KISII UNIVERSITY

LECTURE NOTES
Course Code : COMP 101
Introduction to Computer Applications

Prepared by
Charles Nyatangi Misati

Tel : 0725619814
 KISII UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF INFORMATION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Course Outline
Subject Code: COMP 101
Subject Name: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATION
Course Instructor/Lecturer: Charles Nyatangi Misati
Contact: 0722 849 625 ([email protected])

Objective:
The course is designed to aim at imparting a basic level appreciation programme for the common person. After
completing the course, the incumbent is able to the use the computer for basic purposes of preparing his
personnel/business letters, viewing information on Internet (the web), sending mails, using internet-banking services
etc. This allows a common man or housewife to be also a part of computer users list by making them digitally
literate. This would also aid the PC penetration program. This helps the small business communities, homemakers to
maintain their small account using the computers and enjoy in the world of Information Technology.

Syllabus outline:
1. Introduction to Information Technology Communication: Concepts of information communication
technology, Data and Information, Information systems, Components of Information Systems and Basic
components of IT.
2. Knowing computer: What is Computer, Basic Applications of Computer; Components of Computer System,
Central Processing Unit (CPU), VDU, Keyboard and Mouse, Other input/output Devices, Computer
Memory, Concepts of Hardware and Software; Concept of Computing, Data and Information; Applications
of IECT; Connecting keyboard, mouse, monitor and printer to CPU and checking power supply. Data
presentation.
3. Operating Computer using GUI Based Operating System: What is an Operating System; Basics of Popular
Operating Systems; The User Interface, Using Mouse; Using right Button of the Mouse and Moving Icons on
the screen, Use of Common Icons, Status Bar, Using Menu and Menu-selection, Running an Application,
Viewing of File, Folders and Directories, Creating and Renaming of files and folders, Opening and closing of
different Windows; Using help; Creating Short cuts, Basics of O.S Setup; Common utilities.
4. Understanding Word Processing: Word Processing Basics; Opening and Closing of documents; Text creation
and Manipulation; Formatting of text; Table handling; Spell check, language setting and thesaurus; Printing
of word document.
5. Using Spread Sheet: Basics of Spreadsheet; Manipulation of cells; Formulas and Functions; Editing of
Spread Sheet, printing of Spread Sheet.
6. Introduction to Internet, WWW and Web Browsers: Basic of Computer networks; LAN, WAN; Concept of
Internet; Applications of Internet; connecting to internet; What is ISP; Knowing the Internet; Basics of
internet connectivity related troubleshooting, World Wide Web; Web Browsing softwares, Search Engines;
Understanding URL; Domain name; IP Address; Using e-governance website
7. Communications and collaboration: Basics of electronic mail; Getting an email account; Sending and
receiving emails; Accessing sent emails; Using Emails; Document collaboration; Instant Messaging;
Netiquettes.
8. Making Small Presentation: Basics of presentation software; Creating Presentation; Preparation and
Presentation of Slides; Slide Show; Taking printouts of presentation / handouts.
COURSE OUTLINE
WEEK TOPIC SUB-TOPIC/S

1. Introduction to Information  Concepts of information communication technology

Technology  Data and Information.
Communication  Information systems
 Components of Information Systems
 Basic components of IT
2. Introduction to Computers  Basic Applications of Computer
 Components of Computer System
 Hardware
 Software
o Application Software
o Systems software
 Concept of computing, data and information
 Applications of computer
 Data presentations

3. Operating computer using  Basics of Operating System

GUI based operating system  The User Interface
 Operating System Simple Setting
 File and Directory Management
 Common utilities
4. Word processing  Word Processing Basics
 Opening and closing Documents
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  Text Creation and manipulation
 Formatting the Text
 Table Manipulation
5. Spread sheet  Introduction
 Elements of Electronic Spread Sheet
 Manipulation of Cells
 Formulas and Function
6. Introduction to internet,  Introduction
WWW and web browsers  Basic of Computer Networks
 Internet
 World Wide Web (WWW)
 Web Browsing Software’s
 Search Engines
 Understanding UR
 Surfing the web
7. Communications and  Introduction
collaboration  Basics of E-mail
 Using E-mails
 Document collaboration
 Instant Messaging and Collaboration
8. Making small presentations  Introduction
 Creation of Presentation
 Preparation of Slides
 Presentation of Slides
 Slide Show

NOTE:
1. In all four questions are to be set; at least one from each unit. At least 1/3 more sections are to be set for
choice within each unit.
2. Laboratory should be an integral part of the course.
Text Books:
1. Sanders, D.H., "Computer Today ", Mc-Graw Hill, 1988.
2. Suresh K. Basandra, “Computers Today”, Galgotia Publications Pvt. Ltd.
3. Microsoft Web Publishing Step by Step, Active Education.
4. Bokhari & Ahmad “UNIX Operating System”, Dhanpat Rai & Co.
Reference Books:
1. Raja Raman V., "Fundamental of Computers" (4th edition.), Prentice Hall of India, New
2. Delhi.
3. Trainer T., et al, "Computers”, McGraw Hill.
4. Norton, Peter, “Introduction to Computers, Mc-Graw-Hill.
5. B. Ram, “Computer Fundamentals”, New Age International Pvt. Ltd.
6. S.Jaiswal, “Fundamental of Computer & IT”, Wiley dreamtech India.

Information Communication Technology

Introduction

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Information is the facts and observations which outcome when data (they are the facts and observations under the
physical phenomena) are processed and directly support decision making, control of activities and future plans of an
organization.
Communication is the Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange
(encode-decode) information, news, ideas and feelings but also create and share meaning. In general, communication
is a means of connecting people or places. In business, it is a key function of management--an organization cannot
operate without communication between levels, departments and employees. See also communications.
Technology is a body of knowledge devoted to creating tools, processing actions and extracting of materials. The
term ‘Technology” is wide and everyone has their own way of understanding the meaning of technology. We use
technology to accomplish various tasks in our daily lives, in brief; we can describe technology as products, processes
or organizations. We use technology to extend our abilities, and that makes people as the most important part of any
technological system.
Information Communication Technology (ICT)
a) It is the acquisition, processing, storage and distribution of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information
by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunication. Information technology is
the collection, storage, processing, distribution and use of information.
b) It refers to all the technology used to handle telecommunications, broadcast media, intelligent building
management systems, audiovisual processing and transmission systems, and network-based control and
monitoring functions.

Functions of information technology

1. It enhances our ability to communicate information
2. To organize in-house information and make it available for retrieval
3. To access external database which contain published or semi- published information.

Components of information technology

1. Computer technology- the wide spread use of computer technology has made dramatic development in the
information transmission processes and in every field of human endeavor during the past few years. The
current development in computer technology included mini computers, micro computers, speaking computers
and different types of software developments.
2. Communication technology- a communication system in its simplest form consists of a transmitter, a
channel and a receiver. The channel is saddled with noise that special considerations like amplification of
signal and filtering of noise are required. The original signal to be transmitted is rarely in the form required
for transmission.
3. CD-ROM technology- the combination of computers and lasers has led to a compaction of information into
small lines. This has optical computing holography, neural networking, optical connection, laser printers,
laser scanner and optical storage. CD-ROM is acronym that stands for compact disc read only memory. Data
is recorded in digital form using laser beam. User can only read the disc, but cannot write on it nor can erase
anything written on it.
4. Reprography, micrographic and printing technology- the technology of reprography makes a big impact
on the document delivery systems. Most the research has reprographic and provide photocopies of any
document on demand. By using micrographic and reprographic techniques, we can have condensed the bulky
archives and newspapers and solve the storage problem. They also serve the purpose of preservation and help
in resource sharing and save the time of users.

Impact of information technology

1. Increased computer power leading to faster and cheaper computer processing which facilitated automation of
low budget.
2. Improved telecommunication with greatly increased capacity for data transmission, which facilitated the
introduction of new services such as electronic mail, fax, teleconferencing, etc
3. Cheaper data storage, such as optical storage media that increased the storage capacity.
4. Digitization of information text, graphics, photographic speech, sound etc. that provides quick transmission
of any type of data.
5. Better data transfer between different system and media such as coaxial cables, optical fiber cables; satellite
communication etc has promoted the resources sharing.
6. Increased reliability of hardware and software, which has increased the performance efficiency.
7. User friendly systems that are developed to enhance the interface between technology and the users.

How IT has transformed organizations

1. Unemployment- one of the objectives of the introduction of new information technology is to perform
various production and clerical tasks more efficiently and to minimize the time that professionals and
management spend in gathering information and decision making.
2. Data protection- data protection and associated legislation is concerned with the privacy of the individual
the advert of computer databases and their ability to hold personal data transmit it to other databases and
allow various people and organizations direct access to it, has considered potential for misuse and the
infringement of individual privacy.
3. Tran’s border data flows- Trans border is generally considered to be the electronic flow of information
across national boundaries. The information that flows may include various kinds of database with business
banking and personal data being some of those sensitive categories.

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 4. Copyright- the objective legislation is to protect the work of the author on creator of a piece of work form
indiscriminate copying, so that the creator is able to benefit sufficiently to make continuing creativity work
while.
5. Archiving and bibliographical control- The creation of an active is the process whereby a permanent
record is kept of text and data for reference o historical purposes. They should also attempt to maintain
bibliographic records of documents containing this knowledge

Challenges
1. Switch over to new technology- the introduction of new technologies has created the problem that how
traditional forms could be integrated with the electronic resources.
2. Lack of skilled manpower- it is seeming that the workers do not take much interest in gasping new
technologies.
3. Financial constraints- the introduction of modern technology and their associated system are out of pocket
and out of the reach of the users due to its high changes. Further to develop infrastructure facilities and to
access the electronic sources through communication a network much costs is needed.
4. Assessment of electronic publications- the electronic publications are available in various forms and format.
The concept of evaluation in order to assess the relevance of information available in electronic format in
another problem.
5. Training of professionals and end users- extra staff and funds are needed to train the present staff and users to
get acquainted themselves with the modern technologies.

Information systems
1. An information system is an arrangement of a number of elements that provides effective information for
decision-making and / or control of some functionalities of an organization.
2. An information system is a set of interrelated components that collect, manipulate, process and transform
data into information and provide feedback to meet a specified objective.
3. An information system can be defined as a set of organized components that collect, process, store and
distribute information to support decision making and control in an organization.
4. An information system that uses the resources of people, hardware, software and communication technology
to perform input, processing, output, storage and control activities that convert data resources into
information products
Role of Information Systems
1. Information system will help managers in effective decision-making to achieve the organizational goal.
2. Based on well-designed information system, an organization will gain edge in the competitive environment.
3. Information systems help take right decision at the right time.
4. Innovative ideas for solving critical problems may come out from good information system.
5. Knowledge gathered though information system may be utilized by managers in unusual situations.
6. If information system is viewed as a process it can be integrated to formulate a strategy of action or
operation.
Components of an information system
1. People – These use the system to fulfill their informational needs. They include end users and operations
personnel such as computer operators, systems analysts, programmers, information systems management and
data administrators.
2. Computer Hardware – Refers to physical computer equipment and devices, which provide for five major
functions.
o Input or data entry
o Output
o Secondary storage for data and programs
o Central processor (computation, control)
o Communication
3. Computer Software – Refers to the instructions that direct the operation of the computer hardware. It is
classified into system and application software.
4. Telecommunication System/Communication network
5. Databases – Contains all data utilized by application software. An individual set of stored data is referred to as a
file. Physical storage media evidences the physical existence of stored data, that is: tapes, disk packs, cartridges,
and diskettes.
6. Procedures – Formal operating procedures are components because they exist in physical forms as manuals or
instruction booklets. Three major types of procedures are required.

Introduction to Computer

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Definition:
1. A computer may be defined as a machine which accepts data from an input device perform arithmetical and
logical operations in accordance with a predefined program and finally transfers the processed data to an
output device
2. A computer is an electronic device that accepts data and instructions, stores them temporarily in its memory
waiting processing, automatically executes/ obeys the sets of the issued instructions to produce information
from the input raw data.
3. It is described as an electronic device because it is a processing tool/aid that makes work easy (the work of
processing) using electric energy in its logical operations.
4. It accepts data and instructions this means that it must be having means of communicating from its external
environment, what are collectively described as input device.
5. A computer is an information-processing machine. It may also be defined as a device that works under the
control of stored programs automatically accepting, storing and processing data to produce information that
is the result of that processing.

Why use computers?

1. Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of processing, measured as number of
instructions executed per second.
2. Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they will always give
correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the inaccuracies, which could arise due to
the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected and their consequences avoided in a way, which is
completely transparent to the user.
3. Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce exactly the same
answer every time that particular process is repeated.
4. Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that failure of one of the
components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.
5. Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data.
6. Processing capability – A computer has the ability to execute millions of instructions per second.

Computer application areas

1. Communication – digital communication using computers is popular and is being adopted worldwide as
opposed to analogue communication using the telephony system. Computers have also enhanced
communication through email communication, electronic data interchange, electronic funds transfer,
Internet etc. More specific examples include:
2. Banking – the banking sector has incorporated computer systems in such areas as credit analysis, fund
transfers, customer relations, automated teller machines, home banking, and online banking.
3. Organizational management – the proliferation of management information systems have aided greatly the
processes of managerial planning, controlling, directing as well as decision-making. Computers are used in
organization for transaction processing, managerial control as well as decision-support. Other specific areas
where computer systems have been incorporated include sales and marketing, accounting, customer service
etc.
4. Science, research and engineering – computers used
a. as research tools, complex computations
b. for simulation e.g. outer-space simulations, flight simulations
c. as diagnostic and monitoring tools,
d. computerized maps using global positioning satellite (GPS) technology
e. for modern mass production methods in the auto industry using computer driven technology
5. Education– computers incorporate databases of information that are useful in organizing and disseminating
educational resources. Such E-learning and virtual or distributed classrooms have enabled the teaching
industry to have a global reach to the students. Computers are also used for test scoring uniform tests done in
schools, school administration and computer aided instructions.
6. Management of information materials- The Internet has massive reference material on virtually every
learning area. Computer systems have enabled the efficient running of libraries for information storage and
retrieval.
7. Manufacturing and production – computer aided design (CAD), computer integrated manufacturing
(CIM), and process control systems among other technologies are computer systems that have
revolutionized the production industry.
8. Entertainment – use of computers in the entertainment industry has increased tremendously over the years.
Computers enable high-quality storage of motion pictures and music files using high-speed and efficient
digital storage devices such as CDs, VCDs and DVDs. The Internet is also a great source of entertainment
resources. Computer games have also become a major source of entertainment.
9. Retailing – computers are used in point of sale systems and credit card payment systems as well as stock
inventories.
10. Home appliances – computers (especially embedded computers or microprocessors) are included in
household items for reasons of economy and efficiency of such items. Major appliances such as microwave
ovens, clothes washers, refrigerators and sewing machines are making regular use of microprocessors.
11. Reservation systems – guest booking, accommodation and bills accounting using computers in hotels have
made the process to be more efficient and faster. Airline computer reservation systems have also enhanced
and streamlined air travel across major airlines. Major players in the industry have also adopted online
reservation systems.
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 12. Health care and medicine – computers have played an important role in the growth and improvement of
health care that the use of computers in medicine has become a medical specialty in itself. Computers are
used in such areas as maintenance of patient records, medical insurance systems, medical diagnosis, and
patient monitoring.

