Buổi 1

STRUCTURE: Constituents, Functions and Categories

I. CONSTITUENTS:
a. The characteristics of a complex structure:
- Having constituents of different categories arranged in a particular order to perform
certain functions. (p6)
b. Constituents and Immediate constituents:
- Immediate constituents can add up to and create the bigger part that right on top of
them.
c. What do sentences consist of ?
Are words the immediate constituents of a sentence ?
- Words are not immediate constituents of sentences, the phrases are.
- These phrases have a particular function in a sentence.
- Sentences CONTAIN words, but they don’t CONSIST of words.
-> They consist of PHRASES.
- PHRASES are sequences of words that can function as constituents in the
structure of sentences.
- Sometimes there is one word that can be a PHRASE, and sometimes there are a
sequence of words but they are not a phrase.
- How to identify a phrase ?
The very muscular gentleman next to me lit a cigar.
-> The (...) gentleman next to me lit a cigar.
-> The very muscular gentleman (...) lit a cigar.
-> The (...) gentleman (...) lit a cigar.
=> Any of the smaller parts of the phrases can’t be omitted without any change to status of
grammatical features of the sentence.
● Some tests of phrases
- The omission test
- The replacement test (if we can replace a sequence of words with just one word,
usually a pronoun, and still make the whole sentence comprehensible, it is a
phrase)
- The question test
- The movement test
- The sense test
-> Intuitions
Ex: Old Sam sunbathed [beside/ a stream that had dried up]
Ex 2: He asked [how old] Sam was.
He asked how [old Sam] was.
=> ambiguous sentences can be understood in 2 ways.
He looked up/ the street
He looked/ up the street
PHRASE MARKERS (P.12)
- Tree diagrams that represent sentence structure
- node , branch, dominate
 Exercises:
1. [John] [considers] [visiting] [his/ aunt]
John/ considers visiting his aunt
V
considers/ visiting his aunt
V
visiting/ his aunt
V
his/ aunt
2. [John] [considers] [visiting] [his/ aunt] [next/ weekend]
John/ considers visiting his aunt next weekend
V
Considers/ visiting his aunt next weekend
V
Visiting his aunt/ next weekend
V
Visiting /his aunt
V
his/ aunt

3. John considers visiting his aunt last weekend.

John/ considered visiting his aunt last weekend
V
considered visiting his aunt/ last weekend
V
considered/ visiting his aunt
V
visiting/ his aunt
V
his/ aunt
<In the structure, we have to split the subject first, after that is the action and the time the
action takes place>

(Last weekend, he thought of visiting his aunt sometime before the end of the month)

II. FUNCTIONS OF CONSTITUENTS:

2 largest constituents of almost all sentences are SUBJECT and PREDICATE.
1. Most common immediate constituents in sentence structures ?
- Subjects to mention something (are usually a noun phrases) He kicks the ball
- Predicate to say something about the subject (Verb phrase - VP)
EX: It is snowing again.
There is nothing to eat.
-> EMPTY SUBJECT
(Expletive subject)
 A
/\
B/C
- Two constituents are immediately dominated by the same single node
-> A is mother of B and C
-> B and C are daughters of A
-> B and C are sisters of each other
Constituents have their function in respect of their sisters.
● HEAD, MODIFIER, and COMPLEMENT
- HEAD: Two rather dubious jokes
Two rather stupid jokes
V
Rather + stupid => modifier
V
Rather dubious + jokes => modifier
V
Two +rather dubious jokes => complement

