Introduction to measurements and control conceptsInstrumentation refers to a group of devices that work together to control one or more variables. Although instruments serve different functions, and are installed in different locations, several process instruments will be connected to control one or more process variables. Over the years, instruments and controls in gas plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, and chemical plants have greatly improved. Today's instrumentation and controls are capable of extremely precise measurement and control. In addition, the systems can prevent equipment overloads and detect equipment problems. They can also perform complex mathematical calculations to ensure the units are operating efficiently.Introduction to measurements and control concepts Process Control Process as used in the terms process control and process industry, refers to the methods of changing or refining raw materials to create end products. This is the physical system we wish to monitor and control. Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process variables when manufacturing a product. Manufacturers control the production process for three reasons: > Reduce Variability. > Increase Efficiency. > Ensure Safety.Intraduction to measurements and control concepts The Control Loop Acontrol loop is a group of instruments that work together to keep a process variable at its desired value, referred to as set point. There are four components in a control loop: Process variable Sensing/measuring device. Controller. Final control device. Regardless of the process, measuring and control jobs are very similar. But, the instruments used to perform measuring and control will vary from one process to another.Intraduction to measurements and control concepts Control Loops and Controller Action Acontrol system is a mechanical or electronic system that is used to obtain and maintain the specific result. Process control can simply be defined as the automated control of a process or the manipulation of a set of conditions to bring about a desired change in the output of the process. A process can further be defined as a series of operations in the making, handling or treatment of a product. From these definitions it can be said that process control is the manipulation of conditions to produce a specific result.Intraduction to measurements and control concepts Control Loop Definition A controlled variable is sometimes referred to as the process variable. It is ‘the element that is to be controlled, for example, pressure, temperature, level, flow, chemical composition, etc. Sere) Peels etic) A measured variable is a measurement signal of the controlled variable. Reger ‘The setpoint is the desired walue of a process. It is the value of the controlled pres dhid a ie variable that the process is required to operate at. An Error is the difference between the measured variable and the set point E s a sbhal and can be either positive or negative. Offset ‘The Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the set point. CU LLCt A manipulated variable is the actual variable changed by the final control Rr element to obtain the desired effect on the controlled variable. Disturbances (upsets) are any changes that can occur to the process to cause Purr sy ‘the controlled variable to change from the setpoint.Contra! loop Components Process variable A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas) that can change the manufacturing process in some way. Common process variables include: Basic Process Measurement > Pressure > Flow * Level * Temperature Advanced Process Measurement > Density > Ph (acidity or alkalinity) > Mass > ConductivityControl loop Components Sensing/measuring device. Primary elements are devices that cause some change in their property with changes in process fluid conditions that can then be measured. Pressure Sensing Pete es Arment ca ie foes beet Peeled UtEet)) tutes ss Rani told earl reat aL eR sy Diener fer gr Oren UUs Sse cee ied eu eS BierControl loop Components Controller Controllers also commonly reside in a digital control system such as. Distributed Control Systems (DCS) DCSs are controllers that, in addition to performing control functions, provide readings of the status of the process, maintain databases and advanced man- machine-interface. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) PLCs are usually computers connected to a set of input/output (1/0) devices. The computers are programmed to respond to inputs by sending outputs to maintain all processes at set point. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) SCADA systems are generally used to control dispersed assets using centralized data acquisition and supervisory control.Final control device Final control element is the part of the contral system that acts to physically change the manipulated variable. The final control element may be Control valve Electrical motors Pumps Damperscontrol Loop Classifications Closed and Open control loops Closed Loop Aclosed control loop exists where a process variable is measured, compared to a set point, and action is taken to correct any deviation from set point.eure) ese eet fen Closed and Open control loops Open Loop An open control loop exists where the process variable is not compared, and action is taken not in response to feedback on the condition of the process variable, but is instead taken without regard to process variable conditions. Open-Loop control diagramural eso ee eet fen Automatic and Manual control Automatic Control This term came into wide use when people learned to adapt automatic regulatory procedures to manufacture products or process material more efficiently. Such procedures are called automatic because no human (manual) intervention is required to regulate them.Manual Control Loop Without automatic controllers, all regulation tasks will have to be done manually. For example: To keep constant the temperature of water discharged from an industrial gas-fired heater, an operator has to watch a temperature gauge and adjust a gas control valve accordingly. If the water temperature becomes too high, the operator has to close the gas control valve a bit - just enough to bring the temperature back to the desired value. If the water becomes too cold, he has to open the valve again. - Operator ,* f Ep tend vate | | |) Processiret Maen eate eu iey cas P&ID Symbols P&IDs provide information about all equipment, all the instruments used to monitor or control the process, and all their associated lines or pipelines. There are standard symbols and designations for P&IDs. They may use the International Society of Automation {ISA) standards, or your facility may use their own standards. All drawings must be done the same way, using the same symbols and designations for: Equipment. Instruments designations and symbols. Pipeline designations. Valve and miscellaneous symbols.Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams Instrument Designations There are several different instrument designations for process variable control or monitoring. This table shows some of the most common ones. pen Flow Flow atarn lu) Flow alarm high Flow controller Flow indicating cantelies Flow indicating traramiver Flow recording conieller Flow switeh Pressure alarm low Pressure alarm high Pressure controller Pressure indicating controler Pressure indicating transmitter Pressure recording controller Pressure switch Level alarm fow evel alarm high Level controller Level indicating controller Level indleating tanamiter Level tecording controller Level switeh Temperature alarm fow Temperature alarm high Temperature controller Temperature indicating controller Temperature indicating tansmiter Temperature recording contrller Temperature switcheee ene ee fet Discrete Instruments Shared Display, Shared Comrol Computer Function Peipanieable io 8 ConalCoser ete ease insate ee Process Variable Symbols ‘e + i Lgeand Instrumentation Diagrams Process Variable Symbolsenh neater cisreu PE) Ts Instrument Line Symbols Bad ee) Instrument Supply or ‘Connection to Process Undefined signal Pneumatic Signal Electrical Signal Hydraulic Signal Capillary Tube Electromagnetic or Sonie ‘Signal (Guided) Electromagnetic or Sonic Signal (Not Guided) Internal System Link (Software ‘or Data Link) Mechanical LinkePiping and Instrumentation Diagrams Valve Symbols There are several types of valves used in a process and several ways they may be actuated. Examples of valve types include: het ere Gemasmes taneyPiping and Instrumentation Diagrams ExampleProcess Measurement BasicsNeeru cutis ry Range and Span Range is the upper and lower limits of a measurement or signal and is expressed in the units of the measurement or signal. For example a pressure transmitter is calibrated to measure from 100 bar to 1,000 bar, therefore its range is 100 to 1,000 bar. Lower Range Limit is the lower limit of a measurement or signal and is expressed in the units of the measurement or signal. For example a pressure transmitter is calibrated to measure from 100 bar to 1,000 bar, therefore its lower range limit is 100 bar. Upper Range Limit is the upper limit of a measurement or signal and is expressed in the units of the measurement or signal. For example a pressure transmitter is calibrated to measure from 100 bar to 1,000 bar, therefore its upper range limit is 1,000 bar. Span is the mathematical difference between the upper and lower range limits of an instrument. In our example, for a range of 100 to 1,000 bar the span is 1,000 minus 100 or 900 bar.Measurement Terminology Accuracy and Repeatability Accuracy is the degree of closeness of the measured value to the actual value. It is usually expressed as a plus or minus percent of span. A typical example would be 500. bar plus or minus 