History of Computers
The first electronic computers were produced in the 1940s. Since then, a series of breakthroughs in electronics have
occurred leading to great improvements in the capacity, processing speed and quality of computer resources.
1. The evolution of computerization in business may be summarized as:
2. 1870s: Development of the typewriter allows speedier communication and less copying.
3. 1920s: Invention of the telephone enables both Wide Area Networks (WAN) and Local Area Networks
(LAN) communication in real time. This marks the beginning of telecommunication.
4. 1930s: Use of scientific management is made available to analyze and rationalize.
5. 1940s: Mathematical techniques developed in World War II (operations research) are applied to the decision
making process.
6. 1950s: Introduction of copying facilitates cheap and faster document production, and the (limited)
introduction of Electronic Data Processing (EDP) speeds up large scale transaction processing.
7. 1960s: Emergence of Management Information Systems (MIS) provides background within which office
automation can develop.
8. 1970s: Setting up of telecommunication networks to allow for distant communication between computer
systems. There is widespread use of word processors in text editing and formatting, advancement in personal
computing- emergence of PCs. Use of spreadsheets.
9. 1980s: Development of office automation technologies that combine data, text, graphics and voice.
Development of DSS, EIS and widespread use of personal productivity software.
10. 1990s: Advanced groupware; integrated packages, combining most of the office work- clerical, operational
as well as management.
11. 2000s: Wide spread use of Internet and related technology in many spheres of organizations including
electronic commerce (e-commerce), e-learning, e-health

Classification of computer
Computers are classified according to:
1. Generations
2. Purpose
3. Function
4. Size

Computer generation Computers

1. Gives a grouped summary of the gradual developments in the computer technology

First generation computers

1. The earliest time computers which were in use from around the mid 1950’s to rate 50’s
2. Comparatively large in size as compared to present day computers.
3. Generated lot of heat, they are not consistent and reliable as the valves tended to fail frequently.
4. Low capacity of internal memory.
5. Processors operated in milliseconds speed range.
6. Internal storage consisted of magnetic drum and delay lines.

Examples
1. Univac
2. Commercial computer called LEO (Lyon’s Electronic Office)

Advantages
1. These computers were the fastest calculating machine at their time they could perform computation in few
seconds.
2. The vacuum tube technology makes possible to advent of electronic digital computer.

Disadvantages
1. Too bulky in size
2. Unreliable
3. Air conditioning was required.
4. Manual assembling for individual components to functioning units was required.
5. Limited commercial use.
6. Constant maintenance
7. Thousands of vacuum tubes that were used to produce large amount of heat and burnt out frequently.

Second generation computers

1. These were computers of the closing of the 1950’s to early 60’s which used transistors which are relatively
smaller too replace the valves
2. Smaller in size as compared to the 1st generation computers.
3. Generated a lower level of heat, as components were much smaller.
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 4. Greater degree of reliability because of solid state technology.
5. Use of core storage instead of magnetic drum and delay lines.
6. Processor operated in the microsecond speed.
7. High cost direct accesses storage.

Examples
1. IBM series
2. ATLAS

Advantages
1. Small in size as compared to first generation computer.
2. More reliable because they store more information and not producing more heat.
3. Less heat was generated.
4. Were able to reduce computations times.
5. Better portability
6. Wider commercial use.
7. Less prone to hardware failure.

Disadvantages
1. Required air conditions.
2. Commercial production was difficult and costly.
3. Require frequent maintenance.
4. Manual assemble of individual component into a functioning unit was required.

Third generation computers

1. The computers of this generation came being towards mid 60’s and they used integrated circuits to replace
transistors, diodes etc.
2. Smaller in size as compared to 2nd generation computers.
3. Higher capacity internal storage
4. Remote communication facilities.
5. Multiprogramming facilities
6. Reduced cost of direct access storage.
7. Use of high level languages such as COBOL.
8. Wide range of optional peripherals.

Examples
1. ICL 1900 Series
2. IBM 360

Advantages
1. More reliable
2. High storage capacity compared to the second generation.
3. Computation speed was increased.
4. Small in size and portable as compared to second generation computer.
5. Maintenance cost was minimal
6. Commercial use was possible.
7. Assembling of individual component into a functioning unit was made easy.

Fourth generation computers

1. A modification of the third generation computer’s technology
2. They use complex circuitry
3. Marked the origin of the mini computers in use today.

Advantages
1. They are very fast.
2. Less expensive.
3. Portable.
4. Have greater data processing capacity than equivalent sized third generation computers
5. Use advanced technique to feed data into them and bring out processed data for the outside world

Fifth generation computers

1. The design of these computers was based on the VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) technology, the micro
chip technology that gave rise to smaller computer known as the micro computers.

Example
1. IBM Personal Computer
2. BBC micro etc.

Advantages
1. They store large amount of information
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 2. When fully developed will be able to process non-numerical data.

Function
Analogue computers
1. They perform arithmetic operations and logical comparisons by measuring changes in physical magnitudes
e.g. electronic voltage, pressure changes, temperature changes etc
2. The application of analogue computers in confirmed to specialized areas as in scientific or engineering
experiments, manufacturing process and military weapons.
3. An analogue computer has the ability to accept inputs which vary with time and intensity
4. The output from the system may be in the form of a smooth graph.

Example
1. Slide rule
2. Car speedometer.

Digital computer
1. These are most commonly used type of computer
2. They process both numeric and alphabetic or alphanumeric data
3. The accuracy of digital computers is influenced by the memory size and the precisions of the data input.
4. The digital computer also has unique ability and that is storing large quantities of data.

Hybrid computers
1. Are designed by interconnecting the digital computer and analogue computer’s element directly into one
processor, using a suitable interfacing circuitry.
2. Are more advantageous because they and analogue computers, through because of their capabilities they are
more expensive.

Purpose
Special purpose computers
1. Are designed to carry out special processing tasks in one or more applications e.g. the serves.

General purpose computers.

1. These are computers designed to be used in a variety of application environments as required.
Dedicated purpose computers.
1. These are computers which are capable of performing a variety of tasks in different applications
environments
Size
Mainframe computers
1. They are most expensive of all the computers and are very big in size and offer the maximum computing
power.
2. These are big general purpose computers capable of handling all kinds of problems whether of bytes per
second.
3. They can accept and transfer data from input / output devices at the rate of millions of bytes per second.
4. They can accept all types of high level language.
5. They support large number of terminals.
6. They have large on-line secondary storage capabilities.

Mini computers
1. Are medium sized
2. They are physically bigger than the micro computer but smaller than the main frame computers.
3. They support average internal and backing store.
4. These computers support several users at a time i.e. several work stations are connected to one central mini-
computer.
5. They are very fast in their operational speed more powerful and reliable than the micros though lower that the
mainframe computer’s capability.
6. They are costlier than the micros though cheaper than the mainframes.

Micro computers
1. The micro computers are the most common form of computers in offices of today as desktop, personal or
stand alone systems.
2. They are smallest of the three computer classes.
3. Their design is based on large scale circuit integration, that confines several physical components per small
elements thumb size, IC hence the size dramatically reduced.
4. Their internal memory is smaller than the mini computers and the mainframe computers and they support
limited backing storage media.
5. They are cheaper than the mini-computers and the main frame computers.

Personal computers (PC)

They are called so because they are designed for personal use of individual or business units’ office automation units
or professionals
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Safe use and care of computers
Precautions to take while handling computers
1. Cabling-all cables connecting various components should be properly connected to avoid damage and short
circuit.
2. Stable power supply- there should be no interruption of power as this would lead to damage or loss of data.
The U.P.S should be encouraged.
3. Ventilation- the computer room should have free air circulation. Fans should be used to improve ventilation.
4. Dust and dump proof- dust destroys the delicate parts of the computer system thus the computer lab should
be free of dust and dampness.
5. Lighting- a computer lab should be well lit with natural light and also artificial lighting.
6. Floor space- should be kept clean and dry
7. Firefighting equipment- automatic fire direction devices should be used such as fire extinguishers
8. Furniture- the computer must rest on a firm table to avoid any shaking that may damage the hard disk.

Advantages of the computer

1. It operates at high speed, hence there may be cost saving e.g. staff costs, equipment costs etc.
2. The computer results are accurate.
3. It works continuously without getting bored or tired.
4. It can work on voluminous data items.
5. Computer can operate in risky environment.
6. Computer is flexible
7. Produces reliable information.
8. Computer help to reduce paper work significantly
9. Provide useful information to management for control and decision making
10. Use of computer for office activities reduces the requirements of office space which otherwise is required.

Disadvantages of a computer
1. Computers are costly.
2. They become outdated very fast due to change of technology.
3. Fear of loss of jobs to employees.
4. Controlling the computer master file’s contents is a difficult exercise due to fact that the contents of the
master files of computer based systems are non-human sensible.
5. In case the computer system fails, it might be extremely difficult to revert back to the old manual system.

Components of Computer
A computer system is made of two elements namely computer hardware and software.
Computer hardware
They are the physical parts of the computer which can be seen and touched. Generally, a computer system performs
the following operations:
1. Inputting – the process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
2. Storing – saving data and instructions so that they are available for initial or additional processing as and
where required.
3. Processing- performing arithmetic operations or logic operations on data in order convert them into useful
information.
4. Outputting – the process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as a printed reporter
visual display.
5. Controlling- directing the manner and sequences in which all of the above operations are performed.

Computer hardware include: -

Input unit- Data and information must enter into the computer system before any computation can be performed on
the supplied data so that task is performed by input that link the particular device used to other devices.

Functions
1. It accepts (read) the list of instructions and data from outside world.
2. It converts these instructions and data in a computer acceptable form
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system to the further processing.

Examples of input devices

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the computer. The layout of
the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing
additional functions.

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Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available
for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −
S.No Keys & Description
Typing Keys
1 These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the same layout as that of
typewriters.
Numeric Keypad
2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out
in the same configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.
Function Keys
3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboards which are arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard.
Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
Control keys
4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys. Control keys also include
Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
Special Purpose Keys
5 Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab,
and Print Screen.
Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box
with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU
when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. A mouse
can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a
spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be
moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and
playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the
monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.

11
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing
element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball
which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various
shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information is
available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be stored on the disk.
These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal from
the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the
computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A
graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

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The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing
music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed every day. The
bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of
magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it
is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable code, and stores the text
on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data
is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in
a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the computer
that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where
one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

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It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Output unit- It supplies information and results of computation to the outside world, thus links the computer with
external environment.

Functions
1. Accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form.
2. It converts the coded results to human acceptable readable form.
3. It supplies the converted results to the outside world.

Examples Output Devices

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It
forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the
image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the
image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the
letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series
of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are
capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −
 Large in Size
 High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current
uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and graphics
display.

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The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −
 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For
example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light
from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers −
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −
 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −
 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
 Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular because of
their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of pattern of dots and head
consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which comes out to form a character which is
why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower) which is
why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices that
require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages
 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
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Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is divided into a
number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters,
drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different character sets available in the
market are 48-character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers
are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used; hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set
may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
 Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a
time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-Impact Printers
 Faster than impact printers
 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the characters
to be printed on a page.

Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
 Expensive
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  Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters
by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable
features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of
printing also.
Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable
Disadvantages
 Expensive as the cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer
Processing unit. This is where the manipulation of data is done. It is basically done in the Central
Processing Unit (CPU). Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features
1. CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
2. CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
3. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
4. It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has following three components.
 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other units
of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary
storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of
memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
1. It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
2. It stores intermediate results of processing.
3. It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
4. All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data processing
operations.
Functions of this unit are −
1. It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
2. It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
3. It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the computer.
4. It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
5. It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
1. Arithmetic Section
2. Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
1. Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above
operations.
Logic Section
1. Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.
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Storage unit
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage space
in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is
divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from
zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 =
65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between
the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by
the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system,
from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It has a limited
capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These
memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory.
Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Types of primary storage
It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program result. It
is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data
is erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to
reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very
expensive.

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RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a
backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its
physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is
lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space,
making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the
memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system
memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor
and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
 Short data lifetime
 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
Read Only Memory
OM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of
memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores
such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not
only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These
kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the
desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser
achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is
retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is
passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal
use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both
erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased
and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process
of reprogramming is flexible but slow.

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Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −
 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory. These are
used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are
accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and
then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Advantages of Secondary Storage Devices

1. Non-Volatile Storage Devices: The Non-Volatile Storage Devices are Non-Volatile in the nature means
them never loss their data when the Power goes switched off. So that data which is Stored into the Non-
Volatile Storage Devices will never be Loosed When the Power Switched off.
2. Mass Storage: The Capacity of these Devices is very high means we can Store the Huge Amount of data into
the Secondary Storage Devices. We can Store data into the Secondary Storage Devices in the form of Giga
Bytes and Tera Bytes.
3. Cost Effective: The Cost of Secondary Storage Devices is very lower in compare to the Main Memory So
that they are also called as the more cost effective and they are very small and couldn’t easily damage. And
the data can’t be easily loss from these Disks.
4. Reusability: As Memory Contains the Data in the Temporary as well as Permanent Manner. But the
Secondary Storage Devices are always Reusable means they can be erased and stored any Time. Means we
can add or Remove the Contents from these Disks when we Requires.

Types Of Storage Devices

There are three main types of storage devices:

1. Magnetic Tape
2. Magnetic Disk
3. Optical Disk
Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape is the oldest storage device. It is made of plastic coated with magnetic material. Data is stored on
magnetic tape in the form of magnetic spots. Tape drive is used to read and write data on tape. Magnetic disk is
sequential access device. It is slower device than magnetic disk or optical disk. Magnetic tapes are used in reels of
different lengths, for example 200, 600, 1200 feet etc.

Magnetic Disk

A magnetic disk is a thin circular metal or plastic disk coated with magnetic material. Data is stored in the form of
magnetic spots. Magnetic disk is random access device. It is faster than magnetic tape. There are three main types of
magnetic disk:
a. Hard Disk b. Floppy Disk c. Zip Disk

Hard Disk

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The hard disk is also called fixed disk. It consists of one or more metal plates. The plates are fixed in the drive. Metal
plates are coated with magnetic material to store data. A motor rotates disks. There is also an access arm and read /
write heads to read and write data on disks.
b. Floppy Disk

Floppy disk is a small plastic plate coated with magnetic material. Data is stored in magnetic spots. Main advantage
of floppy disk is that it is used to transfer data from one computer to another. Floppy disk drive is used to read and
write data on floppy disk.

Floppy disk is available in two sizes:

· 3 ½ INCH Floppy Disk
It is also called micro floppy disk. Its diameter is 3½ inch. It is covered in a hard plastic cover. Read/Write window is
covered with a metal shutter. When disk is inserted into disk drive then shutter is automatically opened. It can be
write protected by a notch. Storage capacity of micro floppy is 1.44 MB.
· 5¼ Inch floppy disk.
It is a 5¼ inch diameter plastic plate coated with magnetic material. Its storage capacity is 1.2 MB. It is not used in
modern computers.

c. Zip Disk

Zip disk is similar to 3 ½ inch floppy disk. But it can store 100 MB or more data. Zip disk drive is used to read and
write data on a zip disk.
Advantages of Magnetic Disk
1. Very fast access to data
2. Data can be read directly from any part of the hard disc.
3. In most of the magnetic storage devices the access speed is about 1000kb/s
4. Some of the magnetic storage devices are very cheap for example floppy disks.
5. Most of the magnetic storage devices store very large amounts of data.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Disk
1) Data can be altered by magnetic fields, dust, mechanical problems
2) Gradually lose their charge over time - data lost
3) Hard disks eventually fail which stops the computer from working.
4) Regular crashes can damage the surface of the disk, leading to loss of data in that sector.
5) The disk is fixed inside the computer and cannot easily be transferred to another computer.