The dependency between sisters

- Rather vs dubious (rather is dependent on dubious but dubious is not
dependent on rather) => ONE-WAY DEPENDENCY
- Rather dubious vs jokes (phrase-c is dependent on jokes but not vice
versa) => ONE-WAY DEPENDENCY
- Two vs rather dubious jokes (rather dubious jokes is dependent on two
but not vice versa) => ONE-WAY DEPENDENCY
=> MODIFICATION (one modifies the other)
- HEAD: OBLIGATORY; MODIFIER: OPTIONAL
Do more reading on complement + category + verb phrase
=> TWO-WAY DEPENDENCY (COMPLEMENTATION)
Both are compulsory and cant be omitted
Ex: beside(completiser) a stream (head)
Beside + phrase-b
V
A stream
=> HEAD:: beside (OBLIGATORY) (CAN’T STAY ALONE) => it tells about the nature/ category/
characteristic/ location/signal of the thing, without it, the word is not the same anymore
=> COMPLEMENT (OBLIGATORY) : complete the meaning of the head
SUMMARY
Subject - Predicate: TWO-WAY dependency
Modifier - Head: ONE-WAY dependency and the modifier is OPTIONAL
Head- Complement: TWO-WAY dependency and the Complement is OBLIGATORY
Head: OBLIGATORY center and there is one head in the sentence.
—----------
Ex: Phil (subject) dreads (complementiser) affectionate (modifier) cats.(predicative)
Sentence
V
Phil + P
=> TWO-WAY DEPENDENCY (those two are both important in the sentence and they
both depends on each other so we do not identify which of them is the head, we just
identify the head in a phrase)
V
Dreads + phrase
=> COMPLEMENTATION (HEAD: DREADS - COMPLEMENT: AFFECTIONATE CATS)
(DREAD is the head because it makes the phrase from NOUN phrase to VERB
PHRASE)
V
Affectionate + cat
=> MODIFICATION (HEAD: CATS- MODIFIER: AFFECTIONATE)

III. CATEGORIES (chapter3)

- Lexical categories
=> Categories of single words (lexical items)
- Phrasal categories
=> Categories of head
Ex: affectionate cats ( lexical categories: a noun => affectionate cats: a noun phrase)
Dreads affectionate cats (phrasal categories => dreads affectional categories: a verb
phrase)
We identify the head, and see what type/ class of the word is, if the head is preposition/ noun/
verb => it is the preposition/noun/verb phrase
1. Adjective phrases - adverb phrases
- Adjective (A) and Adjective Phrase (AP)
- Modifiers in AP
● Degree adverb (DEG) (ex: very, extremely…)
● General adverb (Adv) (ex: surprisingly, happily…)
-> Adverb Phrase
- Adverb (Adv) and Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
● AdvP = (DEG+) Adv

Ex:
1/ Delicious (AP) -> A -> delicious
=> category phrase => delicious (AP)
=> lexical phrase => delicious
=> lexical item => delicious
—--------------
2/ quite delicious AP -> DEG/ A -> quite / delicious.
(Phrasal category)
AP (head: delicious)
/\
Degree + adjective
(quite) (delicious)
—--------------
3/ obviously (AdvP -> Adv -> obviously)
(phrasal category)
AdvP (head: obviously)
V
Adv (obviously)
V
Obviously
—----------------
4/ more obviously
AdvP (head: obviously)
/ \
DEG + Adv
(more) (obviously)
—--------------
5/ more obviously / artificial => AP => AdvP/ AP => DEG+ adv/ Adj => more/ obviously/ artificial
Phrasal category ( AP- head: artificial)
/ \
AdvP (more obviously)+ Adjective
/ \ I
DEG + Adv
(more) (obviously) (artificial)

—--------
2. Prepositional Phrases:
- The head is PREPOSITION (P)
- Prepositional Phrase (PP)
● PP= P + NP
(head) (complement) => complete the meaning for the phrase
(here, there, now, then… => represented as a non-branching PP

1. Behind the curtains

V
P NP
Behind the curtains
 2. Here
PP
P
Here

Ex:
Under the table
PP
P NP
(under) (the table)

● The triangle is used when we skip an analysis step (skip bước tách phrase ->
word)

3. Coordinate phrases:
EX
1. The clowns and the acrobats / are waiting
=> the question test => a phrase
=> phrasal Category and head ? (2 words are both head)
2. Beautiful but unkind (the same as ex 1)
=> coordinate phrase when it’s contain co-ordinate phrases
+ Two heads must have the same category
+ If it is not having the same category => hard to identify which one is the head => dont
know exactly which one is more important to be the head
Ex:
4. The actress John met and the acrobats (NP)
5. Rather and inconsistent (x)
6. Obviously intelligent and to Newcastle (x)
=> the mother and the sisters of the co-ordinator all have the same category label