0.5%. Repeatability is the degree to which repeated measurements under the exact same conditions produce the same results. It is expressed as a plus or minus percent of span.Poor repeatability means poor accuracy Low precision, low accuracy Good repeatability does not necessary means good accuracy High precision, low accuracy #))) iq Good accuracy requires good repeatability High precision, high accuracyMeasurement Terminology Linearity Linearity is the degree to which a measurement follows a straight line relationship between input and output and is expressed as a plus or minus percent of span. Linear and square root calibration table: TRANSMITTER MEASURED READING VALUE moe uunear ] 52048 | at He) ‘SCALE | Scare Po 50% 100%Measurement Terminology Hysteresis Hysteresis is an error due to the elastic property of a material. If a material is either stretched or compressed by a force and does not return to its original position when the force is removed, the difference is the amount of hysteresis. It is expressed asa plus or minus percent of span.Mere eu aiuto ys Other Terminology Resolution is the smallest change of the measured value that will result in a change in output of a device. Error is the difference between the measured value and the true or actual value. The cause of an error in measurement could be due to accuracy, repeatability, linearity, hysteresis or a combination thereof. Measured or Process Value is the physical property that is being measured such as pressure, temperature, level or flow. Actual Value is the true actual value of the physical property regardless of the value being generated by the instrumentation,WRU a acer Ta cd Common Measuring Instruments Gauge or indicator is a device which directly measures and displays or indicates the value of the process variable. Pressure gauges and thermometers are examples. Regulator is a device which maintains the process variable at a set value. Regulators can have an adjustable range. ‘Transducer is a device which converts one signal to another signal. Examples of a transducer are: Current to pneumatic (1/P). Volume booster. Switch is a device which operates in an on/off manner to the process variable. When the process variable reaches the switch point, an electrical or pneumatic switch is activated. The switch or set point is adjustable. Transmitter is. a device that measures the process variable and converts that measurement into a signal that can be easily and safely transmitted to a control room and/or other devices.ei clrumeunitely9 Calibration An Instrument Signal is the signal in an instrument loop that is proportional to the range of the process variable. Common instrument signals include: Pneumatic: 3-15 psi. Electronic: 4 to 20 mA and 1 to 5 Volt. ‘The formula for calculating the instrument signal of a transmitter is: Output = (MARLO WARE) gmat span + (gna lowe lit) meacurement span where: the measurement walue is the value above the lower range limitEsicleeumCuntinte ly Examples Example 1. For a measurement range of 0 to 600 bar, calculate the pneumatic output signal for a measurement value of 260 bar, Example 2 For a measurement range of 1002 C to 400° C milliamp output signal and a measurement value of 220° Cc ove (Sata tin utpat = (eet Cael Te) Differential Pressure Transmitter Capable of measuring differential pressure (that is, the difference between a high pressure input and a low pressure input) and therefore called DP transmitters or DP cells. The DP transmitter consists of: Body containing display, electronic module & power module. Manifold with isolation, bypass & vent valves. The transducer (OP cell) inserted in a pressure capsule. A pressure capsule has to be used to obtain maximum sensitivity. A pressure capsule has a sensitivity range that closely matches the anticipated pressure of the measured fluid,Prac uarse a Three Valve Manifold A three-valve manifold is a device that is used to ensure that the capsule will not be over-ranged during bringing the transmitter in/out of the service. Allows isalation of the transmitter from the process loop.When installing any pressure measuring device, consider Excessive (high or low) process pressure or temperature — select the proper materials of the parts exposed to the process for safe operation. Corrosive process fluids - select the proper materials of the parts exposed to the process for safe operation or use seals on the input lines. Instrument range - the primary element must be chosen to match the desired range, however, the range shouldn't be selected to be tao large as this will lead to less accuracy. Select overpressure stops and/or blow out (rupture) disc to prevent damage to the instrument or unsafe conditions to personnel. High vibration installations — install the instrument away from high vibration equipment. High process pressure fluctuations — install pulsation dampers (snubbers) on the instrument