Optical Disk
LASER technology is used to read and write data on Optical disk. LASER stands for Light Amplification through
Emission of Radiation. Laser beam writes on the surface of optical disk by creating very small holes. The presence of
hole represents a One and absence of the hole represents a Zero. There are following main types of optical disk.
1. CD-ROM,
2. CD-R or WORM,
3. CD-RW
4. DVD-ROM,
5. 5. DVD-R,
6. 6. DVD-RW
Advantages of Optical Disks

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  Low setup costs. Optical disks are inexpensive when bought in bulk, and most new computers come
equipped with DVD writers (or "DVD burners") right from the factory. Most DVD burners also include
manufacturer-provided software to simplify the backup process.
 Durability. Although not indestructible, optical disks should remain readable for many years if protected
from scratching, heat, and bright light.
 Simplicity. Especially when used for data-only backups, using an optical disk to back up data can be as
simple as dragging and dropping the files to be backed up onto the drive icon, and then clicking "Burn Disk."
Disadvantages of Optical Disks
 High ongoing cost compared to other solutions. Although inexpensive, the cost of using optical disks for
backup can add up over time. Network or online backup can actually wind up being less expensive when all
is said and done. In addition, optical drives tend to have high failure rates and typically require replacement
every year or so under heavy use.
 Cumbersome to automate. Although some backup software allows backups to optical drives to be
scheduled, a human still has to place the disk in the drive prior to a scheduled backup. So what, you ask? The
Backup Nut knows from experience that the likelihood of a backup being completed is inversely proportional
to the amount of human effort involved.
 Security Concerns. Ideally, backups should be stored away from the computer, which usually means that a
user tucks the disk in his or her pocket on the way to (or from) work, which creates a risk of loss or theft of
the data.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
Computer hardware considerations
1. Processor type and speed.
2. Memory capacity
3. Warranty
4. Expansion and upgrades
5. The user needs
6. Cost
7. Portability

Computer Software
Software, by definition, is the collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that performs
different tasks on a computer system. It actually tells the computer what to do and how to do it. Software may enter
the computer through one of following three ways.
i. I may be built into the computer circuit in the form of firmware.
ii. It may be loaded into the computer from a secondary storage device such as CD-ROM or hard disk drives
iii. It is also being typed into the computer with the aid of the keyboard and programming tools

Relation between hardware and software

Software refers to the computer programs that are loaded into a computer system, and hardware refers to all the
visible devices, which are assembled together to build a computer system. The blending of software and hardware
gives life to a computer system. Even though hardware is the physical part of a computer, it is nothing unless it has
software to control it. Hardware and software then share a special relationship. If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer
system, software is its 'soul'. Both are complimentary to each other. Hardware is of no use without software and
software cannot be used without hardware.

Qualities of good software

Some of the most essential attributes of good software include
a. Usability: This is the ease and convenience with which software can be used by human being. This is
affected by technologies such as the Human-Computer Interface
b. Efficiency: This is the degree with which software fulfills its purposes without waste of resources
c. Portability: It is the ease with which software can be used in other computer systems different from the
currents one.
d. Reusability: This is the ease with which software can be reused to design other software.
e. Maintainability: this is the ease with which modifications can be made to satisfy new requirements or to
correct deficiencies. Well-designed software should be flexible enough to accommodate future changes that
will be needed as new requirements come to light.
f. Security: This is the with which software is able to protect its data against unauthorized access and to
withstand malicious interference on its operations
g. Reliability: This is the frequency and extends to which software fails to perform its functions under normal
operating circumstances.
h. Understandability: It is the ease with which software can be understood by computer users.
i. Completeness: This is the characteristic whereby, the software possesses all of its parts, each of them being
fully developed.
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 j. Correctness: This is the degree with which software meet its specified requirements.
k. Robustness: This is the degree with which software resist to user’s manipulations errors

Ways of acquiring computer software

Software can enter the computer through different channels. Some of the common ways of acquiring computer
software include:
a. Buying the computer: when you buy a new computer from the shop, you are usually supplied with some
software for free, from the computer manufacturer
b. Buying the software from a shop:
c. Downloading the software from a website for free (freeware) or after paying some money to the vendor
d. Ordering from the vendor either by email, fax or postal letter. Here you also need to pay for the product
before it is sent to you.
e. Copying from other people’s machines: This is what most Cameroonians do and it is what referred to as
software piracy. Software piracy is illegal and therefore punishable by law

Classification of software
Computer software can be organized into categories based on common function, task, or field of use. We can then
categorize software in different ways.

Classification of software based on task

Based on the kind of task they perform, software can be divided into two major groups: System software and
application software. The diagram below gives a simplified hierarchical organization of the main parts of software
in a general-purpose computer. At the highest level of this hierarchy lies the application software, whose services are
carried out by the underlying system software. The devices of the system software are then executed by the
underlying hardware components
Computers operate by executing software programs. This involves passing the instructions from the application
software, through the system software to the hardware that ultimately receives the instruction as machine code. Each
instruction causes the computer to carry out an operation such as data transmission, data processing, and data storage
or data control.

System software
System software is a type of computer software that controls the operation of the computer and provides facilities
that extend the general capabilities of the machine. This provides the basic functions for computer usage and helps to
run the computer hardware and system. It includes a combination of the following:

Operating system
An operating system is a group of computer programs that coordinates all the activities among computer hardware
devices. This is the most important type of system software in a computer. A user can’t run an application program
on the computer except it is self-booting without the Operating System. Operating systems are contained in almost all
devices including mobile phones. (To be extended in the next chapter)

Functions of an operating system

a. Memory allocation and loading- Before processing commences, the operating system ensures that the
programs are transferred into the available memory location from the backing store. The operating system
also handles the data files that are to be used by the programs being executed by the CPU.
b. Job scheduling- The operating systems transfers control from one job to another, from the programs
maintained in the computer awaiting execution to ensure that the CPU time is not tied up by one job. This
ensures that the CPU does not remain idle at any given instance as in multiprogramming, where several user
programs share the computer resources such as CPU time, memory and peripherals.
c. Peripheral control- The operating system controls the I/O transfer by regulating the speed imbalance
between I/O devices and the CPU e.g. during the program run, if it requires much printing the operating
system may direct the output to a media whose contents can be output through the printer at a convenient
time.
d. Error reporting- During the program execution, if there occurs an error of any sort, the operating system
furnishes diagnostics messages to the user through e.g. screen and the program execution is stopped for the
user’s corrective responses.
e. Interfaces the user or the operator to the system’s hardware- The operator invokes the services of the
operating system by the use of commands and the operating system communicates the messages regarding
the processing to the operator through e.g. the screen or printer.
f. Logging and accounting- The operating systems keep the records on the computer’s resources use. A log of
the tasks carried by the computer is kept. The operating system also keeps internal logs on the time, memory
usage, peripherals used and the appropriate charges usually in time sharing systems.

Utility programs
This is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a computer. A single piece will be
called a utility or tool. Some Well-known utility software includes:
a. Antivirus programs: They are used to detect and eliminate computer viruses and related malicious software.
Some examples are: avast, AVG, Avira, BitDefender, Norton

23
 b. Backup programs: They help to make copies of all information valuable to a computer or information
system and store it safe. The information can be restored in the event of disk failure or other accidents that
will lead to data loss.
c. Data Recovery: As the name implies, data recovery programs are used to recover data. Since disk drives or
other hardware may fail, these utilities are essential to recover data in such a scenario.
d. Data Compression programs: They make the data more compact, reducing the space occupied by the data.
e. Disk management program: These are program involving formatting and arranging disk files in an orderly
manner.
f. Memory management software: It handles locations in RAM where data put their current data. It can move
certain memory-resident items out of the way so as to increase the memory space.
g. The Server: In the context of client-Server architecture, a server is a computer program running to serve the
requests of other programs – “the clients”. The clients may run on the same systems or through networks.

Functions of utility software

1. Test editors- they are used to create and subsequently, modify textual information. Editing can be carried out
using the edit keys on the keyboard or by using sequence of instructions.
2. Language translators- these are software to translate the source code, to machine language.
3. Sort utility- this is used to arrange the records within a file according to some predetermined sequence.
4. Merge utility- this is used to influence the combing of the contents of two or more input files to produce one
output file
5. Copy utility- it is usually a good practice to maintain copies of operational files so that in case something
goes wrong, their contents can be recreated.
6. Dump utility- ‘dump’ means copying the contents of the main memory onto an output device. This is useful
when an error occurs during the running of an application program.

Programming software
It is the type of software that is used for creating other software. Another name for programming software is
Integrated Development Environment (IDE). An IDE normally consist of a source code editor, a translator (compiler
or interpreter) and a debugger.
a. Editor: It is a programming tool that is used for creating and modifying application programs. It helps the
computer user to enter, search, delete, replace, copy and insert text or sections of a text in a desired position.
b. Compiler: It is used to convert a complete program written in a high-level language (such as Pascal and C)
into a program in machine language.
c. Interpreter: A program which translates the program statements into machine language one line at a time as
the program is running.
d. Assembler: A programming tool that convert a program in assembly language into program in machine
language.
e. Debugger: It is a program that is used for locating and correcting programming errors.
f. Linker: A linker or link Editor is a program that takes one or more objects generated by the compiler and
combines them to a single executable program.
g. Loader: Loader is a kind of system software, which is responsible for loading and relocation of the
executable program in the main memory. The functions of a loader include assigning load time space for
storage, that is, storage allocation and assisting a program to execute appropriately.

Device driver
Device drivers are computer programs that allow higher level computer programs to communicate and interact with a
hardware device. All hardware devices have the devices drivers that communicate with them through the computer
bus to which the hardware is connected. Drivers are hardware dependent and operating system specific. Some
specific categories of device drivers are
a. Logical Device Drivers (LDD) which are written by the Operating System vendors
b. Physical Device Drivers (PDD) which are written and implemented by the hardware vendor. To solve
device driver crises, Microsoft has created the Windows Drivers Foundation (WDF) which collects and keeps
all device drivers as a database.

Application software
This refers to programs, which help the computer to solve the user’s problem. They are used to handle the
requirement of the organization or a particular individual. It enables the end users to accomplish certain specific
tasks. Business software, databases and educational software are some forms of application software. Different word
processors, which are dedicated to specialized tasks to be performed by the user, are other examples of application
software.

General purpose software

A general purpose application, sometimes known as ‘off-the-shelf’ is the sort of software that you use at home and
school. Examples include word processors, spreadsheets, databases, desktop publishing packages, graphics packages
etc.
This type of software tries to be a ‘jack-of-all-trades’. It provides many features that the majority of users will want
e.g. formatting text, creating charts, organizing tables. But it does try to be’ all things to all people’ and so there will
be a vast number of features that you may never use e.g. statistical functions, mail merge. This makes the storage
size of these applications fairly large.
There are several good reasons for using general purpose software:
24
 a. It is relatively cheap
b. It is easily available from most computer shops
c. It will have been thoroughly tested so there won’t be any serious problems or bugs
d. There will be lots of user support i.e. books, user guides, online help and discussion forums on the Internet

Examples include
1. Word processing – Create, edit and print text documents. E.g. MS Word, Word Perfect.
2. Spreadsheets – Provide a wide range of built-in functions for statistical, logical, financial, database,
graphics, data and time calculations. E.g. Lotus 1-2-3, Excel, Quattro Pro.
3. Database management systems (DBMS) – Store, manipulate and retrieve data. E.g. Access, FoxPro,
dBase.
4. Online Information Services – Obtain a broad range of information from commercial services. E.g.
America Online, CompuServe
5. Communications- Ms Outlook for email
6. Browsers e.g Internet Explorer, Eudora
7. Graphics – Develop graphs, illustrations and drawings. E.g. PaintShop, FreeHand, Corel
8. Project Management – Plan, schedule, allocate and control people and resources needed to complete a
project according to schedule. E.g. Project for Windows, Time Line.
9. Financial Management – Provide income and expense tracking and reporting to monitor and plan
budgets. E.g. Quicken
10. Desktop publishing -used to create high-quality printed output including text and graphics; various
styles of pages can be laid out; art and text from other programs can also be integrated into published
pages. E.g. PageMaker, Publisher.
11. Presentation packages like MS Power point

Specific purpose software

Function-specific software is highly specialized software that is designed to handle specific tasks. They're more
limited in what they can do, but they usually perform much better than a general purpose program in a specific task.
For example, TurboTax (a tax preparation package) is a special purpose application. Sure, it adds and subtracts
numbers like a spreadsheet, but you can't use it to plan your monthly budget. It does only one thing - prepare tax
returns. Other examples of special purpose application software are web browsers, calculators, media players,
calendar programs etc. Again, make sure that you don't use brand names!
a. Communications software: Used to send messages and emails Example software: MS Outlook Express.
MS Messenger.
b. Desktop publishing programs: Used to combine and control graphics and text in a single document.
Example software: Adobe PageMaker. MS Publisher.
c. Web browser: Computer program that enables internet users to access, navigate, and search World Wide
Web sites. It is also called browser. Ex: Mozilla Firefox, Internet explorer, Opera, Google chrome
d. Enterprise Software: It deals with the needs of organization processes and data flow. Customer relationship
management or the financial processes in an organization are carried out with the help of enterprise software.
Ex: Sage Saari
e. Multimedia Software: They allow users to create and play audio and video files. They are capable of
playing media files. Audio converters, audio players, burners, video encoders and decoders are some forms
of multimedia software. Examples of this type of software include Real Player and Windows Media Player.

Bespoke software
Although most organizations use general purpose software, some organizations will find that it just doesn’t do
exactly what they want or it doesn’t work with their current systems. In this case, they might decide to have the
software system they need designed and developed specifically for them. This is called ‘tailor-made’ or ‘bespoke’
software. Bespoke application software is tailor made for a specific user and purpose. For example, a factory may
require software to run a robot to make cars; however, it is the only factory making that car in the world, so the
software required would have to be specially built for the task.

Advantages
a. The company will get the exact software/system that they need
b. The software will work exactly how they want it to work
c. The software will only have the features that they specifically need in their business.
Disadvantages
a. It takes a long time to develop such a system, between a few months to years
b. It costs a great deal of money to develop such a system.
c. The company may need to employ a team of people such as business analysts, programmers, testers etc
d. There will be little in the way of user support and online help

Advantages of application software

1. Simplify the Installation and Un-Installation Procedures.
2. Once packaged, applications can be quickly installed on a range of desktops in multiple locations, saving
administrative costs, simplifying the manager of licensing fees and minimizing support and repair
expenditures.
3. Saves Space of the product by doing apt modifications to applications.

25
 4. Has a great flexibility of obtaining the lost files through a phenomenon called Self Heal, this reduces the
down time of application.
5. Upgrading of the application can be done with ease.
6. Clean installation and Un-Installation is achieved by a process called Roll-Back.
7. Simplifies management of new user set-up along with the revision and distribution of software repairs and
new applications to existing users. Application recovery can also be improved.
8. Helps eliminate uncontrolled software downloads and installation, enables applications to be safely removed
and reduces non-business traffic on a corporate network.