I. THE BASIC VERB PHRASE (chapter 4)

A. SUB-CATEGORIES VERB
The complements of lexical verbs
1. Transitive verbs:
- A TRANSITIVE verb [trans] requires a single NP as complement (Direct object)
- NP is a sister of the V (and the daughter of VP)
He (Subject) locked/ the door (complement). (predicate)
=> COMPLEMENT (CATEGORY: NP: THE DOOR- FUNCTION - OBJECT)

Max killed Bill.

=> COMPLEMENT (NP: BILL)
 2. Intransitive verbs (p/69)
The girl smiled (no direct object)
● An INTRANSITIVE verb [intrans] has (and needs) no complement.
● No branching

3. DITRANSITIVE VERBS
My father bought me a new shirt (NP: indirect object and direct object)
A DITRANSITIVE verb [ditrans] requires TWO NPs as complements (DIRECT and INDIRECT
objects)
 4. Intensive verbs (p.72)
+ Bị ảnh hưởng bởi động từ => object
+ Những từ highlight không bị ảnh hưởng bởi động từ mà bổ nghĩa cho động từ =>
Subject predicative
Audrey is my best friend

He seems kind and humorous => intensive verb (used to modify the verb)

=> is/seems/ looks/… = linking verbs (link the Subject and the part after the Verb) => called
intensive verbs

● An INTENSIVE verb [intens] requires a single complement (AP, NP, or PP) as a

SUBJECT - PREDICATIVE
● PREDICATIVE vs. OBJECT
 ● He tasted the soup
(transitive verb)
● The soup tasted delicious
(intensive verb)
● Max turned a subtle shade of green
( intensive verb)
● Max turned another card
(transitive verb)

5. Complex transitive verbs

● (indirect object is affected by the verb)

● (object predicative describe the attitude / property of the Object affected by the
action of the Subject, can be NP or AP)

Jack makes people happy (-> PP) (happy describes how people feel affected by Jack’s
action)
(direct object)
He considers Martha his best friend (NP) (his best friend describes who is martha in his
consideration)
(direct object)

He put the money under the bed

(object) (object predicative)
● A COMPLEX TRANSITIVE verb [complex] takes two complements: a DIRECT
OBJECT (NP) and an OBJECT PREDICATIVE (AP, NP, PP)
● Object-predicative vs object (object-predicative is to describe the object, add more
categories to the object)
 6. Prepositional verbs (p.76)

He applied for a scholarship

(lexical verb)(PP) (prepositional complement)
● A PREPOSITIONAL verb [prep] takes PP as its only complement - PREPOSITIONAL
COMPLEMENT
● [PREP] Verb vs. Phrasal verbs (V+PARTICLE) (P.93)
 SUB-CATEGORISATION OF LEXICAL VERBS
CATEGORIES (NP;AP;PP;VP)
Functions

- INTRANSITIVE [Intrans] S+V

- TRANSITIVE [trans] S+ V+ dO (direct object)
- DITRANSITIVE [ditrans] S+ V+ iO+ dO
S+ V+ dO + to/for iO
- INTENSIVE [intens] S+ V+ subject predicative (sP) => bổ nghĩa cho
chủ ngữ
- COMPLEX TRANSITIVE [complex]
S+ V +dO+ obj predicative
- PREPOSITIONAL [prep] S+ V+ prep. complement [PC]

EX: Identify the category of the verb, its complement(s) and the function of the complement(s).
Then draw a phrase marker for each sentence. You can use triangles for noun phrases
1. The girl in the palace dyed her hair deep purple
S V dO oP
[complex]

PHRASE MARKER
2. The sedan-chair/ proved/ very useful
S V SP
[intens]

3. Karen/ peered/ into the gaping hole

S V object
[prep] prepositional complement
 II. ADVERBIALS (chapter 5)