input lines. Steam installations — install pigtail seals (siphons) on the instrument input lines to prevent steam from being present in the instrument, Corrosive or extreme temperature e! . heat tracing or cooling where required. nment — install the instrument in an enclosure and useFlow Measurementbe eRe uC Commonly Used Flow Devices Differential Pressure (Head) Type Orifice Plate Venturi Tube Flow Nozzles Elbow Pitot Tube, Averaging Pitot Tube (Annubar) Wedge Meter V-Cone Velocity Type Magnetic Ultrasonic - Transit Time, Doppler Turbine Vortex Coriolis Thermal Variable Area meter RotameterTa etal eee Lena URC ole Differential Pressure (Head) Type Differential pressure flow measurement is the most common method used in industry, However, before the device used to measure flow by the differential pressure method can be studied, a good understanding of flow theory is required. The equation of continuity states that: “The volume rate of flow (Q) passing any given point in a pipe is equal to the cross-sectional area of the pipe (A) times the velocity {v) at that point.”Differential Pressure Flow Measurement Bernoulli's theorem A fluid flowing in a pipe is governed by Bernoulli's thearem which states: “The sum of the pressure head, velocity head and elevation head at one point is equal to their sum at another point." Tt “ager Speed” t ie Prana Higher Pressure Lower Speed Lower Speed Energy Per Unit Volume Before = Energy Per Unt Volume Afler 1 1 Pree er ghh=Pet or Ve +E ghe iret) (Bow Pease | Eeay | EN Cay || PUM | Parine vam NounsDean erent a a eee Tals Fluid Flow Accurate flow measurement using the pressure differential principle involves many other factors. When fluids are flowing through a pipe at different velocities, they exhibit different flow patterns. At low velocities, the fluid appears to “tumble” as it flows past a point. This is called turbulent flow. At higher velocities, the fluid flows in parallel layers, with the outer layers (that are in contact with the pipe) moving slightly slower due to friction. This is called laminar flow. Figuie 5. Turbulent and Laminar Flow protiespita cie-tal ages Lem (el Tela Reynold's Number Reynold's Number The Reynold’s number (R,) is a measurement of turbulent and laminar flow. It isa dimensionless number that reflects the flow profiles and is a factor of the fluid’s: Density (p). Flow velocity (v ). Pipe diameter (D). Fluid viscosity (11). Reynold’s number is calculated by the formula: R,= (pvD/\))Differential Pressure Flow Measurement Differential Pressure Flow Measurement Principle If a restriction is introduced into a pipe and according to Bernoulli's Theorem, there will be a differential pressure across the restriction. As in control valves, the pressure recovers after passing through the restriction, but never back to 100%. There will be a small permanent pressure loss, one of the disadvantages of differential pressure flow meters. Point of maximum velocity | 2n4 minimum prosesre Vena Contractaetal eee Lea URC ole Flow Equation Pressure Flow Controller Transmitter DP volumetric t Control flow Valve =—S pe a Primary Element Qv= K DP = V¥Ay— —Tia eal eee lena ULC ule Orifice Plate By far the most common device used as a restrictor to create the differential pressure used in flow measurement is the orifice plate. In its most simple form, the orifice plate is nothing more than a steel plate with a hole drilled in it and placed in the pipe. However basic the concept is, developing an orifice plate to produce the greatest accuracy with the least pressure drop is a science which has developed several design types. Accuracy is dependent on the orifice plate design, tap location and the piping. Advantages: Low cost. Easy maintenance. Small size, compact. Can be field fabricated. Disadvantages: Poor accuracy (0.5 — 2%). Requires a transmitter. ‘Square root (not linear output). High pressure loss. Requires specific upstream and downstream distances from disturbances (bends or valves),Ta etal eee ea hele Orifice Plate Construction Orifice plates are generally constructed from stainless steel with the hole being machined to close tolerances. They usually have a paddle or handle attached on which is stamped critical information such as material, thickness, orifice diameter, tag number and which side faces upstream (if not marked, the text always faces upstream). Orifice plates without the paddle are called universal plates.Piacoa leona (on UCee Cute Orifice typesTa etal eee lea URC ole Venturi Tube The Venturi tube is an elongated pipe that is shaped like the vena contracta flow pattern. The design has an inlet cone and an outlet cone. The inlet cone angle is 19-232 and the outlet cone angle is 5-15%, The pressure taps are located upstream (% -%4D) of the inlet cone and downstream at the throat. There are many advantages to the Venturi tube: More accurate than the orifice plate; 0.5 — 3%. Lower pressure