Disadvantages of application software

1. Most of them may not fit well into the organization specific processing task because they are intended to
meet a variety of users need
2. The user lacks sense of ownership and ability to make any changes since this software has copyright that
prohibits any changes on them
3. They are not sold together with their source codes therefore cannot be modified
4. They require a user to be trained on how to use, which can take time

Classification of software based on source

Based on code source, we distinguish two types of software: Open Source Software and Closed Source Software.
a. Closed source software - Also called proprietary software, it is software with restricting on using, copying
and modifying the source code as enforced by the proprietor. In other words, computer users do not have any
access to the source code of the proprietary software. Well known examples of proprietary software include:
Windows, RealPlayer, Adobe Photoshop, Mac OS.
b. Open source software - It is the type of software that has no proprietary restriction attached to it,
particularly the restriction about the access to the source code. In other words, open source software is
designed in such a way that computer users can freely access and modify the source code to suit their
individual need. It is also called non-proprietary software. E.g. Linux, Open Office

Classification of software based on license

The term license refers to a legal document or agreement giving someone permission to do and use something. A
software license comprises the permissions, rights and restriction imposed on a piece of software. Under a software
license, the Licensee is permitted to use the license software in compliance with a specific term on the license. Based
on license, computer software may be divided into the following:
a. Public Domain Software.GPL - The GNU General Public License (GNU GPL or simply GPL) is a free
software license, originally written by Richard Stallman for the GNU project (a project to create a complete
free software operating system). It has since become one of the most popular licenses for free software. The
latest version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991. The GNU Lesser General Public License
(LGPL), another commonly-used license, is a modified version of the GPL intended for software libraries.
i. The GPL grants the recipients of a computer program the following rights, or "freedoms":
ii. The freedom to run the program, for any purpose.
iii. The freedom to study how the program works, and modify it. (Access to the source code is a
precondition for this)
iv. The freedom to redistribute copies.
v. The freedom to improve the program, and release the improvements to the public. (Access to
the source code is a precondition for this)
b. Freeware- This is a Copyrighted software given away for free by the author. Although it is available for free,
the author retains the copyright, which means that you cannot do anything with it that is not expressly
allowed by the author. Usually, the author allows people to use the software, but not sell it.
c. You are also free to distribute it to anyone you want, provided the distribution is an unmodified version of
what you downloaded from the provider’s web site. In fact, they encourage you to distribute their Freeware.
Freeware is provided on an "as is" basis and no technical support is usually available.
d. Shareware -This may be copyrighted software, regularly in trial version, but generally the developer allows
users to make copies without an initial charge. However, if the user intends to use it beyond a brief tryout, the
developer requests that the program be paid for. A marketing method for software, whereby a trial version is
distributed in advance and without payment. A user tries out the program, and thus shareware has also been
known as 'try before you buy', demoware, trialware and by many other names.
e. Crippleware - The shareware version of a program whose most advanced and most desirable features have
been disabled with the intention of increasing user’s apetite for the better version. If the fee is paid, a code is
acquired, which uncripple the program.
f. Nagware -Nagware (also known as annoyware) is a type of shareware that reminds— or nags— the user to
register it by paying a fee. It usually does this by popping up a message when the user starts the program or,
worse, intermittently while the user is using the application. These messages can appear as windows
obscuring part of the screen or message boxes that can quickly be closed. Some nagware keeps the message
up for a certain time period, forcing the user to wait to continue to use the program
g. Adware- Advertising-supported software is any software package which automatically plays, displays, or
downloads advertising material to a computer after the software is installed on it or while the application
is being used.
h. Liteware - This is the free version of a program, that does not contain those features that are attractive to
frequent or heavy user.

26
 i. Vapoware -Vaporware (or vapourware) is software or hardware which is announced by a developer well in
advance of release, but which then fails to emerge, either with or without a protracted development cycle.

Software considerations
1. It is important to get the original software.
2. It should be reliable
3. Must meet the user needs.
4. User friendly
5. It should meet the system requirements
6. Cost
7. Portability

Operating Systems
An operating system is a software which acts as an interface between the end user and computer hardware. Every
computer must have at least one OS to run other programs. An application like Chrome, MS Word, Games, etc needs
some environment in which it will run and perform its task.
Features of Operating System
1. Protected and supervisor mode
2. Allows disk access and file systems Device Drivers Networking Security
3. Program Execution
4. Memory management Virtual Memory Multitasking
5. Handling I/O operations
6. Manipulation of the file system
7. Error Detection and handling
8. Resource allocation
9. Information and Resource Protection
Objectives of Operating System
1. To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
2. To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
3. To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
4. To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the users to access and use
other resources.
5. To manage the resources of a computer system.
6. To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating conflicting requests
from different programs and users.
7. To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.
Functions of Operating System
1. Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is in use by whom, what
part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when a process or program requests it.
2. Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates the processor when it
is no longer required.
3. Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O controller that decides which
process gets the device, when, and for how much time.
4. File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the resources.
5. Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and other similar
techniques.
6. Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or users.
7. Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request for a service and from the
system.
8. Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via the console of the computer in the form of
instructions. The Operating System acknowledges the same, does the corresponding action, and informs the
operation by a display screen.
9. Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error-
detecting methods.
10. Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
The advantage of using Operating System
1. Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating an abstraction
2. Easy to use with a GUI
3. Offers an environment in which a user may execute programs/applications
4. The operating system must make sure that the computer system convenient to use
5. Operating System acts as an intermediary among applications and the hardware components
6. It provides the computer system resources with easy to use format
7. Acts as an intermediator between all hardware's and software's of the system
Disadvantages of using Operating System
1. If any issue occurs in OS, you may lose all the contents which have been stored in your system
2. Operating system's software is quite expensive for small size organization which adds burden on them.
Example Windows
3. It is never entirely secure as a threat can occur at any time

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 Data representation

Introduction
Data exists as electrical voltages in a computer. Since electricity can exist in 2 states, on or off, binary digits are
used to represent data. Binary digits, or bits, can be “0” or “1”. The bit is the basic unit of representing data in a
digital computer.
A bit is either a 1 or a 0. These correspond to two electronic/magnetic states of ON (1) and OFF (0) in digital circuits
which are the basic building blocks of computers. All data operated by a computer and the instructions that
manipulate that data must be represented in these units. Other units are a combination of these basic units. Such units
include:
 1 byte (B) = 23 bits = 8 bits – usually used to represent one character e.g. ‘A’
 1 kilobyte (KB) – 210 bytes = 1024 bytes (usually considered as 1000 bytes)
 1 megabyte (MB)– 220 bytes = 1048576 bytes (usually considered as 1000000 bytes/1000 KB)
 1 gigabyte (GB)– 230 bytes = 1073741824 bytes (usually considered as 1,000,000,000 bytes/1000 MB)
 1 terabyte (TB) – 240 bytes = 1099511627776 bytes (usually considered as one trillion bytes/1000 GB)

Definitions
 Bit- the digit 0 and 1 are called BInary digiTs
 Word- a binary number
 Byte- is a 8-bit word
 Nibble-a 4-bit word/ half word

Number systems
Human beings use decimal (base 10) and duodecimal (base 12) number systems for counting and measurements
(probably because we have 10 fingers and two big toes). Computers use binary (base 2) number system, as they are
made from binary digital components (known as transistors) operating in two states - on and off. In computing, we
also use hexadecimal (base 16) or octal (base 8) number systems, as a compact form for represent binary numbers.

The number systems are:

1. Decimal number systems
2. Binary number systems
3. Octal number systems
4. Hexadecimal number systems
Decimal number systems
Decimal number system has ten symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, called digits. It uses positional notation. That
is, the least-significant digit (right-most digit) is of the order of 10^0 (units or ones), the second right-most digit is of
the order of 10^1 (tens), the third right-most digit is of the order of 10^2 (hundreds), and so on. For example,

MSD Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones LSD (Least Significant Digit)

3 9 4 6
6x1 = 6
4x10 = 40
9x100 = 900
3x1000 = 3000

We can also express the positional weights in powers of ten as given below:
Ones 1=10
Tens 10=101
Hundreds 100=102
Thousands 1000=103
Tens of Thousands 10000=104
Hundreds of Thousands 100000=105
Million 1000000=106

Therefore, the number 3946 can be written as:-

(3x103) + (9x102) + (4x101) + (6x100)
= (3x1000) + (9x100) + (4x10) + (6x1)
= 3000+900+40+6
=3946

Binary number systems

In binary number system only two digits 0s and 1s are used to express any quantity. Digits are assigned to the position
which indicates its weight. The weight of the digits increases from right to left as it is for decimal system. For the
28
binary systems the increase in value is ascending powers of two unlike the decimal which is ascending powers of ten.
The advantage of binary representation is that it is easier to design logic that has two states (e.g. ON and OFF)
instead of ten states.
Example
An 8-bit system i.e. the computer with word size of 8-bits will have numbers represent 0 up to 255 where we are
going to have:-
111111112
= 1x20 + 1x21 + 1x22 + 1x23 + 1x24 + 1x25 +1x26 1x27
=1+2+4+8+16+32+64+128
=255
Octal Number System
In the octal number system, there are only eight possible digits (0 to 7). The position of a digit to the left of the octal
point carries a weight in ascending powers of eight.

Example
21638
3
=2 12 61 30
= 2x83+ 1x82 + 6x81 +3x80
=512 + 64 + 48 + 48 + 3
= 62710

Hexadecimal Number Systems

The hexadecimal system popularly known as the Hex system is similar to the octal system with the exception that the
base is 16 and there must the 16 digits. The sixteen symbols used in this system are decimal digits 0 to 9 and the
alphabets A to F.

Examples
12A016
1 2 A 0
3 2 1
16 16 16 160
=1x16 + 2x16 + 10x16 + 0x160
3 2 1

=4096 + 512 +160 +0

=512010

Number Conversions

Decimal to Binary Conversion

To convert a decimal integer to binary, divide the decimal number repeatedly by 2 until the quotient is 0. Then write
the reminder of the division in reverse order.

Example 1.
Convert 15710 to binary.
2 157 1
2 78 0
2 39 1
2 19 1
2 9 1
2 4 0
2 2 0
2 1 1
2 0
100111012

Example 2.
Convert 76.2510
For fractional numbers, the number is divided into two parts; the whole number part and the fraction part. The whole
number part is then converted to binary individually as above. The fraction part is repetitively multiplied by two,
noting the complete units of two. The procedure proceeds until the fraction becomes a zero or starts recurring.
29
2 76 0
0.25x2 =0.50 0
2 38 0 0.50x 2=1.00 1
2 19 1 0.2510=0.012
2 9 1

2 4 0

2 2 0

2 1 1 76.2510=1001100.012

2 0

10011002
Binary to Decimal conversion
To convert a binary integer to decimal number, simply add the weights of the non- zero positions of the binary
number.

Example
Convert 110110012 to decimal
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
=1x2 + 1x2 + 0x2 + 1x2 + 1x2 + 0x2 +0x2 +1x20
7 6 5 4 3 2 1

=128 +64 +16 +8 +1

=21710

Example 2

Convert 11010.012 to decimal

For fraction numbers, the whole number is converted to decimal as above. The fraction part digits are divided by
multiples of two, starting from the decimal point.

1 1 0 1 0 . 0 1
24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2
=1x24 + 1x23 +0x22 +1x21 +0x20 +0x2-1 +1x2-2
=16 +8 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 0 +1/4
=26.2510

Binary to Octal conversion

Steps
1. Arrange the bits in group of three starting from the right
2. Then convert each group to its octal equivalent.

Example
Convert 10110001111011112 to octal
1 011 000 111 101 111
= 1x20 1x21+1x20 0 1x22+1x21+1x20 1x22+1x20 1x22+1x21+1x20
=1 3 0 7 5 7
=1307578

Octal to Binary conversion

To convert an octal number to binary, convert each octal digit into binary using groups of three bits.

Example
Convert 1643528 to binary
1 6 4 3 5 2
001 110 100 011 101 010
1643528=0011101000111010102

Decimal numbers to Octal number conversion

The procedure to convert a decimal number to octal is the same as the conversion from decimal to binary with a
difference that repetitive division is done by 8 instead of 2.

30
Example 1
Convert 78910 to octal
8 789 5

8 98 2

8 12 4

8 1 1

78910=14258
Example 2
Convert 98.510 to octal
The procedure to convert fractional decimal numbers to octal is also the same as that of the fractional decimal
numbers to binary, but the multiplication is by 8 instead of 2.

8 98 2

8 12 4 0.50 x 8 =4.00 4

8 1 1

0 98.5 10 = 142.48

Convert Octal Numbers to Decimal Numbers

The procedure is the same as from binary to decimal, but the weights are assigned in terms of 8’s.

Example
Convert 15678 to decimal
1 5 6 7
3 2 1
8 8 8 80
=1x83 + 5x82 + 6x81 + 1x80
=512+320+48+7
=88710

Example 2
Convert 142.18
The fractional octal numbers are converted to decimal using the same procedure as that of converting fractional
binary numbers to decimal, but the division is by multiples of eight.
1 4 2 . 1
82 81 80 8-1
2 1 0 -1
=1x8 + 4x8 + 2x8 +1x8
=64 +32 +2 + 1/8
=98.12510

Binary to hexadecimal conversions

Steps
1. Arrange the bits in groups of four starting from right.
2. Then change each group to its hexadecimal equivalent.

Example
Convert 10110001111011112
=1011 0001 1110 1111
=B 1 E F
=B1EF16

Convert Hexadecimal to Binary conversion

To convert a hexadecimal number to binary, convert each Hex digit into binary individually using groups of four bits

Example
Convert AC2716 to binary

31
A C 2 7
1010 1100 0010 0111
AC2716=10101100001001112

Convert Decimal numbers to Hexadecimal

To procedure is the same as from decimal to binary, though divisions are by 16.

Example
Convert 15010 to Hexadecimal
16 150 6

16 9 9

15010=9616
Example 2
The procedure to convert fractional decimal numbers to hexadecimal is also the same as that of the fractional decimal
numbers to binary, but the multiplication is by 16 instead of 2.

Example
Convert 298.12510 to hexadecimal
16 298 A 0.125x16=2.00 2
16 18 2 =12A.216
16 1 1

Convert Hexadecimal Numbers to Decimal Numbers

The procedure is the same as from binary to decimal, but the weights are assigned in terms of 16’s.
Examples
Convert 7AE16 to decimal Numbers
=7x162 + 10x161 + 14x160
=1792 +160 +14
=196610

Example 2
Convert 206.2516 to decimal
=2x162 + 0x161+6x160 + 2x16-1 + 5x16-2
=512 + 6 + 1/8 + 5/256
=518.144510

Data communication and Networking

Introduction
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Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a
wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication system
made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data
communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:
a. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or user.
b. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.
c. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of
video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are
produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
d. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or
video packets.
Components:
A data communications system has five components

a. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include
text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
b. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.
c. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, and so on.
d. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves
e. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between
the communicating devices.

Data transmission modes

a. Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and
traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input;
the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the
channel to send data in one direction.
Examples of simplex Mode is loudspeaker, television broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard and
monitor etc.

b. Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. In a half-
duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two
devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-
duplex systems. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for
communication in both directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be
utilized for each direction.
Example of half-duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are
sent in both the directions.

a. Full-Duplex: In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. The full-
duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
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 In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals
going in the other direction. One common example of full-duplex communication is the
telephone network. When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk
and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both
directions is required all the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided
between the two directions.

Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Transmission Mediums
Data is represented by computers and other telecommunication devices using signals. Signals are transmitted in the
form of electromagnetic energy from one device to another. Electromagnetic signals travel through vacuum, air or
other transmission mediums to travel between one point to another (from source to receiver).
Electromagnetic energy (includes electrical and magnetic fields) includes power, voice, visible light, radio waves,
ultraviolet light, gamma rays etc.
Transmission medium is the means through which we send our data from one place to another. The first layer
(physical layer) of Communication Networks OSI Seven-layer model is dedicated to the transmission media; we will
study the OSI Model later.

Factors to be considered while choosing Transmission Medium

a. Transmission Rate
b. Cost and Ease of Installation
c. Resistance to Environmental Conditions
d. Distances
Bounded/Guided Transmission Media
It is the transmission media in which signals are confined to a specific path using wire or cable. The types
of Bounded/ Guided are discussed below.

Twisted Pair Cable

This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap, can be installed
easily, and they support many different types of network. Some important points:
a. Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.
b. Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
c. Typical delay is 50 µs/km.
d. Repeater spacing is 2km.
Twisted Pair is of two types:
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable - It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared
with Shielded Twisted Pair Cable which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own
color plastic insulator. Identification is the reason behind colored plastic insulation. UTP cables consist of
2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector.

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 Advantages:
a. Installation is easy
b. Flexible
c. Cheap
d. It has high speed capacity,
e. 100-meter limit
f. Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.
Disadvantages:
a. Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable
b. Provides less protection from interference.
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable - This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each
pair of insulated conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding
also eliminates crosstalk (explained in KEY TERMS Chapter). It has same attenuation as unshielded
twisted pair. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It is more expensive than coaxial and
unshielded twisted pair.