Ex: Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream for 3 days

=> beside a stream for 3 days is the modifier in VP because it can be
omitted from the sentence
-> adverbials(bổ nghĩa cho câu / từ => có thể bỏ)
(PP: beside a stream; for 3 days / adverb phrase: again / adverb of frequency: always,
twice/ NP: yesterday, this year)
● Adverbials vs. adverb phrase (AdvP)
● Adverbials of different categories
● 2 types of adverbials:
○ VP adverbial (adjunct adverbial)
○ Sentence adverbial (disjunct and conjunct adverbial))
1. VP adverbial (adjunct adverbial)
Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream
[Danny[[ played (the piano) at the party ]](“at the party” modifies “played the piano”)
V dO adverbial (optional -> adverbial) (p.89)
=> complements are sisters of V
=> adjuncts are sisters of VP
-> modifier of VP within a higher VP
Ex: Danny played the piano at the party
 2. Sentence adverbial (S-adverbial) (p.97)
● He [admitted everything] frankly (frankly bổ nghĩa cho VP]

● [He admitted everything], frankly (bổ nghĩa cho cả câu)

● -> Modifier of S within a higher S
2 kinds of S-adverbial (p.98-99)
● DISJUNCT ADVERBIALS: provide some comment / attitude of the speaker
Fortunately, he arrived on time
● CONJUNCT ADVERBIALS: indicate relation between sentences
III. AUXILIARY VPs (chapter 6)
1. Auxiliary verbs (p.111)
- PRIMARY AUXILIARIES: be, have, do
- MODAL AUXILIARIES: can/could, will/would, shall/should, may/might, must, need
Lexical verbs vs. auxiliary verbs (AUX) - p.114
● In questions
● In negation
● complement
In a full VP
● 1 lexical V and up to 4 AUX
a. Modal auxiliaries (MOD)
b. Present auxiliaries (being)
c. Perfect auxiliaries (been)
d. Passive auxiliaries (be)
2. Phrase markers of auxiliary VPs:
● In questions: auxiliary can move before verb but lexical verb can not
● In negation: auxiliary can attach to the verb but the lexical verb can not
● Complement: NP can be the complement of lexical verbs because it can serve the
function of direct object, but with auxiliary verbs it can not
In a full VP
● 1 lexical V and up to 4 AUX
● First one -> verb carries the tense (PRESENT AND PAST)
A. Modal auxiliaries (MOD)
(p.115)
● Always tensed
● Always laid first in the sentence
● No S-V agreement
● Complement (là phần thêm sau vào phía sau để hoàn thiện về mặt nghĩa) : Bare infinity
(Bare V)
B. The perfect auxiliary - have (PERF)
(p.116)
● Refers to past time independently of past tense
● Tensed or not ?
● Complement ? (follow by perfect participle)
C. The Progessive auxiliary - be (PROG)
 ● Tensed if is the first in the sentence (be doesnt contain verb)
● Present participle form V_ing
● Be can be a lexical verb too
● MOD PERF PRO LEXICAL
D. The passive auxiliary - be (PASS)
● Tensed or not ? (whether it is in the first place or not, there is a verb and subject
agreement )
● Complement : passive participle
● Position ?
● MOD PERF PROG PASS LEXICAL
=> IT SHOULD HAVE BEEN BEING DONE
E. Auxiliary DO
(p.128)
- Only used in negative and questions
- Function: carry the tense in the absence of AUX
- Does Not have any meaning (empty of meaning)
2,phrase markers of auxiliary VPs
Monsieur Blanc [is studying the menu]
Aux V dO (bổ nghĩa cho động từ) => buộc phải đi chung với V
=> sisters của auxiliary sẽ là VP (bao gồm V_ing +dO)
● Complements are sisters ò the LEXICAL V
● AUX are sisters of the VP that follows
● [AUX+ VP [lexical V + complement]
 ●

Peter {could buy [his girlfriend](iO) [a diamond ring](dO)}

AUX V VP
● Peter could have bought his girlfriend a diamond ring

Auxiliary VP and adverbials (p.123)

That hippo [could [easily [have [killed me]]]]
S MOD advP PERF V dO
[trans]
Adverbial modifies cho cái đứng gần nó nhất
Time adverbials:
- They are going to India next week now
 - (Họ hiện tại thì đang có dự định đi du lịch Ấn độ vào tuần sau)

-Max will have[[ filled the pool] by tonight

They have been complaining for the fun of it.