drop. Higher flow rate than the orifice plate. Can handle slurries and solids. Less straight pipe run upstream. The disadvantages of the Venturi tube is the higher cost and the fact that it is difficult to maintain or replace.Ta etal eee URC ole Flow Nozzle The flow nozzle is a cone shaped insert into the pipe whose properties, advantages and disadvantages fall in between those of the orifice plate and venturi tube. A typical application is high flow rates of superheated steam. The nozzle itself can have vi— 1 many different shapes as determined by the manufacturer.ya etal eee Lena Reo Pitot Tube Pitot Tube The pitot tube is a bent hollow tube with the point facing upstream ina pipe. The differential pressure is the static (line) pressure of the pipe and the impact pressure in the tube (caused by the velocity of the flowing fluid). It is usually inserted into the center of the pipe Its characteristics are similar to the orifice plate but with a lesser pressure loss. Due to its installation, it only measures the flow at one point and which is an average of the flow rate. Its most common uses are for measuring air or gas flows in pipes but can also be used to measure velocity (in airplanes).Ta etal eee lena URC ole Standard Installations Liquid Service For liquid service always mount the D/P cell below the orifice plate to ensure the sensing (impulse) lines are always filled with liquid and not entrapped gas bubbles. ‘vorveat Process Pipe ia Lonra etal eee Lena he ole Standard Installations Gas Service For gas service always mount the D/P cell above the orifice plate to ensure the sensing (impulse) lines are always filled with the gas and not condensed liquids or entrained solids. oor Pcen Ppt cal Pra PiTa etl eee URC ole Standard Installations Steam Service For steam service always mount the D/P cell below the orifice plate to ensure the sensing (impulse) lines are always filled with water. To ensure this condensate pots can be installed at the orifice.Velocity based flow meters operate on the principle of measuring the velocity of the fluid that is flowing. The equation of continuity states that: “The volume rate of flow (Q) passing any given point in a pipe is equal to the cross-sectional area of the pipe (A) times the velocity (v) at that point.” Stated mathematically: Q=Av. Since the area is constant, flow (Q) is proportional to velocity (v). The signals that the different types of velocity meters produce vary, but all are electronically modified by a meter constant (particular to the individual meter) to produce a volumetric flow rate. There are four main types of velocity meters: Turbine Meter Vortex Shedder Meter Ultrasonic Meter Magnetic Flow MeterVelocity Flow Meters Turbine Meters The turbine meter is comprised of a multi-blade rotor assembly, resembling a propeller, mounted in the pipe. The fluid flowing past the blades of the turbine meter causes it to turn at a velocity proportional to the flow rate. Used for liquids and gases, but low viscosity liquid service is more common. Bearing wear is a common problem with turbine meters. The rotor is suspended by and rotates on precise bearings offering little resistance. The rotor blade diameter is just slightly smaller than the internal diameter of the pipe. Turbine rotation is detected by solid state devices, most commonly reluctance or inductance types. The rotor is suspended in the pipe by upstream and downstream supports that not only act as supports but also offer some flow conditioning, much like straightening vanes.Velocity Flow Meters Vortex Shedding Meters The vortex meter is based on the principle that when a flowing fluid strikes a non- streamlined object, the flow is separated as it flows around the object. The flow cannot follow the contour of the object on the downstream side and it separates itself from the object in the form of eddy currents or vortices. When this occurs, the separation causes an alternating high velocity/low flow cycle to happen.Velocity Flow Meters Ultrasonic Meters Ultrasonic meters measure difference in upstream vs. downstream transit time of a sonic signal across the path of a flowing fluid. They have no moving parts and a very high rangeability. Ultrasonic meters can be divided into two distinct types: Transit time and Doppler. The transit time ultrasonic flow meter is based on the principle of measuring the time it takes for an ultrasonic wave to move from the transmitter to the receiver.Velocity Flow Meters Doppler ultrasonic flow meter The Doppler ultrasonic flow meter uses reflected ultrasonic waves to measure the fluid velocity. The frequency of the ultrasonic waves will be reflected back from particles in the flowing fluid, however it will experience a phase shift which is proportional to the velocity of the fluid.eters Commonly referred to as the magflo or mag meter, it is based on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction which states: “A voltage will be induced when a conductor moves through a magnetic field.” The meter consists of an electromagnetic coil attached to the outside of the pipe. Two electrodes protrude through the pipe and are in contact with the fluid. The fluid, which must be conductive {or have conductive particles in it) acts as the conductor. When the coil is energized and the fluid flows through the pipe, a small voltage is generated. The amount of voltage is dependent on the speed to the fluid passing through the coil (fluid velocity) and is proportional to the flow rate.Neraae eect Mass Flow Measurement Mass flow measurement is the volumetric flow tate multiplied by the constant density of the fluid. If the density varies slightly, which occurs in most processes, then the mass measurement accuracy is affected. Also, if pressure and temperature vary, then the density varies, which once again will produce an inaccurate reading. Mass flow measurement can be accomplished by using a flow computer which receives temperature, pressure, density and volumetric flow readings from various devices and computes the mass flow. The calculation of the mass flow is dependent on the accuracy of the devices. If any of the devices is out of calibration the accuracy of the final mass flow is affected. Another means of determining mass flow is the use of mass flow meters that measure the mass directly, This method is independent of changes in temperature, pressure, density, and volumetric flow readings.WES ate Cua Coriolis Meter The most common type of mass flow meter is the coriolis meter. It operates on the principle of motion mechanics. As it moves through the tube, the fluid is forced to take on the vertical movement of the tube, in one direction on the inlet side and in the opposite direction on the outlet side causing a “twisting” (Coriolis effect) of the tube. This occurs for half the cycle of the vibration. On the other half cycle, the occurs with the twisting motion in the direction. Detectors on either side of the tube detect this small motion caused by the twisting action. The amount of twist is directly proportional to the mass flow through the tube. The frequency of the vibration is directly proportional to the density of the fluid. A phase shift is generated between the vibration of tne two tubes, This amplifies the movement to beCoriolis Many manufacturers produce coriolis mass flow meters. Most use a proprietary design. Some of the meters have single, double, or even triple tubes in straight, curved, or bent tube configurations.WEES Lee UCL Thermal Mass Meter Another type of mass flow meter is the thermal mass meter. It is based on the theory that if a heated electrode is placed in contact with the fluid (either directly or indirectly), the amount of heat conducted away from the electrode is proportional to the mass flow. In practice, the electrode is heated to a constant temperature with no flow. When flow occurs the fluid conducts away some of the heat. The temperature loss is proportional to the mass flow. The thermal mass meter is almost used exclusively on gases. Typical designs include in-line, insertion or capillary typeWEES Lec MCA Attributes Attributes Mass flow meters attributes include: ‘Small. Handles low flows. High accuracy (0.5%). Average pressure drop. Generally low maintenance. Produce a mass flow without having to use any other sensors (density, pressure, temperature). Relatively expensive. Equipped with their own signal conditioner, most being of the smart type. arLevel MeasurementNa CM alg Types of level measurement Contact type instrument Sight-type Instruments Float-type Instruments Hydrostatic Pressure-type Displacer-type Instrument Electrical-type Instruments Non-contact type instruments Sonic-type Instruments Radiation-type InstrumentsCad Sight glass The level gauge, or sightglass is to liquid level measurement as manometers are to pressure measurement: a very simple and effective technology for direct visual indication of process level. Types of Sight glasses Reflex-type Transparent type Magnetic type Tubular typeagnetic type Magnetic type Sight gauges have a float inside a nonmagnetic chamber. The float contains a magnet, which rotates wafers over as the surface level increases or decreases. The rotating wafers present the opposite face, which has a different colour. It is more suitable for severe operating conditions where liquids are under high pressure or contaminated. ours Macher Row Hr vou0 wouNa CM alg Interface level gauges If a lighter (less dense) liquid exists above a heavier (denser} liquid in the process vessel, the level gauge may not show the proper interface The only way to ensure proper two-part liquid interface level indication in a sightglass is to keep both ports (nozzles) submerged eNa CoM aa alg Float type instruments Floats give a direct readout of liquid level when they are connected to an