Advantages:
a. Easy to install
b. Performance is adequate
c. Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission
d. Increases the signalling rate
e. Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
f. Eliminates crosstalk
Disadvantages:
a. Difficult to manufacture
b. Heavy

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other. Copper is
used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It is surrounded by PVC
installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, barid or both. Outer metallic
wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which completes the circuit. The
outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost part is the plastic cover which
protects the whole cable.
Here the most common coaxial standards.
a. 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.
b. 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
c. 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
d. 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.

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There are two types of Coaxial cables:
a. BaseBand - This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission. It is mostly
used for LAN’s. Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed. The major
drawback is that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.
b. BroadBand - This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits
several simultaneous signal using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared with
Baseband Coaxial Cable.
Advantages:
a. Bandwidth is high
b. Used in long distance telephone lines.
c. Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
d. Much higher noise immunity
e. Data transmission without distortion.
f. The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared to twisted pair
cable
Disadvantages:
a. Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
b. Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
c. If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

Fiber Optic Cable

These are similar to coaxial cable. It uses electric signals to transmit data. At the centre is the glass core
through which light propagates. In multimode fibres, the core is 50microns, and In single mode fibres, the
thickness is 8 to 10 microns. The core in fiber optic cable is surrounded by glass cladding with lower index
of refraction as compared to core to keep all the light in core. This is covered with a thin plastic jacket to
protect the cladding. The fibers are grouped together in bundles protected by an outer shield.
Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second)

Advantages:
a. Provides high quality transmission of signals at very high speed.
b. These are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and distortion is very less.
c. Used for both analog and digital signals.
Disadvantages:
a. It is expensive
b. Difficult to install.
c. Maintenance is expensive and difficult.
d. Do not allow complete routing of light signals.

Unbounded/Unguided Transmission Media

Unguided or wireless media sends the data through air (or water), which is available to anyone who has a device
capable of receiving them. Types of unguided/ unbounded media are discussed below:
a. Radio Transmission
b. Microwave Transmission

Computer Networks
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Data Communication and network have changed the way business and other daily affair works. Now, they rely on
computer networks and internetwork. A set of devices often mentioned as nodes connected by media link is called a
Network. A node can be a device which is capable of sending or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network like a computer, printer etc. These links connecting the devices are called Communication channels.
Computer network is a telecommunication channel through which we can share our data. It is also called data
network. The best example of computer network is Internet. Computer network does not mean a system with control
unit and other systems as its slave. It is called a distributed system A network must be able to meet certain criteria;
these are mentioned below:
a. Performance - It can be measured in following ways:
i. Transit time: It is the time taken to travel a message from one device to another.
ii. Response time: It is defined as the time elapsed between enquiry and response.
b. Reliability - It decides the frequency at which network failure take place. More the failures are, less is the
network's reliability.
c. Security - It refers to the protection of data from the unauthorized user or access. While travelling through
network, data passes many layers of network, and data can be traced if attempted. Hence security is also a
very important characteristic for Networks.
Configuration in Computer Networks
Network is a connection made through connection links between two or more devices. Devices can be a computer,
printer or any other device that is capable to send and receive data. There are two ways to connect the devices:

Point-To-Point Connection
It is a protocol which is used as a communication link between two devices. It is simple to establish. The most
common example for Point-to-Point connection (PPP) is a computer connected by telephone line. We can connect the
two devices by means of a pair of wires or using a microwave or satellite link.
Example: Point-to-Point connection between remote control and Television for changing the channels.

Multipoint Connection
It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two or more devices share a single link.
There are two kinds of Multipoint Connections:
a. If the links are used simultaneously between many devices, then it is spatially shared line configuration.
b. If user takes turns while using the link, then it is time shared (temporal) line configuration.

Types of Networks

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Local Area Network (LAN)
It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of buildings or a factory. LANs
are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot. Personal computers and workstations are connected to
each other through LANs. We can use different types of topologies through LAN; these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network among each other while it
can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.
LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc

Applications of LAN
a. One of the computers in a network can become a server serving all the remaining computers called clients.
Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the remaining clients.
b. Connecting locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with each other locally without
any internet access.
c. Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common applications of LAN.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and uses the similar technology as LAN. It is designed
to extend over the entire city. It can be means to connecting a number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a
single cable. It is mainly hold and operated by single private company or a public company.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used for the network that covers
large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to design and maintain. Communication medium used
by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links. WAN operates on low data rates.

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Wireless Network
It is the fastest growing segment of computer. They are becoming very important in our daily life because wind
connections are not possible in cars or aeroplane. We can access Internet at any place avoiding wire related troubles..
These can be used also when the telephone systems gets destroyed due to some calamity/disaster. WANs are really
important now-a-days.

Inter Network
When we connect two or more networks then they are called internetwork or internet. We can join two or more
individual networks to form an internetwork through devices like routers gateways or bridges.

Advantages of network
a. It enhances communication and availability of information - Networking, especially with full access to
the web, allows ways of communication that would simply be impossible before it was developed. Instant
messaging can now allow users to talk in real time and send files to other people wherever they are in the
world, which is a huge boon for businesses. Also, it allows access to a vast amount of useful information,
including traditional reference materials and timely facts, such as news and current events.
b. It allows for more convenient resource sharing -This benefit is very important, particularly for larger
companies that really need to produce huge numbers of resources to be shared to all the people. Since the
technology involves computer-based work, it is assured that the resources they wanted to get across would be
completely shared by connecting to a computer network which their audience is also using.
c. It makes file sharing easier- Computer networking allows easier accessibility for people to share their files,
which greatly helps them with saving more time and effort, since they could do file sharing more accordingly
and effectively.
d. It is highly flexible- This technology is known to be very flexible, as it gives users the opportunity to explore
everything about essential things, such as software without affecting their functionality. Plus, people will
have the accessibility to all information they need to get and share.
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 e. It is an inexpensive system -Installing networking software on your device would not cost too much, as you
are assured that it lasts and can effectively share information to your peers. Also, there is no need to change
the software regularly, as mostly it is not required to do so.
f. It increases cost efficiency- With computer networking, you can use a lot of software products available on
the market which can just be stored or installed in your system or server, and can then be used by various
workstations.
g. It boosts storage capacity -Since you are going to share information, files and resources to other people, you
have to ensure all data and content are properly stored in the system. With this networking technology, you
can do all of this without any hassle, while having all the space you need for storage.

Disadvantages of network
a. It lacks independence - Computer networking involves a process that is operated using computers,
so people will be relying more of computer work, instead of exerting an effort for their tasks at
hand. Aside from this, they will be dependent on the main file server, which means that, if it breaks
down, the system would become useless, making users idle.
b. It poses security difficulties - Because there would be a huge number of people who would be using a
computer network to get and share some of their files and resources, a certain user’s security would be
always at risk. There might even be illegal activities that would occur, which you need to be careful about
and aware of.
c. It lacks robustness - As previously stated, if a computer network’s main server breaks down, the entire
system would become useless. Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking server that fails, the entire
network would also come to a standstill. To deal with these problems, huge networks should have a powerful
computer to serve as file server to make setting up and maintaining the network easier.
d. It allows for more presence of computer viruses and malware - There would be instances that stored files
are corrupt due to computer viruses. Thus, network administrators should conduct regular check-ups on the
system, and the stored files at the same time.
e. Its light policing usage promotes negative acts - It has been observed that providing users with internet
connectivity has fostered undesirable behavior among them. Considering that the web is a minefield of
distractions—online games, humor sites and even porn sites—workers could be tempted during their work
hours. The huge network of machines could also encourage them to engage in illicit practices, such as instant
messaging and file sharing, instead of working on work-related matters. While many organizations draw up
certain policies on this, they have proven difficult to enforce and even engendered resentment from
employees.
f. It requires an efficient handler - For a computer network to work efficiently and optimally, it requires high
technical skills and know-how of its operations and administration. A person just having basic skills cannot
do this job. Take note that the responsibility to handle such a system is high, as allotting permissions and
passwords can be daunting. Similarly, network configuration and connection is very tedious and cannot be
done by an average technician who does not have advanced knowledge.
g. It requires an expensive set-up - Though computer networks are said to be an inexpensive system when it is
already running, its initial set up cost can still be high depending on the number of computers to be
connected. Expensive devices, such as routers, switches, hubs, etc., can add up to the cost. Aside from these,
it would also need network interface cards (NICs) for workstations in case they are not built in.

Computer network components

a) Hub
b) Switches
c) Cables and connectors
d) Router
e) Modem
Network Interface Card
A network interface controller (NIC, also known as a network interface card, network adapter, LAN adapter or
physical network interface and by similar terms) is a computer hardware component that connects a computer to a
computer network. The card translates computer data into electrical signals it sends through the network; the signals
are compatible with the network so computers can reliably exchange information. Because of the popularity of the
Internet and networks in general, virtually all desktop and notebook PCs have some form of interface card included.
You can add a network card to bare-bones computers which don't have one.

Types of network cards

Network Interface Card

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In order to connect to a network, computer system uses a Network-Interface-Card (NIC). It manages or controls the
wired & wireless connection for to exchange the information with other PC’s & the internet. It includes electronic-
circuitry, which is required or necessary to communicate using a wired-connection or wireless connection. It
functions as a mediator between your computer system & data network. Example: When you visit a web site then PC
passes the site information to the network-card, which then converts the address into electrical-impulses. Network-
cables get these impulses to a web server on the internet. The card receives the signals & turns them into data that
your system displays or present. It provides or supplies the computer with a faithful, full time connection to a
network. PC & workstations on Local-Area-Network contain a network interface card, which is specifically designed
for the LAN transmission-technology.

Wireless network interface card for desktop

Wireless network interface card is a device, which enables wireless connections. It is built for laptop & desktop
computer systems. There are ‘three-types’ of this card:
a. Wi-Fi adapters: It provides connectivity to the Wi-Fi By using this; you can add wireless connectivity to old
laptops without built in Wi-Fi card & increase the speed of wireless connections for the laptops by using
newer Wi-Fi adapter. The latest generation of Wi-Fi is ‘802.11ac”.
b. Cellular-adapters: It provides 3g & 4g wireless internet connection to your system & they are used on laptop
computers but can also work for desktop. There are two-different versions of this adapter: USB cellular-
adapter & PCMCIA adapter.
c. Bluetooth-adapters: It provides short-range wireless connectivity to laptop & desktop computers. They can be
used for wireless connection with mouse, keyboard, and smartphones.

Functions of network interface card

The function of Network Interface Card is to allow computers to connect to networks & they are required in order to
access the internet & local-networks & can function with custom-network types as well. One Network card can
handle number of Ethernet-connections by attaching a switch or router to it. Many organizations or enterprises &
server grade routers are full-servers attached to the switches. Two or more NIC’s can be used to provide more
throughputs. Ethernet-cables are easy to use & configure & can provide better throughput in certain areas. By using
this card to your system or desktop would allow you to connect your computer to both a router & network-attached
storage-device by using separate Ethernet-cables & share or access the device with other computer systems on the
network? It also allows transmitting data on a network quickly or efficiently. Modern cards can transmit the data up
to one-gigabit per second while older cards transmit data at 10 or 100 megabit per second.

How to install and configure network interface card

a. First, you have to install a network-card either PCI or USB. If you use PCI then you have to open computer-
case & push PCI network card into empty PCI-slot. If you using USB then you have to put it into an empty
USB-port.

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 b. Install device driver, windows will detect it automatically that you installed a new hardware. After the
installation, you will see a network-card is displays under windows-> device-manager (start->control panel-
>system & security-> device manager).
c. Now go to the Network Sharing Center & you will see the computer name is connected to a network &
access to the internet. It indicates that your card is installed correctly. Now check your local-area connection
& you will get an icon.
d. Double-click on LAN which display your LAN status (connection duration, speed, number of bytes sent &
received). Click on Details if you want to see the details of connection.
e. Close the Network-connection details. Click on properties->internet protocol version 4-> properties. You
can see everything is set to automatic.
Topology
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Physical
topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information between
workstations.
Bus network

A bus network topology is a network architecture in which a set of clients are connected via a shared
communications line, called a bus. There are several common instances of the bus architecture, including one in the
motherboard of most computers, and those in some versions of Ethernet networks.
Features of Bus Topology
a. It transmits data only in one direction.
b. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages
a. Easy to implement and extend.
b. Well-suited for temporary or small networks not requiring high speeds (quick setup).
c. Cheaper than other topologies.
d. Cost effective; only a single cable is used.
e. Easy identification of cable faults.
f. Reduced weight due to fewer wires.
Disadvantages
a. Limited cable length and number of stations.
b. If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network goes down.
c. Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run.
d. Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic.(shared bandwidth)
e. Proper termination is required (loop must be in closed path).
f. Significant Capacitive Load (each bus transaction must be able to stretch to most distant link).
g. It works best with limited number of nodes.
h. It is slower than the other topologies.
Ring network
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a single
continuous pathway for signals through each node - a ring. Data travels from node to node, with each node along the
way handling every packet.

Features of Ring Topology

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 a. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone wants to
send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through
99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
b. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each
Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
c. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in them. Also, if
one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
d. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through each node of
the network, till the destination node.

Advantages
a. Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit
b. Performs better than a star topology under heavy network load
c. Can create much larger network using Token Ring
d. Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the computers
Disadvantages
a. One malfunctioning workstation or bad port in the MAU can create problems for the entire network
b. Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network
c. Network adapter cards and MAU's are much more expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs
d. Much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load

Star network
Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. In its simplest form, a star network consists
of one central switch, hub or computer, which acts as a conduit to transmit messages. Thus, the hub and leaf nodes,
and the transmission lines between them, form a graph with the topology of a star. If the central node is passive, the
originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own transmission, delayed by the two-way
transmission time (i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay generated in the central node. An active star
network has an active central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-related problems.

Features of Star Topology

a. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
b. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
c. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
a. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
b. Hub can be upgraded easily.
c. Easy to troubleshoot.
d. Easy to setup and modify.
e. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
a. Cost of installation is high.
b. Expensive to use.
c. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
d. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

Mesh topology
In this type of topology, every node has a dedicated point to point link to every other node in the network.
This means each link carries traffic only between the two nodes it. There are two techniques to transmit
data over the Mesh topology, they are:
a. Routing - In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to
direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information
about the broken links, and it avoids those nodes etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the
failed nodes.
b. Flooding - In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes; hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and it’s very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the
network.

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Types of Mesh Topology
a. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion as mesh
topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
b. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

a. Fully connected.
b. Robust.
c. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

a. Each connection can carry its own data load.
b. It is robust.
c. Fault is diagnosed easily.
d. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

a. Installation and configuration is difficult.
b. Cabling cost is more.
c. Bulk wiring is required.

Tree Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology. It
should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

a. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
b. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

a. Extension of bus and star topologies.
b. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
c. Easily managed and maintained.
d. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

a. Heavily cabled.
b. Costly.
c. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
d. Central hub fails, network fails.

Hybrid topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in an office in one
department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in
Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).

44
Features of Hybrid Topology
a. It is a combination of two or topologies
b. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

a. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
b. Effective.
c. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
d. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

a. Complex in design.
b. Costly.

Internet
Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over the web. However, It can be defined
in many ways as follows:
a. Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer networks.
b. Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
c. Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
d. IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computer location.
e. A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Address so that user can
locate a computer by a name.
f. For example, a DNS server will resolve a name http://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP address to
uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
g. Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

Evolution
The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several technological & Infrastructural changes as
discussed below:
a. The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research Project Agency Network
(ARPANET).
b. ARPANET was developed by United States Department of Defense.
c. Basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among the various bodies of government.
d. Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called Hosts.