3. Constructions that depend on AUX

 a. PASSIVE SENTENCES (p.125)
● The boss fired (-) Max
[trans]
● Max was fired by the boss
[trans]
● Max was fired - by the boss
The missing gap has been removed to become the subject => sub-category of the lexical verb is
still a transitive verb (sub-category of verb in passive sentences doesn’t change)
● Which types of verbs can be passivized ? (we can only passivized the category of verb
that has direct object)
○ Transitive and ditransitive verbs
Ex: Max [was [fired -[ by the boss]]]
Pass V a.Adverbial
- Luôn có gap
- Gap ở sau passive verb
b. NEGATIVE SENTENCES
- Where to put NOT ? (first auxiliary in the sentence)
- If there is no auxiliary, borrow the auxiliary DO
● TENSED AUXILIARY + NOT
● AUX ‘do’ to carry the tense
 Byron didn’t dance
S -> NP
-> VP -> TENSE [past] -> did
-> not
-> VP -> V[trans] -> dance

c. Questions

Byron would dance.

Byron danced.
● FRONTING OF THE TENSED AUX
● AUX “do”
Would Byron - dance ?
=> FRONTED AUX as COMPLEMENTISER (C )
-> sister of S and daughter of S-bar (S’)

EXERCISE
NOUN PHRASES

I. Basic structures of noun phrases:

a. Non-branching NPs:
- Contain just 1 word : a Pronoun or a Name
b. Branching NPs:
- 2 ICs: Determiner (DET) and nominal (NOM)
- All modifiers of head noun fall under NOM

II. DETERMINERS (p.142)

● Function of DETs: determines the N in terms of indefiniteness and definiteness,
possession, number,...
○ ARTICLES (ART): a(n), the
○ DEMONSTRATIVES (DEM): this, that, these, those
○ QUANTIFIERS (Q): some, any, no, each, every, (n)either
 ○ POSSESSIVES (POSS): my, John’s
● EMPTY DET:
○ For plural count nouns and mass nouns (doesn’t need an article to determine
it)

● Peter’s wife
● Possessive case of NP
● POSS= NP+ ‘s
III. PRE-DETERMINERS
All the men
● PRE-DETs co-occur with and precede DETs
● All, half, both, double
● PRE-DET determines an NP
-> Sister of NP
IV. PRE-MODIFIERS (p.146)
● Modifier of head Noun within NOM
● Modifier of NOM within a higher NOM
● Every modifier must be immediately dominated by a NOM
Identify the pre-modifiers in the following NPs and then draw their phrase markers: (remember
that pre-modifiers are immediately dominated by NOM, except for Noun modifiers)

—--
● A red car
● A [new [red [Italian car]]]
● A beautiful, [tall,[ thin, [young,[ Scottish woman]]]]
● Their(DET) many (AP) (quantifying adjective modify the head noun) mistakes
● Their very [many [stupid /mistakes (head noun)]]
● The rapidly congealing gravy (V-Ing)
● A computer (N) game

1. Adjective phrase (AP)

The rapidly congealing gravy

4. Nouns
● Noun modifiers appear last and cannot be separated from head N
-> compound words, dominated by N
The computer game
V. POST - MODIFIERS (P.150)
● Post - modification of HEAD NOUN/NOM within NOM.
1.
* apart from noun modifiers, every modifier must be immediately dominated by a NOM.