indicating instrument through a mechanical linkage. A simple example of this is the weighted tape tank gauge. The position of the weighted anchor against a gauge board gives an indication of the liquid level in the tank. The scale of the gauge board is in reverse order, i.e. the zero level indication is at the top and the maximum level indication is at the bottom of the gauge board.Nettle Different types of level measurementsHydrostatic Head Level Measurement Introduction to Hydrostatic Head Level Measurement Hydrostatic head level measurement is based on the principle that the pressure at the bottom of a column of liquid is directly related to the height of the liquid (h, in inches or millimeters) and the relative density (RD) of that liquid. If the pressure exerted by the head or height of liquid is measured then the level can be determined. Hydrostatic head is an indirect method of level measurement as the level is inferred by the pressure that is measured. The relationship between the height of liquid or level and pressure can be defined by the formula: P=SG,xp, XAGeiencitas enter Meeecis Measuring Liquids Using Hydrostatic Head Measuring Liquids Using Hydrostatic HeadThere are two methods for measuring liquids using hydrostatic head, open tank and closed tank. In both cases, the most common instrument used to measure the pressure is the differential pressure cell or transmitter (D/P cell). A D/P cell is used instead of a simple pressure transmitter or pressure gauge to eliminate any error due to changes in atmospheric pressure. Any changes in atmospheric pressure will be applied to both sides of the D/P cell and will cancel each other.Gieleaeite sect tereeeic rats Open Tank Measurement Example 1 An open tank containing sea water of relative density 1.05 exerts a pressure of 0.3 bar on the high side of the D/P cell, what is the height of the liquid? We know P=RDp x hr We can derive the equation for h and substitute in the known values: h=PARD,) h=(0.3 bary/1.05 h=(0.3 bar x 10197 mm/bar)/1.05 h=2913 mm or 2.913 mHydrostatic Head Level Measurement Elevation and Suppression Adjustments Elevation and Suppression AdjustmentsThe calculations in the examples are only valid if the differential pressure transmitter (D/P cell) is mounted at the datum point. In practice, the D/P cell is quite often either mounted above or below the datum point, in which case the following adjustments must be made: Suppression — is the adjustment made when the D/P cell (or any measuring device) is mounted below the datum line. Zero. suppressionindicates you need to lower the nominal zero point. Elevation —is the adjustment made when the D/P cell is mounted above the datum line. Zero. elevation indicates you need to raise the nominal zero paint.Hydrostatic Head Level Measurement Closed Tank Measurement Closed Tank Measurement Most level applications in industry involve closed tanks under some pressure. The differential pressure transmitter (D/P cell) is also used for closed tank applications. Note: P, = Pa.) the pressure inside the tank. In order to accurately measure the head pressure of the liquid alone, closed tank applications must compensate for the static pressure of the vapor above the liquid. Both pressure input taps for the transmitter are connected to the tank. As in open tank measurement, the high pressure (P,,) side of the transmitter is connected to the base, or 0% datum of the tank. The low pressure (P,) side of the transmitter is connected to the top of the tank through a pipe referred to as a "reference leg." The reference leg must be either completely dry (empty) or completely filled with liquid.Gieleacitas enter eeeg eats Dry Leg Closed Tank Measurement A “dry leg” on the low side refers to the low side piping being completely void of liquids. This application only works with non-condensing liquids in the tank. If used with condensing liquids, some liquid could build up on the low or dry side and would then create an error since this height of liquid would induce an uncompensated pressure on the low side. The equation for calculating the pressure exerted by the liquid in a closed tank with a dry leg is: P= RD, xh but? =P,- P,and P, =P +P, and P, =P,Gieleacita seen eerie’ Wet Leg Closed Tank Measurement Wet Leg Closed Tank Measurementif condensing liquids or steam are to be measured, then the installation must contain a “wet leg" on the low side. It is called a wet leg since the low side piping is always completely filled with the condensate liquid of the tank or some other inert liquid such as glycol. In this manner, a constant pressure is generated on the low side and can be accounted for when calibrating the instrument. To calculate the differential pressure (P,,— P,) at the D/P cell, two calculations are required; one for the pressure resulting from the process liquid in the tank minus that of the pressure resulting from the liquid in the wet leg.