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 e. In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located at different countries and thus became
known as Internet.
f. By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols, DNS, WWW, browsers, scripting
languages etc.,Internet provided a medium to publish and access information over the web.
Advantages:
a. Information on almost every subject imaginable.
b. Powerful search engines
c. Ability to do research from your home versus research libraries.
d. Information at various levels of study. Everything from scholarly articles to ones directed at children.
e. Message boards where people can discuss ideas on any topic. Ability to get wide range of opinions. People
can find others that have a similar interest in whatever they are interested in.
f. The internet provides the ability of emails. Free mail service to anyone in the country.
g. Platform for products like SKYPE, which allow for holding a video conference with anyone in the world who
also has access.
h. Friendships and love connections have been made over the internet by people involved in love/passion over
similar interests.
i. Things such as Yahoo Answers and other sites where kids can have readily available help for homework.
j. News, of all kinds is available almost instantaneously. Commentary, on that news, from every conceivable
viewpoint is also available.
Disadvantages:
a. There is a lot of wrong information on the internet. Anyone can post anything, and much of it is garbage.
b. There are predators that hang out on the internet waiting to get unsuspecting people in dangerous
situations.
c. Some people are getting addicted to the internet and thus causing problems with their interactions of
friends and loved ones.
d. Pornography that can get in the hands of young children too easily.
e. Easy to waste a lot of time on the internet. You can start surfing, and then realize far more time has
passed than you realized. Internet and television together of added to the more sedentary lifestyles of
people which further exacerbate the obesity problem.
f. Internet has a lot of "cheater" sites. People can buy essays and pass them off as their own far more easily
than they used to be able to do.
g. There are a lot of unscrupulous businesses that have sprung up on the internet to take advantage of
people.
h. Hackers can create viruses that can get into your personal computer and ruin valuable data.
i. Hackers can use the internet for identity theft.
j. It can be quite depressing to be on the internet and realize just how uneducated so many people have
become in today's society.

Intranet
Intranet is defined as private network of computers within an organization with its own server and firewall.
Moreover, we can define Intranet as:
a. Intranet is system in which multiple PCs are networked to be connected to each other. PCs in intranet are not
available to the world outside of the intranet.
b. Usually each company or organization has their own Intranet network and members/employees of that
company can access the computers in their intranet.
c. Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
d. Each computer in Intranet is also identified by a IP Address, which is unique among the computers in that
Intranet.

Advantages
a. Intranets offering workforce productivity which can help user to find and observe information very fast. User
may also use applications according to their roles and tasks. Through web browser a user can get access to
entire contents of any website from anywhere or any time. Intranet also increase the ability of employee’s by
performing their job confidently very fast, and accurately.
b. Intranet permits business companies to share out information to employees according to their need or
requirements. Employees may also link to appropriate data at their expediency.
c. The best advantage offered by intranet is communications within an organization or business company,
landscape or portrait. Intranets are helpful to converse planned initiative that has an international reach all
46
 through the organization. The well-known examples of transportation are chat, email, and blogs. A actual
world example of Intranet is Nestle had a number of food processing plants.
d. The most significant advantage of Intranet is Web publishing which permits burdensome corporate
knowledge to be continued and effortlessly access all through the company using Web technologies and
hypermedia. The familiar examples of web publishing consist of training, news feed, company polices,
documents, and employee manual. Intranet can be accessed general internet standards such as CGI
applications, Flash files, and Acrobat files. Each unit can bring up to date the online copy of a document and
intranet always provides the most recent version to employees.
e. Intranet offering business operations and administration solutions because it also is used as a platform of
mounting and organizing applications across the internet world.
f. Another advantage of Intranet is time saving because there is no need to maintain physical documents such as
procedure manual, requisition forms, and internet phone list.
g. Now intranet facilitates their user o view and gets information and data via web browser. Intranet also saves
the money of any organization on printing, publishing and overall maintenance.
h. Through Intranet common corporate culture every user can view the similar information.
i. Intranet offer improve teamwork through which teamwork is enabled and all certified users can get access to
information.
j. Intranet providing cross platform capability for UNIX, Mac, Windows.
k. Intranet offering their user to write applications on their browser without cross-browser compatibility issues.
l. Intranet is a Web-based tool that permits users to produce a customized site according their requirements.
You can pull all Internet actions and most wanted contented into a single page which make easier to access.
Disadvantages of Intranet
a. Intranet has great features for interconnected manners but has some disadvantages too
b. Management does need to stop control of specific information, this problem can be minimized but with
appropriate prudence.
c. The other disadvantage of Intranet is security issue
d. Intranet gathered everything in one location which is really good but if it is not prearranged then you will
spoil everything.
e. The cost of intranet is very high but has lots of advantages after implementing.

47
 Introduction to Windows
Microsoft Windows is a multitasking operating system developed by Microsoft Corporation which uses Graphical
User Interface to interact with the users. Microsoft was originally named “Traf-O-Data” in 1972, was renamed as
“Micro-soft” in November 1975, then “Microsoft” on November 26, 1976. Microsoft entered the marketplace in
August 1981 by releasing version 1.0 of the operating system Microsoft DOS (MS-DOS), a 16-bit command-line
operating system. Bill Gates and Paul Allen founded Microsoft and windows operating system has been its primary
product.
Below is how Microsoft windows evolved over time:
a) Windows 1.0 – Nov 1985
b) Windows 2.0 – Dec 1987
c) Windows 3.0 – May 1990
d) Windows 95 – Aug 1995
e) Windows 98 – June 1998
f) Windows ME – Sep 2000
g) Windows XP – Oct 2001
h) Windows Vista – Nov 2006
i) Windows 7 – July 2009
j) Windows 8.0 – Oct 2012
k) Windows 8.1 – Oct 2013
l) Windows 10 – July 2015

Main Components of Windows

a) Configuration and maintenance
b) User interface
c) Applications and utilities
d) Windows Server components
e) File systems
f) Core components
g) Services
h) DirectX
i) Networking
j) Scripting and command-line
k) Kernel
l) NET Framework
m) Security
n) Deprecated components and apps
o) APIs

Desktop
It is the very first screen that you will see once the windows start. Here you will see “My Computer”, “My
Documents”, “Start Menu”, “Recycle Bin”, and the shortcuts of any applications that you might have
created.

Taskbar
At the bottom, you will see a row which is known as the taskbar. It has the currently running applications, you can
also pin applications that you frequently use by using an option Pin to Taskbar”.

Start Menu
This is located in the bottom left corner of Windows OS GUI. This is the place where the user can search for any
setting and for any application for their use. Users can uninstall or repair applications from the control panel. The
user can do a lot of activities just by searching through the start menu.

My Computer
When you double click on “My Computer” menu, it will let you navigate between your different computer drives and
the control panel tools. You can see and manage the contents that are inside your drive.

Recycle Bin
When you delete an item from any of your drives by making use of “delete” button or even by simply clicking right
clicking and selecting “delete” option, it is not deleted completely, instead, it is moved to “Recycle Bin” folder of
Windows. You can recover your content if you have deleted it by mistake from here or if you choose to delete the
items from here, it will get deleted permanently. Should you wish to delete the item in first go itself without moving
it to recycle bin, you can use the key “Shift+Del”

48
Features of Windows:
a) Windows Search -We can have numerous files and contents located on our system and sometimes we may
run out of memory about the exact location of our file. Windows Search is a search function included with
Windows that allows the user to search their entire computer
b) Windows File Transfer- We may have the need to transfer in or transfer out the files and contents from our
machine to other devices such as other computers or mobiles and tablets. We can do this by using an Easy
Transfer Cable, CDs or DVDs, a USB flash drive, wireless Bluetooth, a network folder, or an external hard
disk.
c) Windows Updates - Windows includes an automatic update feature with the intended purpose of keeping its
operating system safe and up-to-date.
d) Windows taskbar - At the bottom most part of your windows, you will see a row which is known as the
taskbar. It has the currently running applications, you can also pin applications that you frequently use by
using an option Pin to Taskbar”. The taskbar is the main navigation tool for Windows
e) Remote Desktop Connection- This feature of windows allows you to connect to another system and work
remotely on another system.

Advantages of Windows
a) Desktop as well as tablet-friendly OS
b) Switch between applications is very easy
c) Not much technical knowledge is required to operate windows
d) Windows OS is the dominant OS and enjoys more than 90% of Market share
e) MS OS have a great support community and it also has the largest number of applications
f) Microsoft provides a powerful set of Enterprise focused Operating System, Applications and the services
making it the most dominant player in the OS market.
g) More gaming

Disadvantages of Windows
a) There are privacy and security concerns and incidents and they are widespread. Linux OS is by far most
secure OS ever built.
b) Cost for upgrade
c) Windows OS attracts a large number of virus programs due to its largest market share and easy to breach
paradigm
d) Windows OS is not that much of touch-friendly
Windows explorer
Windows Explorer is an application that provides detailed information about your files, folders,
and drives. You can use it to see how your files are organized and to copy, move, and rename files,
as well as perform other tasks pertaining to files, folders, and drives. Explorer uses the directory
windows to graphically display the directory structure of your disk and files. Windows Explorer
displays the contents of the entire system in a hierarchical manner.

To open Windows Explorer, click Start  All programs  Accessories  Windows Explorer

Windows Explorer is divided into 2 panes. The left pane displays the list of drives & folders on the
computer. The right pane displays the contents of the selected drive or folder. By using these two
panes, you can browse through the contents of your computer in a single window. Folder is a list of
files (similar to Directory in MS-DOS)

49
Working with Folders:
Creating a Folder:
a) From the tree pane: select the directory under which you want to create a sub directory.
b) Choose FileNewFolder. On the right pane of the screen, a new folder is created.
c) Type in the name of the directory and press ENTER. You can notice the change in the
tree structure immediately.

Creating files:
After creating a folder, we can move files into it or create new files within the folder.
Selecting files & folders:
i) To select all the files in a folder:
Click the folder in the left pane  All the files will be displayed in the right pane.
To select all --CTRL + A
ii) To select consecutive files:
Use shift key + arrow keys
iii) To select non-consecutive files:
 In the right pane of Windows Explorer, click the first item to be selected.
 Hold down CTRL
 Click all other items that need to be selected.

Copying Files & Folders:

Once we select the files to be copied, the next step is to copy the
files. To copy the files & folders:
i) In Windows Explorer, select the file or folder to be copied.
ii) On the edit menu click copy
( the files are copied to the clip board. The clip board is a location where the information
you copy or cut is temporarily stored)
iii) Click the destination folder in the left pane.
iv) In W.Exp, click paste in the Edit menu.

Alternatively, to copy a file or folder, select it and then press ctrl +C. To paste, press ctrl+ V

To move the files or folders:

i) select the folder to be moved.
ii) On the edit menu, click cut
iii) Click the destination folder in the left pane
iv) On the edit menu, click paste.
Alternatively, to cut a file or folder, select and press ctrl +X & then to paste, press ctrl +V.
Renaming files or folders:
i) Select the item to be renamed
ii) Choose File  Rename
iii) Current name gets selected, Type in the new name
iv) Press Enter.
Deleting files or folders:
If you do not want certain files or folders, you can delete them. All the files & folders which
are deleted are moved to the recycle bin.
To delete:
i) Select
ii) On the file menu, click delete or press delete.
50
 A warning appears prompting you to confirm the file deletion.
iii) If you want to delete, click yes otherwise No.
Note: To delete a file permanently without moving it to the Recycle bin, select the file & then press
Shift+ Del.

51
 WORD PROCESSING
Definition: Word-processing is essentially typing, editing, and manipulation of a document in a
desired form.

Units of the Document:

Since word-processing is concerned with preparation of a document (in a desired form), it is
essential to know the units of the document:
a) Character: It refers to the alphabets, numerical digits, punctuations and other special symbols
which are commonly used in the text.
b) Word: A word is group of characters that are separated from other group of characters by
some delimiters like, comma, full stop and space.
c) Sentence: A sentence is a group of words preceded and followed by appropriate delimiting
characters.
d) Paragraph: It is a group of one or more sentences, paragraphs are separated by leaving blank
lines between them.
e) Pages: It is the amount of text that can be printed on one page of a paper.
f) Chapters: It is a collection of pages
g) Documents and files: It is a group of chapters. Usually, a complete document may be very short
such as a memo(or letter) or very long such as a book consisting of several chapters. These
documents are referred as ―Files‖.

Features of Word-processing:
a) Word-wrap
b) cursor control
c) editing
d) formatting
e) spell-check
f) thesaurus
g) macros
h) printing
i) file management
j) mail merge printing

a) Word-wrap: In word-processing packages, the text can be continuously typed and the computer
automatically starts a fresh line when a line is filled up. As soon as the length of a sentence
exceeds the right margin, the corresponding word is automatically adjusted in the following line.
This is called ―word-wrap‖. A paragraph is created only when carriage control is
externally given for a sentence.

b) Cursor Control: The four directional keys of the keyboard ( ) helps in locating the text
a. for editing in much the similar manner as that of a pointer or pencil.
c) Editing: Words or lines can be entered (inserted) or deleted in any part of the text with proper
alignment. Similarly, there is a facility to ‗recover ‘the text which is deleted by mistake or
accidentally. Another important facility is that any ‗word‘can be replaced by a new word
through out the file, wherever the old word appears. In addition to these, a block of text(which is
frequently used) can be prepared and moved or copied wherever desired in the file.

d) Formatting: The text formatting refers to the way the text is desired to appear on a page. This
includes following functions
a. setting left and right margins
b. paragraph settings
c. line spacing
d. selecting font specifications such as underline, bold, italics, superscripts
and subscripts
e. setting foot-notes
f. number of lines per page
g. printing page numbers and headings for ‗Header‘ and ‗Footer‘
h. table of contents
i. indexing the text
e) Spell-check: Word-processing packages provide checking of spellings facility
f) Thesaurus: It provides synonyms (or words with similar meanings)
g) Macros: A macro is a character or word that represents a series of keystrokes. The ability to
define macros allows us to save a lot of time by replacing common combinations of keystrokes.
h) Printing: It gives a ‗hard‘ copy of the text. The printing can be controlled after printing a fixed
number of pages or can be resumed from any specified page number.
52
 i) File management: This facility allows to create, delete, move & search for files.
j) Mail merge printing: This facility helps in printing same ―original‖ letter with
different addresses, so that each letter is ―original‖ and not a carbon copy.

Word-processing Packages: Several word-processing packages are available. Some of these are listed
below:
a) MSWORD (SOFT WORD)
b) WORDSTAR
c) CHIRATOR
d) NORTON EDITOR

MS-WORD
MS- Word is a word processor. The extension name of MS- word is .doc. It is an application used to
create, edit, print and save a document. It allows the user to insert pictures, tables, charts, drawings &
features that will make the text richer & more interactive.
( The term document refers to a file created using word processor)

Starting MS-Word:
Start  All Programs  MS-office MS-
word MS-word icon is w.

The default Word document includes the following layout tools:

a) Title bar: displays the document name and the application.

b) Menu bar: Contains the list of menus available inside word, each menu contains a specific
set of commands.
c) Standard toolbar: provides shortcuts in the form of buttons for frequently performed tasks.
d) Formatting toolbar: Contains a list of formatting options available inside the format menu.
e) Horizontal & Vertical rulers: used for measurement purposes like any normal ruler;
the default unit of measure is in inches.
f) White page area: is the space area where you type, edit and format your document.
g) Insertion point : is the blinking vertical line that indicates the position on the screen where
text or graphics will be placed.
h) Task pane : is a small window within the word window that provides shortcuts to
commonly used tasks.
i) Scroll bars : are used to move up and down or left and right in a document.
j) Status bar: displays the details such as the page number the user is working on, section
no., page no. out of the total pages found in the document, line number, column number
etc.

Standard Toolbar:
This toolbar contains buttons to allow you to perform the basic operations such as opening and closing a
document, moving and printing data.