EX:
a. An expedition(head N) to the pub(PP)
b. An expedition(head N) to the pub in the village (PP)
c. An expedition(head N) to the pub in the village at the foot of the mountain (PP)
d. An expedition (head N) (to the pub) [to the pub modify cho an expedition)
for more cherry brandy (bổ nghĩa cho cả cụm “An expedition to the pub”)
e. The men <-(responsible for the sauces) AP
 An expedition to the pub in the village

● Those [observations on alchemy] by Newton -> is the post-modifier

● An [interpretation] [of that sentence in Proust’s novel]
● A [book] [of quotations/ from Shakespeare].
● A [book of quotations] [from Oxford University Press]
● An agreement between workers on overtime.
có hai cách chia:
○ An agreement [between [workers on overtime]] (những người công nhân
làm thêm giờ có một thỏa thuận nào đó)
○ [An agreement [between workers]] on overtime (một sự đồng thuận giữa
những công nhân về vấn đề làm việc thêm giờ)
=> Nếu gặp ambiguity thì vẽ 2 phrase marker.

When NOM includes both pre- and post-modifier

● That [ [nuclear scientist (head-N)] from Germany.]
● The[ famous [writer of many detective stories] ]
● An [anxious [applicant for the job] ]
● The [[personal assistant] in the hat].
● His [neat [summary of the argument]]
 The unknown scientist from Germany
-> The [[unknown] [scientist from Germany]]
When either analysis is possible
-> the more PERMANENT/ INTRINSIC attribute goes with the head N

V. POST-MODIFIERS
2. Adjective Phrases (p.154)
● A few APs: present, absent, responsible, visible,...
Ex: the responsible men vs. the men responsible
[The men [responsible [for [the sauces]]]].
● AP (+ Complement) -> post-modifier
 ● Post-modifiers of indefinite pronouns (something new, somebody interesting)

Exercises:
.

● Complex sentences:
○ Sentences that contain sentences as constituents.
● Complex sentences vs. compound sentences
Ex: I washed the dishes and she cleaned the floor (compound => coordinate
structure)
Gian said she burned the fritters. (complex sen => hierarchy structure)

[I thought [Gina said [she burned the fritter].]] => complex sentence

● Main clauses vs subordinate clauses(mệnh đề phụ).

=> ABBREVIATED CLAUSAL ANALYSIS (ACA)

He reminded the men [that he was in command] at every opportunity.

The fact [that you received no greeting from Mars] doesn’t mean [that it is uninhabited].
Ex:
1. He doesn’t know (S1) [whether she will come back] (S2)
2. [The fact [that Robin got a promotion] is upsetting]
3. The question [that Robin wanted to ask] (S2) was [whether he could get a promotion]
(S3).

II. COMPLEMENTIZERS IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES (p.174)

● To introduce subordinate clauses
○ That
 ○ Whether / if
○ Subordinating conjunctions (because/ when…)
=> The C position in subordinate clause vs. in main clauses
Subordinate clause: introduced by C and dominated by S’

1. Subject and Extraposed subject

- Clausal subject (dominated by NP node)

-
Ex: That I burned the potatoes (S) / was frustrating (VP)
That i burned the potatoes was frustrating
Heavy subject
-> extraposed to the end of the sentence
-> empty subject “it” (expletive it)
It/ was frustrating/ that I burned the potatoes (S’)
(If the subject is moved to the left side => extraposed subject)
It seems that the recipe involves some dubious ingredients.

2. Complement to V (p.179)
- Clausal direct object (dominated by NP node)
- S + V + O (NP -> S’)
- [trans], [ditrans]
The critics noticed (V) [that the book had a missing chapter] (S’)
The question is (intense) [whether he should have accepted that offer] => subject predicative

3. Complement to A (within AP) )p.18

● AP = head A +S’
They were happy that they had not been chosen
She made him [aware that he had overstepped the mark]
4. Complement to N (within NOM) (p.182)
The fact that you received no greetings from Mars doesn’t mean that it is uninhabited.
 ● S’ as sister of head N, dominated by NOM.

The fact that Robin got a promotion is upsetting

It is a disappointment that his monocle was not stolen.

