CAPÍTULO 8

AN APPROXIMATION TO TRANSNATIONAL
AND INTERSECTIONAL FEMINISM IN OLEANDER GIRL
(2012) AND ARRANGED MARRIAGE (1995)

ANA MARÍA C RESPO G ÓMEZ

Universidad de Zaragoza

1. INTRODUCTION

Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni is a highly regarded writer of South Asian

descent whose literary works provide a voice for the experiences of
South Asian women living in the United States. Throughout her career,
she has been a staunch advocate for women’s rights and has been par-
ticularly vocal about the issue of domestic abuse. Divakaruni's female
characters are often portrayed as strong and resilient, reflecting her
commitment to empowering women through her writing. She explains,
“Placing women at the center of my novels and allowing them to tell
their own stories has always been a fundamental aspect of my writing”
(Singh and Field, 2022, p. xix).
Exploring South Asian feminisms45 involves an examination of the
“transnational connectivities” that Inderpal Grewal describes as key to
forming identities and subjects (2005, p. 36). These identities are
shaped by the intersections of gender with other facets of identity, in-
cluding race, caste, and ethnicity. Critical Perspectives on Chitra
Banerjee Divakaruni: Feminism and Diaspora (2022) by Amritjit
Singh and Robin E. Field notes that Divakaruni’s work delves into the
complexities of intersectional feminism and demands a comprehensive

45Feminism(s) is written in the plural form because it is considered that there is a diversity in
South Asia and its diaspora that needs to be acknowledged. Besides, recent publications are
opting for the plural form such as New Feminisms in South Asia: Disrupting the Discourse
through Social Media, Film, and Literature (2018), edited by Sonora Jha and Alka Kurian.

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understanding of how South Asian/American women assert their auton-
omy and agency (2022, p. xxv). Therefore, this chapter briefly explores
transnational and intersectional feminist theory to illuminate the strug-
gles faced by the female characters in the selected stories. Chitra
Banerjee Divakaruni’s literature is inherently intersectional, and her fe-
male characters cannot be understood without considering a range of
factors, including race, community, gender, nation, and cultural back-
ground, as well as their imagined realities and hyphenated identities re-
sulting from migration.
This chapter aims to explore the representation of transnational and in-
tersectional feminism in the literary works of Chitra Banerjee Di-
vakaruni. Specifically, we will examine the novel Oleander Girl, pub-
lished in 2012, as well as two short stories from the anthology Arranged
Marriage (1995), namely “Clothes” and “Doors”. We will begin by
delving into the author’s socio-literary background and how her writing
has been influenced by September 11, 2001. Then, we will provide an
overview of transnational and intersectional feminism before analysing
its implications in the selected works. To conclude, we will combine all
the ideas and provide a comprehensive discussion.

2. CHITRA BANERJEE DIVAKARUNI’S LITERARY

PRODUCTION

Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni is a writer of South Asian origin who cur-

rently resides in the United States. She has lived in various locations,
undoubtedly influencing her literary output. Her writing mainly focuses
on the life experiences of Indian women living in the United States,
which draws heavily from her own life. Divakaruni describes her writ-
ing as revolving around “the magical, the immigrant life, and women’s
issues” (McConigley, 2009, p. 98). As a first-generation immigrant
woman, Divakaruni is equally motivated by her lived experiences amid
cultures and traditions (Zupancic, 2012, p. 85). In her stories, female
characters move between “home” and the world, with “home” referring
to “dwelling, family, or land of birth” (Iyer, 2022, p. 4), while the world
refers to the transnational community or adopted land.

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Born in Bengal, India, her postcolonial education is reflected in her
confident English writing. However, her Bengali middle-class upbring-
ing strongly influences her work, resulting in a recurring theme of reli-
gious mythologies and stories of spiritual healing. Apart from the three
topics previously mentioned, her most significant theme is
“women’s oppression and their attempts at liberating themselves from
restrictive emotional and family relationship [as well as regarding]
interactions among women, close friendships, strong emotional and
spiritual bonds among sisters, and intense nurturing and psychologi-
cally codependent relationships between mothers and daughters.”
(Shankar, 2003, pp. 64-65).