Function of commonly used buttons

53
 a) New: Creates a new blank document based on the default template
b) Open: Opens or finds an existing file
c) Save: Saves the active file with its current file name, location and file format
d) Print: Prints the active file - for more print options go to the File menu and select Print
e) Print preview : Shows how the document will look when you print it.
f) Spelling & Grammer: Spelling, grammar and writing style checker
g) Cut : Removes the selection from the document and places it on the clipboard
h) Copy : Copies the selected item(s) to the clipboard
i) Paste : Places the content of the clipboard at the insertion point
j) Format painter : Copies the format from a selected object or text and applies to other objects
k) Undo : Reverses the last command, use pull-down menu to undo several steps
l) Redo : Reverses the action of the Undo button, use the pull-down menu to redo several steps
m) Insert table: Insert a table into the document, or make a table of selected text
n) Insert Excel worksheet: Inserts an Excel spreadsheet into the Word document
o) Columns : Changes the number of columns in a document
p) Drawing: Displays or hides the Drawing toolbar
q) Zoom (100%): Enlarge or reduce the display of the active document

Formatting Toolbar:
The formatting Tool bar is the easiest way to change many attributes of a text.

a. Style menu: Allows you to make your text Bold, Italic, underlined… depending on the
style you choose.
b. Font : Allows you to change the font by clicking on the drop-down arrow on the right of
the font name box. You can view a list of fonts available, you can scroll down to view
more fonts and select the font name you wish to use by clicking on its name.
c. Font size : Allows you to change the font size by clicking inside the Font size box and
entering a value or by clicking on the drop-down arrow on the right of the box to view a
list of sizes available. Select then a size by clicking on it.
i. Note : A Font size of 11 or 12 is best for paragraphs of text.
d. Bold, Italic, Underline : Each button respectively allows you to make your text appear
as bold, italic or underlined.
e. Alignment : Each button respectively allows you to make your text aligned to the left,
center or right side of the page. You can also justify the text across the page using the
justify button.
f. Line spacing : Allows you to set the amount of space that word puts when go to a new line.
g. Text orientation : Allows you to change the typing direction of your text, from left to
right or right to left manner.

h. Numbering, Bullets : Allows you to make your text appear as a bullets list or as a
numbering list.
i. Increase / Decrease indent : Allows you to increase or decrease the indentation
of your paragraph in relation to the side of the page.
j. Outside Border : Allows you to add a border around a text selection.
k. Highlight color : Allows you to change the color behind a text selection.
l. Font colour : Allows you to change the colour of the text.

Features of FILE MENU ( ALT F):

a) New - Opens new Word file (Blank Document file)

b) Open - Opens the existing files
54
 c) Save - Saves the file with one name
d) Save as -Saves the file with more than one name( with different formats)
e) Save as Web page – This is used to save a document in a Web style. (with HTML extension)
f) Versions - This is used to do the parts of work in small parts. i.e a bulk ( big/ more) work can
be done in small parts.
g) Web Page Preview – This shows the web page in printable form.
h) Page set up - To set the margin, paper size, Orientation
i) Print - To get the printout.( Specified pages and no. of copies).
j) Properties - This gives the details about the document ( the type of file, the size of file, the date
of creation, date of modification and file location)
k) Send - This is used to send the file document to internet mail to some other person.
l) Exit - To close the Ms-word.

Features of EDIT MENU (ALT E):

a) Undo - Will take the previous command (ctrl +Z)

b) Redo - Will take the opposite action of undo ( Ctrl + Y)
c) Cut - Can cut a selected text (
Ctrl + X) Copy - Can copy a
selected text ( Ctrl + C) Paste- Can
paste the selected text ( Ctrl + V) Del-
Removes the selected text
d) Find - Used to find the part of text word \ character in the file (Ctrl + F)
e) Find Next – (F3) Finding \ finding next : Used to repeat the finding process.
f) Replace - Used to replace any part of Text / word / Character with another word/ character.(Ctrl +
H)
g) Paste special – This will paste the copied (or) cut text in a form of an object. It will paste in box
which Cannot be altered.
h) Go To - Curser goes to the specified page, specified line, specified paragraph.(Ctrl + G)

Features of FORMAT MENU ( ALT + O)

a. Font - used to change the font face, style, size etc.

b. Paragraph - Used to set the space between paragraphs and also between the lines
c. Bullets - Used to highlight points in number wise / bullet wise.
d. Borders & Shades - Used to apply different borders to the table / to the page.
55
 e. Columns – Used to write the text in column wise.
i. To have a break in columns, a column break is used ( insert menu  break 
Columns) Ctrl + Shift + Enter
f. Drop Cap - Used to drop the letter to different lines.
g. Text direction - Used to change the direction of drop cap (Note : To use text
direction, drop cap must be used first)
h. Change case - Used to change the case of the text.
i. Toggle – This converts lower case letters to upper case & vice –versa in a word.
j. Back Ground - This is used to change the back ground colour of the document but
the color can be seen only in the web layout.
k. Theme - This is used to change the document, backgrounds with some
existing design background. This shows the background only in the web layout.
l. Style - This is used to change the writing fashion of the document, which already exist.
m. Frames - Frames are used to write different documents in one single document.

Some important features of Tools menu:

a) Spelling &Grammar : Used to check the spelling and correct the words with related word. (
F7)
b) Thesaurus : Used to know the synonym (meaning) of the word. (Shift +F7)
c) Mail merge : used to type the letters with the same matter but different addresses.

MS WORD – working with files:

a) Creating a New document:
a. Click the New Blank document button on the standard tool bar. (or)
b. From the Menu bar, choose File  New, the New document task pane will open,
and select Blank document.
b) Opening Existing documents:
a. Click the open button found on the Standard tool bar. (or)
b. From the task pane, select getting started and the select more (or)
c. From the Menu bar, select File  Open
c) Saving a document:
a. Click the Save button on the Tool bar. (or)
b. From the Menu bar, select File  Save (or)
c. Follow the key sequence Ctrl + S
d. Save dialog box appears. Type the name and click Save.
d) Printing a document :
a. Select File  Print (or)
b. Click on the Print button on the Standard Tool bar (or)
c. Click Ctrl + P
d. Print dialog box appears. Select All pages (or) Current page (or) type the page
numbers and also select number of copies according to the requirement and click
O.K
e) Closing a document:
a. Select File  close
b. Click on the small X found on the right top next to the Menu bar and the Title bar.

MS WORD - Editing Text :

Typing and Inserting Text:
To enter text in your document, position the insertion point i.e a vertical blinking line, where you
want the text to appear and type it in.
Word will automatically wrap text as it reaches the end of a line. Press enter to start a new paragraph.
When you reach the end of a page, word will automatically break text onto the next page. If you
want, you can start a new page at any point by inserting a page break. To do so, press ctrl + Enter.

56
Word offers two modes for adding text to your documents: Insert mode and overwrite mode. In Insert
mode, characters typed are inserted into the text to the left of the insertion point, pushing any
characters to the right of the insertion point further to the right. In overtype mode, the text you type
will replace the existing text.
Note: The Insert key is a toggle key. This means that the same key can be used to switch back and
forth between two different modes.
Selecting Text:
In order to change the format of the text you just typed, it must be first highlighted, i.e selected with
the mouse cursor.
To highlight the whole text or part of it, locate the mouse at the start of the text you wish to highlight
and click the left button, then drag the mouse over the desired text while keeping the left mouse
button pressed.
Shortcuts used for selecting a portion of the text:
 Whole word : Double click within the word.
 Whole paragraph: Triple click within the paragraph.
 Sentence : ctrl + click in a sentence
 Entire document : Edit  select all ( ctrl + A)
Deleting text:
 Use the BACKSPACE or the DELETE key to delete text.
 BACKSPACE key will delete text to the left of the cursor and DELETE key will erase text
to the right.
 To delete a large section of text, highlight the text using any of the methods outlined above
and press the DELETE key.
Moving, copying and pasting text:
Cut text:
Highlight the text you need to move and follow one of the methods listed below:
 From the Menu bar, select Edit  cut (or)
 From the standard tool bar, click on the cut button. (or)
 Follow the key sequence Ctrl + X
Copy text:
 From the Menu bar, select Edit  copy (or)
 From the standard toolbar, click the Copy button (or)
 Follow the key sequence Ctrl + C
Paste Text:
To paste previously cut or copied text, move the cursor to the location you want to move the text to
and follow one of the methods listed below:
 From the menu bar, select Edit  Paste (or)
 From the standard Tool bar, click the Paste button (or)
 Follow the key sequence Ctrl + V

57
 MS -EXCEL
Spreadsheet
a) A spreadsheet is a document made of columns and rows of cells that can be used to sort and
manipulate data. Each cell is designed to hold one piece of data, such as numbers, letters, and/or
formulas that reference other cells. The data can then be arranged, formatted, graphed, and
referenced in other documents
b) A spreadsheet or worksheet is a file made of rows and columns that help sort data, arrange data easily, and
calculate numerical data. What makes a spreadsheet software program unique is its ability to calculate values
using mathematical formulas and the data in cells. A good example of how a spreadsheet may be utilized is
creating an overview of your bank's balance.
c) Spreadsheets are grid-based files designed to organize information and perform calculations with scalable
entries. People all around the world use spreadsheets to create tables for any personal or business need.
d) A Spreadsheet is a ledger sheet that lets the user enter, edit, and manipulate numerical data.
e) A Spreadsheet usually consists of a series of rows & columns in which data entries can be made

Components of a spreadsheet
a) Workbook- A Workbook is a file in a spreadsheet package that contains one or more worksheets. The
worksheets are made up of rows & columns in which you work and store your data. A Workbook allows the
user to organize various kinds of related information in a single file.
b) Database - Spreadsheet programs such as Excel have special features, which can be used to manage data
values entered in the cells of the spreadsheet. These features, which are found on the Data menu, were
incorporated in Excel but they belong to Database Management System software. Examples of such features
include: Filtering of records, use of Forms, calculating of Subtotals, data validation, Pivot tables and Pivot
chart reports.
c) Graphs/Charts -A Chart is a graphical/pictorial representation of data in a worksheet. Charts are used to
summarize data in a worksheet in a pictorial form.
d) They enable the users to present complex data elements from a worksheet in a simple format that they can
understand. Examples of charts are: Pie charts, Line graphs, Bar charts, Histograms, Column charts, etc.

Types of Spreadsheets:
a) Manual spreadsheet -A Manual spreadsheet is ledger book with many sheets of papers divided into rows
and columns for entering/writing data. The data is entered manually using a pen or pencil.
b) Electronic Spreadsheet- A computer program that looks like the manual ledger sheet with rows & columns
for entering data that can be manipulated mathematically using of formulae.

Advantages of Electronic Spreadsheets over Manual Worksheets.

a) Has a large worksheet for data entry & manipulation as compared to manual worksheet
b) Has inbuilt formulae called Functions that are non-existent in manual worksheets. These functions enable
the user to quickly manipulate mathematical data.
c) Uses the power of the computer to quickly carry out operations.
d) Has better formatting & editing qualities than the manual worksheet.

e) Utilizes the large storage space available on computer storage devices to save & retrieve documents.
f) Can easily be modified in its form, while a manual spreadsheet involves a lot of manual calculations & are
very difficult to amend.
g) The user can very quickly & efficiently perform complicated computations using the information stored in an
electronic spreadsheet.
h) It is accurate in its calculations & allows automatic recalculation on formulae.
i) I.e., when one value/figure is changed, the result of the formula is automatically adjusted by the computer so
as to correspond with the different input. For a manual spreadsheet, changing one value means rubbing the
result & writing the correct one again.
j) It offers graphical representation of data leading to comprehensive decisions.
k) Replaces the pencil & paper approach of the manual operations of the worksheet.
l) I.e., it enables the user to produce neat work because; all the work is edited on the screen and a final copy is
printed. With a manual spreadsheet, neatness & legibility of the work depends on the writer’s hand-writing
skills.
m) It improves on the capabilities & speed of the Calculator.

Examples of spreadsheet programs

a) Google Sheets - (online and free).
b) iWork Numbers - Apple Office Suite.
c) LibreOffice -> Calc (free).
d) Lotus 1-2-3 (discontinued).
e) Lotus Symphony - Spreadsheets.
f) Microsoft Excel.
g) OpenOffice -> Calc (free).
h) VisiCalc (discontinued).

Application areas of spreadsheets (Areas where Spreadsheets are used)

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1. Accounting.
Spreadsheets provide an easy & streamlined means of financial management. They are mostly used by
Accountants to record their daily transactions & also keep financial records.
For example; a spreadsheet can be used to do the following:
 Record sales & purchases.
 Calculate profits.
 Produce Invoices, and also compile financial statements.
 Prepare budgets.
 Assist the management of an organization to monitor the current state of payments from customers in
relation to goods delivered.
 Detect aged debtors (i.e., those people who have owed you money for more than the period allowed in your
terms of business.
 Track the value of assets over time (i.e., Appreciation and Depreciation).
Note. Most spreadsheet programs come with inbuilt functions such as SUM, AVERAGE, PRODUCT, etc,
which enable the Accountant to carry out his/her daily accounting tasks easily.

2. Data management.
A spreadsheet enables information to be produced easily and kept up-to-date.

For example;
 It enables the user to create, edit, save, retrieve and print worksheet data & records.
 It enables data to be arranged neatly in tabular structure.
 Related data can be typed on the same worksheet. If the data is on different worksheets, the worksheets can
be linked so that the data can be accessed easily.
Some of the data management functions include:
 Sorting (i.e., arranging worksheet records in a particular order so as to easily access the data items).
 Filtering (i.e., displaying only the records that meet a given condition).
 Use of Forms to enter & view records.
 Use of Total/Subtotal function.
3. Scientific Applications.
Spreadsheet programs can be used by Scientists & Researchers to compile & analyse their results.
4. Statistical analysis / Mathematical operations.
Spreadsheets provide a set of data analysis tools that can be used to develop complex statistical analyses. In
addition, some of the tools generate charts.
Examples of statistical functions include:
 AVERAGE – used to calculate the mean of a set of values.
 MEDIAN – used to give the value in the middle of a set of values.
Such mathematical operations can be used by:
- Teachers to compile their students’ marks and produce results.
- Clerks & Secretaries to enable them easily create tables of figures and manipulate them quickly as required
5. Forecasting (What if analysis).
The automatic recalculation feature makes it possible to use the “What if” analysis technique.
What if analysis is a feature in a spreadsheet that is used to find out the effect of changing certain values in a
worksheet on other cells.
It involves changing the value of one of the arguments in a formula in order to see the difference the change
would make on the result of the calculation.
This method can be used for financial forecasting, budgeting, cost analysis, etc.

MS-Excel is a window based spreadsheet developed by Microsoft corporation. It includes all features
of a spreadsheet package like recalculation, graphs & functions. It also provides many Mathematical,
Financial & Statistical functions. Thus it is used in many scientific and engineering environments for
analyzing data. Excel can even hold graphic objects like pictures & images.

Some important features of MS-Excel:

a) Window based application: Excel like all other applications has Toolbars, Shortcut
Menus, Auto correct, Online help and Wizards.
b) Workbooks: Workbooks are the files in which worksheets related to a project are held.
c) OLE support: Object linking and Embedding is a feature through which Excel can contain
any object like a document, a picture etc.
d) Maintaining high volume of data: Excel can contain large volume of data. A worksheet
can contain 65536 rows and 256 columns. A single cell can contain a maximum of 255
characters. One workbook can contain a maximum of 256 worksheets.
e) Availability of functions: Several Mathematical, financial & statistical functions are
available in an Excel package.
f) Availability of Charts & Graphs: MS-Excel allows users to view data entered as tables in a
graphical form as charts, which helps the user to easily understand, analyze data & compare
data.
g) Data Analysis Tools: MS-Excel provides a set of data analysis tools called Analysis Tool pack.
h) Sorting capability: Excel has the capability of sorting any data in Ascending or
Descending order.
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 i) Auto fill feature: Excel has the feature which allows to fill cells with repetitive data such
as chronological dates or numbers and repeated text.

Getting started with Excel:

An Excel document is called a workbook. By default, Excel workbook contains 3 worksheets
designated as sheet 1, sheet 2, sheet 3.
The extension name of excel workbook is .xls
We can start excel in many ways:
1. Start  Programs  Microsoft office  Microsoft Excel  hit enter.
2. Start  Run  Type Excel  hit enter
3. Double click on the Microsoft application Icon.