5. Complement of P (within PP) (p.184)

The question of whether they should set up a website was raised.
Before, after, until, since (no need for complementiser that, whether)
Ex: after she left, until this evening, before the game, since you came
-> Ps that can take a clause (S-without C) or NP as complement
IV. Adverbial clauses (p.186)
● VP-adverbials
● S-adverbials
Taxes (S) are rising (V[intrans]) because the bankers need huge bonuses. (aA)

VP (are rising ) - PROG [pres] are +VP= V [intrans] rising

Unless I’m gravely mistaken (sA), you are King Kong.
 I. Main wh-clauses (Wh-questions) (p.196)
Jack is reading some research papers in the library.
● WH-questions (constituent questions)
What is Jack reading in the library ?
● Fronting in wh-questions
What is Jack * reading * in the library ?

● Fronting of the tensed auxiliary

● Fronting of the wh-word.
● C1: tensed AUX (sister of S daughter of S’)
● C2: wh-word. (sister of S’ and daughter of S’’)

Jack is reading some research papers in the library.

What is jack * reading * in the library
What is jack * reading * in the library ?
Cần xác định đúng vị trí WH-phrase đã được đảo ngữ ở đâu để đánh gap (-) cho đúng
VD:
Where is Jack * reading some research papers * ?
Who is reading some research papers in the library ?
Who is * (Jack) * (is) reading some research papers in the library ?
Who will Julia give the pen to ?
Who will Julia * give the pen to * ? (=NP)
To whom will Julia give the pen ?
To whom will Julia * give the pen * ? (=PP)
How tall is Max ?
Max *(is) *(How tall) ?(*=AP)

—---
Phrase marker
1. Who will Julia give the pen to
 2. How tall is Max

(p.199-200)
He told me that he would buy a car (S’) (từ giới thiệu clause là complementiser : that, whether)
- Not fronted from within the clause
- Having no function within the clause
He told me what he would buy (S’’)
- Having a function
II. SUBORDINATE WH-CLAUSES (p.202)
- Subordinate wh-interrogative (mang tính chất nghi vấn) clauses (He asked me where I
went last week)
- Relative clauses
1. Functions of WH-interrogative clauses
a. It is my affair [what I wear at night]. (phải đứng với những từ khác, không đứng một
mình như câu hỏi được)
b. Martha enquired [why he wore it on his foot]
V[trans] d.O
c. The immediate problem was [where (Op)they could hide (complex) it].
s.P
d. Marcel wasn’t certain [who he sent the flowers to]
Complement of V

e. The matter of [who is going to pay] hasn’t been resolved.

Complement of P
 Martha enquired why he wore it on his foot

2. Relative clauses (p.204)

● Relative clauses are non-interrogative(không mang tính chất nghi vấn)
wh-clauses, functioning as modifiers
● The student who I met this morning
● The dog which chased me down the street
● The usher who I showed my ticket to
- Relative clauses vs. noun complement clauses
● The conclusion [that Mars was inhabited]
● The conclusion [that Gomex disputes * ]
C2
● The thought [that he should have done the washing up]
● The thought [that occurred to him]
The thought [tjat * occurred to him]
● The claim [that syntax is good for the brain]
● The claim [with which he ended his lecture * ]
● Noun - complement clause: sister of head N within NOM
- S is complete without any gap
● Relative clauses: NOT complements but modifiers
-> sister of NOM within a higher NOM
- relative pronoun as C2
- An empty C1
- A gap in S

RESTRICTIVE VS NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES:

● The dogs which are mammals need treatment.

The dogs, which are mammals, need treatment.
● Triangles which have three sides are fascinating
Triangles, which have three sides, are fascinating.
-> How they relate to the head noun
● Restrictive RCs specify more exactly the things picked out by the head
noun.
● Non-restrictive RCs add extra information, without restricting the things
being mentioned.
● Restrictive RC: RC is sister of NOM within a higher NOM
● NON-restrictive RC: RC is modifier of the complete NP
-> sister of NP within a higher NP
Trường hợp 1 Trường hợp 2
● Trường hợp 1: restrictive - clause (giới hạn cụ thể nội dung)
● Trường hợp 2: non restrictive clause (không giới hạn cụ thể nội dung, có thể bị bỏ đi)