Her writing can be divided into the first, where she contended with past
experiences and the women she encountered in India, outlining two
books of poems: The Reason for Nasturtiums in 1990 and Black Can-
dle: Poems about women from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh in 1991.
In the 90s, she also authored Arranged Marriage, among other works,
although recently, she has been leaning towards the literary rewriting
of folktales and mythology. According to Amritjit Singh and Robin E.
Field, “her novels best demonstrate her formal synthesis of realism my-
thology, and magic realism” (2022, p. xxii), as is the case in two novels,
Mistress of Spices (1997) and Queen of Dreams (2004).
Arranged Marriage (1995), the anthology of short stories under analy-
sis, “focuses on the cross-cultural experiences of womanhood through
domestic violence, economic disparity, racism, abortion, and divorce”
(Basu, 2022, p. 22). Besides, as Nalini Iyer claims,
“Divakaruni’s feminist portrayals embrace an intersectional and trans-
national understanding of South Asian identity by depicting home as
domestic space and national site of belonging, by highlighting the rela-
tionship between different communities of color in the United States,
and by examining the impact of 9/11 in mediating South Asian under-
standings of gendered citizenship and belonging.” (Iyer, 2022, p. 5).

While her written work has received praise and recognition several
times, certain reviewers have labelled it stereotypical. Additionally,
some scholars have dismissed her use of neocolonialism in both char-
acter development and storylines. Chitra Banerjee has commented on
this matter, stating that reviewers often solely focus on the superficial

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aspects of the work and categorise it as exotic, explicitly referring to
the utilisation of magic realism. Her writing has been situated within
the scope of transnational criticism by Zupancic (2012, p. 86).
In terms of narrative style, the author employs magical realism, a genre
frequently utilised by South American and English writers. Salman
Rushdie was one of the early pioneers of this style, as seen in his re-
nowned work, Midnight’s Children (1981). Magical realism blends
magical elements with reality to explore societal or political themes. The
author’s literary style exhibits a remarkable freshness, as she was the
first female South Asian American writer to incorporate magical realism
into gender studies, inspiring many female authors to follow suit.

3. TRANSNATIONAL AND INTERSECTIONAL FEMINISM

Transnationalism and intersectionality, before being put together, need

a clear definition. Whilst transnationalism stands for “not only the
movement of people, but also of notions of citizenship, technology,
forms of multinational governance, and the mechanisms of global mar-
kets” (Quayson & Daswani, 2013, p. 4), intersectionality is defined, ac-
cording to Patricia Hill Collins and Sirma Bilge in Intersectionality
(2016) as:
“a way of understanding and analyzing the complexity in the world, in
people, and in human experiences. The events and conditions of social
and political life and the self can seldom be understood as shaped by
one factor. They are generally shaped by many factors in diverse and
mutually influencing ways. When it comes to social inequality, peo-
ple’s lives and the organization of power in a given society are better
understood as being shaped not by a single axis of social division, be it
race or gender or class, but by many axes that work together and influ-
ence each other. Intersectionality as an analytic tool gives people better
access to the complexity of the world and of themselves.” (Collins &
Bilge, 2016, p. 13).

The theory of transnational feminist theory, as Marsha Meskimmon

puts forward, is “a multidimensional field of thought that commonly
moves across and between disciplines, engaging intersectional, decol-
onising and race-critical analysis, queer, ecological, Indigenous and
‘slow’ activisms, and, increasingly, a vital materialist move away from

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solely human-centred understandings of the world” (Meskimmon,
2020, p. 3). Transnational feminisms delve much into intersectionality
as gender cannot stand alone but is the outcome of a mediated process.
That means that gender cannot be seen as universal; it does not have a
unique response, nor is there a single resistance to it, as it cannot be
neglected by the hybrid nature of gender (Alcoff, 2021, p. 43).
Apart from what has been said, the perspectives provided by transna-
tional feminism communicate across borders and global boundaries,
whether they happen in local, regional, or global contexts. That explains
why transnational feminism is fundamental when referring to the dias-
pora precisely because those females who have undergone a process of
migration46 and reside in a different country from which they were born,
especially in the case of the South Asian diaspora, are affected by co-
lonialism, imperialism, and gendered forms of racism. The cultural leg-
acies of colonialism can interact with other social identity markers
(gender, ethnicity, race) “to create complex transnational intersection-
alities” (Enns et al., 2021, p. 14).
The idea of creating these identities was sparked by Chandra Talpade
Mohanty’s critique of the term “Third-World Woman” in her well-
known work “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial
Discourses” (1984). Mohanty argued that this category is ahistorical and
universal, devoid of any differences. Instead, we support the idea of post-
national hybridity, pluralism, and intersectionality, where gender identity
is formed by a combination of differences in class, sexuality, religion,
nation, and ideology (Khurian & Jha, 2018, p. 7). Moreover, this cultural
construction is constantly evolving, as Nancy A. Naples and Barbara
Gurr explain, due to social location, political history, and economic fac-
tors, which all contribute to changes in cultural constructions of gender
and sexuality (2012, p. 316). The most significant factors that shape so-
cial relations are colonialism, postcolonialism, and neoliberalism.

