖𝑖) 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑡 (𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑡

Figure 1.24 (a): Shaft-basis system

In this system, shaft tolerance zone is not changing its position with respect to zero line,
whereas the hole tolerance zone is changing its position to get the required fit. Here, the
fundamental deviation of shaft matching with the zero line and this fundamental deviation of
shaft is denoted by “h”. Therefore, this shaft basis system is also denoted by ‘h’.

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(𝟏) 𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒊𝒕 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝟏 (𝟐) 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒊𝒕

𝟏 (𝟑) 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒊𝒕
𝟏
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝟑
𝟑
𝟑
Figure 1.24 (b): Shaft-basis system

It may be noted that from the manufacturing point of view, a hole basis system is always
preferred. This is because the holes are usually produced and finished by standard tooling like
drill, reamers, etc., whose size is not adjustable easily. On the other hand, the size of the shaft
(which is to go into the hole) can be easily adjusted and is obtained by turning or grinding
operations.

B.I.S. System of Fits and Tolerances:

According to a system recommended by Bureau of Indian Standards, tolerance is specified by

an alphabet, capital or small, followed by a number, e.g. 𝐻7 or 𝑔6. The description of tolerance
consists of two parts:

(i) Fundamental deviation and

(ii) Magnitude of tolerance

Figure 1.25: Description of tolerance

The fundamental deviation gives the location of the tolerance zone with respect to the zero line.
It is indicated by an alphabet:

• Capital letters for holes and

• Small letters for shaft

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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The magnitude of tolerance is designated by a number, called the grade. The grade of tolerance
is defined as a group of tolerances, which are considered to have the same level of accuracy
for all basic sizes.

According to Indian standard, the system of limits and fits comprises 18 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑠 of
fundamental tolerances i.e. grades of accuracy of manufacture and 25 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑠 of fundamental
deviations indicated by letter symbols for both holes and shafts (capital letter 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝑍𝐶 for holes
and small letters 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑐 for shafts) in diameter steps ranging from 1 𝑡𝑜 500 𝑚𝑚.

A unilateral hole basis system is recommended but if necessary, a unilateral or bilateral shaft
basis system may also be used.

There are eighteen grades of tolerances with designations 𝐼𝑇1, 𝐼𝑇2, … … … . 𝐼𝑇17 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑇18.
The letters of symbol 𝐼𝑇 stands for ‘International Tolerance’ grade.

The tolerance for a shaft of 50 𝑚𝑚 diameter as the basic size, with the fundamental deviation
denoted by the alphabet 𝑔 and the tolerance of grade 7 is written as 50𝑔7.

The fit is indicated by the basic size common to both components followed by symbols for
tolerance of each component. For example,

𝐻8
50 𝐻8/𝑔7 𝑜𝑟 50 𝐻8 − 𝑔7 𝑜𝑟 50
𝑔7

The formulae for calculating the fundamental deviation and magnitude of tolerance of various
grades are given in the standards. However, the designer is mainly concerned with readymade
tables for determining tolerances, which is available in the Design Data Hand Book (Table
23.3, Page 447 for Fits and Tolerances).

For hole, H stands for a dimension whose lower deviation refers to the basic size. The hole 𝐻
for which the lower deviation is zero is called a basic hole. Similarly, for shafts, ℎ stands for a
dimension whose upper deviation refers to the basic size. The shaft ℎ for which the upper
deviation is zero is called a basic shaft.

We know that, for holes, the upper deviation is denoted by 𝐸𝑆 and the lower deviation by 𝐸𝐼.
Similarly, for shafts, the upper deviation is represented by 𝑒𝑠 and the lower deviation by 𝑒𝑖.
For each letter symbol, the magnitude and sign for one of the two deviations (i.e. either upper
or lower deviation), which is known as fundamental deviation, have been determined by means
of formulae. The other deviation may be calculated by using the absolute value of the standard
tolerance (𝐼𝑇).

It may be noted for shafts a to ℎ, the upper deviations (𝑒𝑠) are considered whereas for shafts 𝑗
to 𝑧𝑐, the lower deviation (𝑒𝑖) is to be considered.

The alphabetical representation of fundamental deviations for basic shaft and basic hole system
is shown in Figure 1.26.

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Figure 1.26: Fundamental deviations for shafts and holes

GO and NOGO Gauge:

Plain Plug Gauge

Plug gauge is used for the assessment of the hole or diameter of an object. With specified
tolerance of GO and NOGO side, plug gauge is also known as pin gauge.