46 It also includes refugees, displaced individuals, as well as “those who identify themselves
as third-culture persons and persons who are attempting to integrate” various identities (Enns
et al., 2021, p. 11).

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To fully comprehend the intricacies of transnational and intersectional
feminism(s), it is imperative to consider “local subjectivities against the
backdrop of globalizing capitalism and the intricate, varied ways in
which it reinforces and undermines colonial relationships” (Eschle,
1997). However, navigating this hybrid nature can be particularly chal-
lenging for South Asian American women who find themselves torn
between traditional values and modernization.

4. TRANSNATIONAL AND INTERSECTIONAL FEMINISM IN

THE OEUVRE OF CHITRA BANERJEE DIVAKARUNI

Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni’s characters are increasingly being placed

in transnational contexts, especially since 9/11. Besides, since that mo-
ment, her female characters have been neglecting issues of assimilation
and moving towards seeking “new alliances with characters who iden-
tify differently, such as Indian Muslims or African Americans” (Singh
and Field, 2022, p. xxi).
South Asian American feminism is deeply influenced by diasporic and
transnational features, as witnessed by the works of authors as re-
nowned as Susan Koshy47, Chandra Talpade Mohanty48 and Roshni
Rustomji49, among others. Their work revolves around new identities
due to cross-border contact and migration, the very same line followed
by Chitra Banerjee, whose work delves into an understanding of the
South Asian American woman with all her complexities. In fact, in the
essay entitled “South Asians in North America: Inter-Ethnic Reflec-
tions for the New Millenium”, Amritjit Singh posits “the double cross
of knowledge and responsibility that many self-conscious diasporic in-
dividuals must bear as global citizens, even as they feel impelled to
combine ‘critical affection’ for the homeland with a ‘deliberate surren-
der’ to the adoptive homeland” (2018, p. 62).

47 Transnational South Asians: The Making of a Neo-Diaspora (Oxford University Press,

2008), edited by Susan Koshy and R. Radhakrishnan.
48 Feminism without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity (Duke University

Press, 2003).
49 Living in America. Poetry and Fiction by South Asian American Writers (Routledge, 1995).

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4.1. TRANSNATIONAL AND INTERSECTIONAL FEMINISM IN OLEANDER GIRL
(2012)

The plot of Oleander Girl centres on Korobi, a young woman from In-
dia who is expected to marry into wealth. However, her life takes an
unexpected turn when she receives a message from her deceased mother
in a dream. The message advises her to metaphorically cross the ocean,
which prompts Korobi to depart from India to the United States. Here,
she embarks on a journey to uncover the memories and whereabouts of
her parents.
In her most contemporary fiction, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni has
leaned toward writing historical fiction involving fictional and mytho-
logical characters such as Draupadi, Sita and Jindan. Nonetheless, even
though Oleander Girl is relatively recent, in this work, the author ex-
amines the family as inspirational for the identity formation of charac-
ters. Nevertheless, this work moves beyond identity and brings together
other themes, rendering it intersectional, as Nalini Iyer puts forward:
“Divakaruni complicates post-9/11 racialization of South Asians within
a transnational frame by linking postcolonial India’s communal issues
with Indians’ experiences of race and racism. Indians are both victims
of racism in the United States and perpetrators of violence against mi-
norities in India. The focus in this narrative is the new global middle-
class in India that travels frequently between the United States and runs
businesses in both countries. This is less a narrative of the immigrant
and more a narrative of the new global professional community that
constantly traverses national boundaries as sojourner, temporary
worker, or business traveler.” (Iyer, 2022, p. 8).

In the novel Oleander Girl, a seventeen-year-old girl travels from India

to the United States after the 9/11 attacks to uncover the truth about her
identity. This book showcases Divakaruni’s writing in her fourth dec-
ade as a writer, which skillfully navigates through different times and
places, bringing together diverse perspectives on religion, class, and
race. Her writing also acknowledges the complexities of privilege and
intersectional identities (Singh and Field, 2022, p. xxiv).
Divakaruni’s interest in the family has been at the forefront, but it is
diminishing. However, the protagonist in Oleander Girl, Korobi, em-
braces a bicultural and biracial identity, leading her family to be

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referred to as a “transnational bourgeois family” (Iyer, 2022, p. 14).
Despite being transnational, this novel moves away from the past,
where India was viewed as a loss to Korobi, who looks to the United
States for self-affirmation and identity. While India is still the place of
her roots and familial connections, Korobi is more of a traveller than an
immigrant, with America serving as a catalyst for her personal growth,
as seen in the analyzed short stories in Arranged Marriage (1995).
Korobi in Oleander Girl is depicted as a “new cosmopolitan”, a term
borrowed from Gita Rajan and Shailja Sharma in their work New Cos-
mopolitans: South Asians in the US (2006). She falls into this category
because she traverses “through class and desi/pardesi boundaries, reas-
sessing her own values [...]” (Assella, 2015, p. 96). It means that as a
transnational and cosmopolitan subject, she is able to create a particular
identity that becomes situated regarding the circumstances. As posited
in the novel, “I’m Korobi, Oleander, capable of surviving drought and
frost and the loss of love” (Divakaruni, 2012, p. 247). Her transnational
identity is built on the belief that after 9/11, “the atmosphere of suspi-
cion, disbelief, wrongful detention and humiliation can make an immi-
grant stoop as low to steal and blackmail to make a survival in America”
(Mukhopadhya, 2017, p. 79). Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni subtly criti-
cises that aspect, proving that the allurement of America has drastically
changed after the terrorist attacks.
So far, we have analysed why Oleander Girl could be considered a
transnational literary work, but why is it intersectional? It is observed
through the female characters who come across Korobi’s life path.
Their struggle is not regarded as an isolated aspect but a combination
of religion, caste, class and gender.

4.2. TRANSNATIONAL AND INTERSECTIONAL FEMINISM IN “CLOTHES”

AND “DOORS” (1995)

“Clothes” and “Doors” are two short stories from the anthology Ar-
ranged Marriage (1995). In both, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni creates
“characters whose meanings and purposes are shaped by their multiple
identities within and outside of the United States’ geographic borders”
(Singh and Field, 2022, p. xxvi).

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“Clothes” beautifully illustrates how diaspora and feminism intersect in
Sumita’s journey of growth and decision-making. Despite her family's
traditional expectations after her husband’s murder, Sumita is hesitant
to return to India and embrace the life of a widow. Refusing to conform
to societal norms, she boldly declares that she is not ready to be one of
the veiled women in white saris, serving tea to her in-laws like a dove
with clipped wings (Divakaruni, 1995, p. 33). Instead, she embraces her
newfound independence through her clothing choices and ultimately
chooses to remain in the United States. Sumita’s ever-evolving charac-
ter is exemplified through her multicultural wardrobe, highlighting her
constant evolution and strength.
“It was the most expensive sari I had ever seen, and surely the most
beautiful. Its body was a pale pink, like the dawn sky over the women’s
lake. The color of transition. Embroidered all over it were tiny stars made
out of real gold zari thread. [...] The sari was unexpectedly heavy in my
hands, silk-slippery, a sari to walk carefully in. A sati that could change
one’s life. I stood there holding it, wanting to weep. I knew that when I
wore it, it would hang in perfect pleats to my feet and shimmer in the
light of the evening lamps. It would dazzle Somesh and his parents and
they would choose me to be his bride.” (Divakaruni, 1995, pp. 19-20).

During a trip to the United States a few months after their marriage, the
main thread of the narrative becomes the topic of clothing.
“We had some arguments about the sari. I wanted a blue one for the
journey, because blue is the color of possibility, the color of the sky
through which I would be travelling. But Mother said there must be red
in it because red is the color of lick for married women. Finally, Father
found one to satisfy us both: midnight-blue with a thin red border the
same color as the marriage mark I’m wearing on my forehead.” (Di-
vakaruni, 1995, p. 20).

The short story “Doors” delves into the unspoken social norms that
newly arrived immigrants bring with them to North America, which can
often clash with the experiences of South Asian American immigrants
who have spent a significant part of their lives in the United States. At
the outset of the story, the mother opposes the marriage because, alt-
hough both parties are Indian, she has lived in the USA since her teen-
age years while he is a recent arrival from India. “It’ll never work, I tell
you”, she insists. Similarly, Deepak’s friends express doubts about the
match, wondering if he is making the right decision. “She’s been here

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so long it's almost like she was born in this country. And you know how
these American women are, always bossing you, always thinking about
themselves” (Divakaruni, 1995, p. 188). As the story unfolds, it be-
comes clear that these concerns were not unfounded.
“On the whole it seemed that Preeti and Deepak had been right. They had
lived together amicably for the last three years, at first in a tiny student
apartment in Berkeley and then, after Deepak got a job with a computer
firm, in a condominium in Milpitas” (p. 186). Although their marriage
worked just fine, there was a problem: doors. “Deepak liked to leave them
open, and Preeti liked them closed.” (Divakaruni, 1995, p. 188).