As shown in the Figure 1.18, let plug gauge size is 25𝐻7 where 𝐻7 stand for tolerance standard
(+0.000/+0.270). So, GO side is 25.000 𝑚𝑚 and NOGO side is 25.270 𝑚𝑚.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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Figure 1.27: Plug gauge

Snap Gauge

Snap gauge is GO and NOGO type gauge. That means snap gauge consist of 2 fixed measured
distance or gap, one is known as GO and another one is known as NOGO.

In snap gauge, the value of GO is always greater than NOGO.

Figure 1.28: Snap gauge

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Problem 1.8: The dimensions of the mating parts, according to basic hole system, are
given as follows:

Hole: 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 Shaft: 𝟐𝟒. 𝟗𝟕 𝒎𝒎

𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟐 𝒎𝒎 𝟐𝟒. 𝟗𝟓 𝒎𝒎

Find the hole tolerance, shaft tolerance and allowance.

Solution.

Given:

Lower limit of hole = 25 𝑚𝑚;

Upper limit of hole = 25.02 𝑚𝑚;

Upper limit of shaft = 24.97 𝑚𝑚;

Lower limit of shaft = 24.95 𝑚𝑚

(i) Hole tolerance

We know that hole tolerance = ( 𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒) − (𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒)

= 25.02 − 25 = 0.02 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

(ii) Shaft tolerance

We know that shaft tolerance = (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡) − (𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡)

= 24.97 − 24.95 = 0.02 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

(iii) Allowance

We know that allowance = ( 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒) − (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡)

= 25.00 − 24.97 = 0.03 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Problem 1.9: The main bearing of an engine is shown in the Figure 1.29. Calculate:

(i) the maximum and minimum diameters of the crank pin and bush; and

(ii) the maximum and minimum clearance between the crank pin and bush.

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Figure 1.29: Engine Bearing

Solution.

From the Table 22.3, Page No. 399 of Design Data Hand Book, the tolerances for the crank
pin (20 𝑒7) is found as follows:

𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = −40 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛

𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = −61 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛

From the Table 22.3, Page No. 401 of Design Data Hand Book, the tolerances for the bush
(20 𝐻6) is found as follows:

𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = +13 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛

𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = +00 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛

(i)

Maximum diameter of crank pin = 20 + 0.001 × (−40) = 19.960 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Minimum diameter of crank pin = 20 + 0.001 × (−61) = 19.939 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Maximum diameter of bush = 20 + 0.001 × (+13) = 20.013 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Minimum diameter of bush = 20 + 0.001 × (+00) = 20.000 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

(ii)

Maximum clearance between the crank pin and the bush

= (Maximum diameter of bush) − (Minimum diameter of crank pin)

= 20.013 − 19.939

= 0.074 𝑚𝑚 = 74 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

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Minimum clearance between the crank pin and the bush

= (Minimum diameter of bush) − (Maximum diameter of crank pin)

= 20.000 − 19.960

= 0.040 𝑚𝑚 = 40 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Problem 1.10: The valve seat fitted inside the housing of a pump is shown in the Figure
1.30. Calculate:

(i) the maximum and minimum diameters of the valve seat and housing; and

(ii) the magnitude of the maximum and minimum interferences between the seat and
housing.

Figure 1.30: Valve seat

Solution.

From the Table 22.3, Page No. 401 of Design Data Hand Book, the tolerances for the valve
seat (20 𝑟6) is found as follows:

𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = +41 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛

𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = +28 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛

From the Table 22.3, Page No. 401 of Design Data Hand Book, the tolerances for the housing
(20 𝐻7) is found as follows:

𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = +21 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛

𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = +00 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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(i)

Maximum diameter of valve seat = 20 + 0.001 × (+41) = 20.041 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Minimum diameter of valve seat = 20 + 0.001 × (+28) = 20.028 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Maximum diameter of housing = 20 + 0.001 × (+21) = 20.021 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Minimum diameter of housing = 20 + 0.001 × (+00) = 20.000 𝑚𝑚 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

(ii)

Maximum interference between the valve seat and the housing

= (Maximum diameter of valve seat) − (Minimum diameter of housing)

= 20.041 − 20.000

= 0.041 𝑚𝑚 = 41 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Minimum interference between the valve seat and the housing

= (Minimum diameter of valve seat) − (Maximum diameter of housing)

= 20.028 − 20.021

= 0.007 𝑚𝑚 = 7 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓.

Machine Design-I: MODULE 1 Page 55