As she comments, “I don’t know…I guess I’m just a private person. It’s
not like I’m shutting you out. I’ve just always done it this way. Maybe
it has something to do with being an only child” (Divakaruni, 1995, p.
189). The situation worsens when, out of the blue, Deepak’s friend
comes to their place for a long-term stay until he finishes his master’s
degree. At first, she is puzzled by the lack of boundaries, as instead of
using the guest room, he decides to sleep all over the kitchen and dining
room. However, it gets worse as “the concept of doors did not exist in
Raj’s universe, and he ignored their physical reality – so solid and re-
assuring to Preeti – whenever he could” (Divakaruni, 1995, p. 193).
“He would burst into her closed study to tell her of the latest events in
his computer lab, leaving the door ajar when he left. He would throw
open the door to the garage where she did the laundry to offer help,
usually treated to her little garden in search of privacy, there was no
escape. From the porch, he gave solicitous advice on the drooping fuch-
sias.” (Divakaruni, 1995, p. 192).

In the end, Deepak, Preeti’s boyfriend, is forced, for her own sake, to
tell Raj to leave home. Preeti feels hopeless, having been told by her
supervisor that her work needs more creativity and originality. “She lay
there, feeling the night cover her slowly, layer by cold, clean layer. And
when the door finally clicked shut, she did not know whether it was in
the guest room or deep inside her own being” (Divakaruni, 1995, p.
202). That creates a gap in the relationship, especially Deepak’s com-
ment, “Hope you’re happy, now that you have the house all to yourself,
I’m going to sleep in the guest room” (Divakaruni, 1995, p. 201).

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The characters in “Clothes” and “Doors” form their self-images through
personal and public confrontations related to relocation and dislocation,
as well as their dual identity. They do not conform to the majority cul-
ture of the United States but instead, engage in a constant dialogue with
their past homelands despite living in North America. In “Clothes” the
protagonist's family ties represent her potential obligation to return to
India as a widow, while in “Doors”, the husband and his friend's dis-
ruptive behaviour, both physically and culturally, confuses and unset-
tles the female protagonist.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Within the pages of Arranged Marriage, an anthology of short stories,

and Oleander Girl, a novel, transnational and intersectional femi-
nism(s) are explored through a careful analysis of Chitra Banerjee’s
stories. After reading Divakaruni’s work, it becomes clear that a trans-
national and intersectional approach is necessary to appreciate her writ-
ing fully. The author skillfully incorporates various factors, including
race and racism, particularly in the post-9/11 world.
In the two short stories in the anthology Arranged Marriage (1995),
“Clothes” and “Doors”, and Oleander Girl (2012), it can be observed
that diasporic and transnational communities depicted in Divakaruni’s
work challenge the construction of national identity and adopt instead
a positioning that brings together their national essence with their life
experiences in the United States. Whilst her 90’s literature put more
emphasis on family and ethnic communities as markers of identity, the
literature written after her fourth-decade writing shows acute differ-
ences, especially regarding social markers like race and racism, hardly
considered before. That proves that she is indeed aware of the social
constraints which fell on dark-skinned individuals after 9/11. That is
observed in her acute interest in preserving her ancestral culture in her
most recent works and in her pursuit of recasting characters with deep
folklore and mythological connotations. For instance, in the last few
years, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni has published The Palace of Illu-
sions (2008), The Forest of Enchantments (2019), The Last Queen

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(2021) and Independence (2022), all of which are related to well-known
mythological or historical characters.
As demonstrated throughout the chapter, a comprehensive analysis of
Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni’s body of work necessitates a focus on inter-
sectionality. Divakaruni’s female characters navigate a complex web of
factors that shape their identities in a rapidly changing world. Despite fac-
ing numerous challenges, these characters are portrayed as resilient and
adaptable. However, the author’s emphasis is on characters whose migra-
tion experiences involve balancing their ancestral homelands in India with
their life in America rather than simply assimilating into American cul-
ture. Divakaruni aims to challenge the notion that migrating to America
is a straightforward or ideal path, particularly in light of the increasing
episodes of racism against dark-skinned individuals following 9/11.

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