Components of the Excel window:

An Excel window has several unique elements identified in the figure below:

a) Rows, columns & cell: In a worksheet rows are numbered from top to bottom. The columns
are labeled with letters from left to right. Rows are numbered from 1 to 65,536 and columns
labeled from A to IV (256 columns).
b) Title bar: The title bar contains the name of the program Microsoft Excel and the default
name of the workbook Book1 that would change as soon as you save your file and give
another name.
c) Menu bar : The Menu bar contains menus that include all the commands you need to use to
work your way through Excel such as File, Edit, View, Insert, Format, Tools, Data, Window
and Help.
d) Tool Bar: Tool Bars are usually shortcuts for menu items. Standard and formatting toolbars
are displayed by default.
e) Active cell: The cell in which you are currently working.
f) Formula bar: displays the contents of the active cell.
g) Name box: displays the cell address of the active cell. Column letter followed by the
row number. Ex: B6
h) Worksheet area: The middle portion of screen which occupies a major area is called
worksheet area. In this area, information or data (i.e.) either textual or numerical can be
entered and the results can be displayed. A worksheet is a large work area of 65,536 rows
and 256 columns.
i) Status bar: located at the very bottom of the screen displays brief information about
activating features within the worksheet area.
j) Sheet tabs: appear above the status bar displaying the names of the worksheets.

Standard Toolbar
The Standard toolbar, located beneath the menu bar, has buttons for commonly performed tasks like
adding a column of numbers, printing, sorting, and other operations. Excel let's you customize the
toolbar or even display multiple toolbars at the same time. The Standard Excel XP toolbar appears in
the figure below.

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Formatting toolbar
The Formatting toolbar, located beneath the Standard toolbar bar, has buttons for various
formatting operations like changing text size or style, formatting numbers and placing borders
around cells.

Formula bar & Name box

The formula bar is located beneath the toolbar at the top of the Excel worksheet. Use the formula
bar to enter and edit worksheet data. The contents of the active cell always appear in the formula
bar. When you click the mouse in the formula bar, an X and a check mark appear. You can click the
check icon to confirm and completes editing, or the X to abandon editing.

Name box
The Name box displays the reference of the selected cells in the form of column label followed by
row number.
Creating a New Workbook:
The steps to create a new workbook are,
1. On the File menu, click New.
The new workbook task pane appears at the right side of the screen. Click blank workbook.
A new workbook with 3 worksheets appears. By default, the workbook is named as Book 1, and
sheet 1 is the active worksheet & A1 is the active cell.
Entering data:
You can enter text, numbers and dates in an Excel worksheet.
To enter data of any type,
1. Select the cell by clicking on it.
2. Type in the information.
3. Press the Enter key.
When you begin typing, your data also appears in the formula bar.
Editing text:
The easiest way to edit the contents of a cell is to select the cell and then retype the entry. The
new entry replaces the old contents.
Alternatively, to edit the data in a cell, press F2.
Ex: Suppose you find that in the cell A6, you have entered the marks as 78 instead of 87, then
click on A6 and type 87 enter

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 You can also edit part of the data in a cell:
1. Double click the cell you want to edit. The insertion point appears within the cell.
2. Delete the part of the data that you do not wish to keep.
3. Retype the data & press enter.
Formatting a worksheet:
Changing the style or appearance of data in a worksheet is called formatting. You can format the
data in a worksheet by:
 Changing the position of data in a cell
 Changing the font, size, style & colour.
Aligning data:
By default, any text you enter in Excel is aligned to the left and any value or number is aligned to
the Right. To change the default alignment, you can use the alignment buttons on the formatting
tool bar.

Formatting Numbers:
Formatting data in a worksheet includes changing the number of decimal places, displaying dates,
times & fractions and adding currency symbols.
To format the number in a cell, the steps are: Format/Cell/N/umber/Decimal places/2

Formatting Text: Text can be formatted using the buttons on the formatting toolbar. Font of a
cell, font size can be changed. The font style can also be changed to bold, Italic etc.
Inserting Rows & Columns:
In Excel, rows & columns can be inserted or deleted without affecting the surrounding rows,
columns & cells.
To insert a row,
1. Rest the mouse pointer over the row above which you want to insert the new row.
2. On the Insert menu, click rows.
A row is inserted and the existing row moves down after the new
row. Similarly, to insert a column,
1. Rest the mouse pointer over the column before which you want to insert the new Column.
2. On the Insert menu, click columns.
Changing Row height & Column width:
By default, every row is 12.75 points high and every column is 8.43 characters wide. As you fill it
with data, however you have to change the size of rows & columns so that it is fitted to the length of
the data. To Resize a column:
1. Rest the mouse pointer on the column boundary on the right side.
2. The shape of the mouse pointer changes to
3. Drag the boundary until the required width is obtained.

(OR)
1. The column which is to be adjusted is made active by clicking on column letter.
2. The column option is selected from the Format menu.
3. Click on the width option. A dialogue box is displayed.
4. Type in the required size of the column in the text box column
width. Similarly, Row height can also be adjusted by selecting the rows.
Sorting: Highlight the cells that should be sorted and click the sort Ascending (A-Z) button or Sort
Descending (Z-A) button found on the Standard toolbar.
Printing: To print the worksheet, select File  Print from the Menu bar (or) click on the Print button
from the Standard Toolbar (or) follow the key sequence Ctrl + p
Inserting Page breaks: To set the page breaks within the worksheet, select the row you want to
appear just below the page break by clicking the row‘s label. Then choose Insert  page break
from the Menu bar.
When you attempt to print a worksheet Excel automatically inserts page breaks view.
File menu  page break preview
The page breaks are shown in dasher lines. If the automatic allocation of page breaks does not
satisfy with your requirements, you can add the page breaks in the required space.
Step 1: select a cell above which the page break is needed. After that, select the full row until the

62
data in the sheet exists.
Step 2: select insert  page
break Saving a workbook:
To save a workbook,
 File  Save (or)
 Ctrl +S (or)
 click on the save button on the Tool bar.
Save dialogue box appears. Type the name and click Save.

Formulas:
In Excel. One of the powerful features is formulas. A formula is an equation that is used to
perform calculations on data in a worksheet. We can use formula to perform Mathematical,
Statistical & date/time operations on a single value or a set of values by using operators.
The cells in which formulas are stored, display the result of the calculation and not the
formula. In Excel, a formula starts with an equal (=) sign and should be followed by the
operation to be performed. We can use any number of operators in a single formula. MS-
Excel evaluates the formula according to the order of precedence of the operators.

Operator Operation Order of precedence

( ) Bracket 1
^ Exponentiation 2
*, / Multiplication , Division 3
+ / - Addition, Subtraction 4
& Concatenation 5
= / > /< Comparisons 6

63
Examples of the formula expressions:
1. Suppose the values in the cells B2, C2, D2 are 34, 28, 56 respectively. To add these values
and to have the result in the cell F2,
Step i) Click on the cell in which total marks is to be displayed, i.e F2
ii) Type ― = ( B2 + C2 + D2 )‖
iii) Press Enter
The value ―118‖ will be displayed in F2.
2. Suppose the value of the cell B6 is 78345. Divide the value by 5 and have it in the cell
E6: Step i) Click the cell E6.
ii) Type ― = (B6/5) ―
iii) Press Enter
The value ―15669‖ will be displayed in the cell E6.
3. Multiply the value 549 of the cell C3 with the value 43 of the cell F3 and have the result
in the cell I3.
Step i) Click the cell I3
ii) Type ― = ( C3 * F3)
iii) press Enter
The result ―23607‖ will be displayed in the cell I3.
Functions :
A function is a built-in, readymade and frequently used formula that accepts data, perform
calculations & returns results.
To enter a function in a cell,
i) Click the cell in which you want the result of the function to be displayed.
ii) Type ―=‖ sign.
iii) Type the function name.
iv) Type the cell range & other arguments within brackets.
v) Press Enter.
Note : To specify a range of cells, a colon (:) is used between the first & last cell
addresses. Example: =Average(B1: B10)
Calculates the average of the values in the cells B1 to B10
Mathematical functions with syntax and purpose:
i) Sum( number1, number2,…) – gives the sum of the values in a specified range
ii) Abs( number) - gives the absolute value of the number
iii) Fact( number) - gives the factorial of the number
iv) Sqrt(number) - gives the square root of the number
v) Log(number) - gives the logarithm of the number
Statistical functions with syntax and purpose:
i) Average( range of cells) - calculates the average of the values in a specified range
ii) Stdev(range of cells) - calculates the standard deviation of the given data
iii) Mean( range of cells) - calculates the mean of the given data
iv) Max( range of cells) - gives the maximum value within the range specified
v) count( ) - counts how many numbers are there in the list of arguments

Function Wizard :
The Function Wizard is a tool in Excel through which a user can enter formulas in the correct format
without any errors. It contains all the functions according to the type such as Mathematical,
Statistical, Date/time, Financial etc.

Steps to use the function Wizard:

64
 1. The cell in which the function is to be inserted, is selected.
2. Select the function option from the Insert menu. The Function Wizard screen is displayed. It
lists all the functions available.
3. The function needed is selected. Click O.K
4. A dialogue box is displayed in which arguments are accepted.
5. Enter the arguments. The selected cell on the worksheet will automatically contain the formula.
6. Click O.K. The result is shown in the selected cell.
Creating Charts :
Charts in Excel are used to represent data pictorially. We can use different types of charts to
represent data.
Types of charts which are available in Excel:
1. Column charts
2. Bar charts
3. Line
4. pie
5. XY (scatter)
6. Area
7. Doughnut
8. Radar
9. Surface
10. Bubble
11. Stock
12. Cylinder, Cone & Pyramid
Creating a Chart :
Step i) Enter the data in a table.
ii) Open the Insert Menu and select Chart
iii) In the Chart Wizard – Step 1 of 4, select the type of chart you want to make and click Next
iv) In the step 2 of 4, enter chart source data and click Next
vi) In the step 3 of 4, enter the chart options like label of the chart and click Next
vii) In the step 4 of 4, give the chart location where you want the chart to be located and
press Finish.

Column Chart: Column charts are one of the most common types of graphs used to display data.
A column chart represents data in the form of a series of vertical bars. Each bar represents a value.
For example, to draw a column chart for the production of different crops in a region:

S.No. A B
crop Production(tons)

1 Paddy 53
2 Wheat 24
65
 3 Maize 18
4 Groundnut 82

To construct a bar chart for the above data:

Step i) Enter the data in a table.
ii) Open the Insert Menu and select Chart
iii) In the Chart Wizard – Step 1 of 4, select Column chart and click Next
iv) In the step 2 of 4, enter chart source data
v) In the step 3 of 4, enter the chart options like label of the chart
vi) In the step 4 of 4, give the chart location where you want the chart to be located and
press Finish.

production of crops

90
80
70
production(tonns)

60
50
Series1
40
30
20
10
0
paddy wheat maize groundnut
type of crop

66
Pie Chart:

A Pie chart is used to represent the distribution of a categorical data. In this chart, a circle is
divided into sectors, whose area are proportional to the frequencies or percentages of cases under
various categories.
Data on each variable is entered in the Excel worksheet in a row or column with suitable
headings. Then we select the data of the first series and choose pie chart and proceed as per the
options given in the dialogue box. A separate chart pie chart should be drawn for each data set.

For example, to draw a pie chart for the production of different crops in a region:

S.No. A B
crop Production(tons)

1 Paddy 53
2 Wheat 24
3 Maize 18
4 Groundnut 82

production of crops

30%
paddy

46% w heat
maize
groundnut
14%
10%

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 MS-ACCESS
The Database is an organized collection of data related to a particular topic or purpose. The database
serves as a base from which a desired information can be retrieved, many meaningful conclusions can
be drawn. A database stored electronically has distinct advantages over a manually organized system.
A database can be maintained in a computer by using a database management system(DBMS).
DBMS is an application that enables to maintain data in a database. Maintaining data involves storing,
organizing and retrieving data.
MS-Access is a Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) that is used to store and manipulate
large amount of information. The extension name of Ms-Access file is .mdb.

To start MS-Access:
1. Start Programs MS office  Ms-Access  Enter
2. Start  Run Ms-Access Enter
Database objects.
a) Tables : Store database data in Rows (records) and columns (fields). Every row represents a
Record. Each piece of information in a record is called a Field.
a. Ex: A table can contain personal information about all the students in a college.
b. Every row containing information about a student represents a record. The records in the
student table can include fields such as Admission number, Student name, Address,
Phone number etc.
b) Queries : used to retrieve information from a database based on specific conditions.
Ex: A Query can be used to extract details about students studying in a particular
class.
c) Forms : used as interfaces for users to enter, view and modify data in a Table.
d) Reports : used to present data from tables or Queries in a format of our choice. i.e the printable
form of the table or query or form. We cannot make changes to the data in a report. We can
format the data in a report.
e) Pages : display shortcuts to data access pages in the database. A data access page displays data
stored in a database over the internet.
f) Macros : used to automate frequently performed tasks.
Ex: we can create a macro to print a report automatically.
g) Modules : used to perform advanced database operations, such as validating data
against complex conditions.

Creating a Database :
A Database can be created by using the database Wizard or by using the Blank Database
command.
 The database Wizard is used to create tables, forms, queries and reports by following a
series of steps provided by the wizard.
 The Blank Database command is used to create a blank database. All database objects should
be created manually.
Click on File menu  New  Enter
A window appears  give a name to the database

Creating a Table :
1. Open the database in which the table is to be
created. The database window appears.

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 2. under objects, click Tables and then click New on the database window
toolbar. The New Table dialog box appears.
Commands in the New Table dialog box
Command Purpose
Create table by Used to create a table by entering values directly in a row and column format
entering data

Design view Used to assign fields for the new table and modify field properties
Table wizard Used to create a table through a guided sequence of steps
I. Create Table by entering data:
a) Click on Table (object) in the main switch board.
b) Click on create table on Datasheet view  now a window appears  here we find fields
( field1, field2,……)
c) Give the field names ( Name, roll no., marks etc)
d) Click on close button of the table and save the table with some name
e) To enter details into the table, click on table in the main switch board and double click on
the table name.
f) Enter the details

Data types in MS-Access :

The following list summarizes all the field data types available in MS- Access, their uses and
their storage sizes.
a. Text : used for text or combinations of text and numbers, such as addresses or for
numbers that do not require calculations, such as phone numbers, or postal codes.
b. Stores up to 255 characters.
c. Memo : Used for lengthy text and numbers, such as notes or descriptions. Stores
upto 64,000 characters.
d. Number : used for data to be included in Mathematical calculations, except
calculations involving money. Stores 1,2,4 or 8 bytes.
e. Date / Time : used for dates and times. Stores 8 bytes.
f. Currency : used for currency values and to prevent rounding off during calculations.
Stores 8 bytes.
g. Auto Number : used for unique sequential or random numbers that are automatically
inserted when a record is added.
h. Yes /No : used for data that can be only one of two possible values, such as yes/ No,
True/False, On/Off.
i. OLE object : used for OLE objects like pictures, graphs and other binary data.
Stores up to 1 GB.
II. Create a table in Design view:
a) click on table (object) in the main switch board.
b) Here click on ― create table in design view‖ Now a window appears  here type the
field names and their data types respectively.
Ex:
Field name Data types
Roll No Auto Number
Name Text
Marks Number
1. click on the close button of the table and save it with some name
2. To enter data into the table, double click on the table created.
3. Now enter the details.
Primary & Foreign keys:
Data should be checked for redundancy before it is stored in a database. Keys are used to
maintain the integrity of data. Keys contain unique values that help to filter redundant
information from the input data. Keys are of two types: primary & foreign.
Primary key: The field in a table that uniquely identifies each record is called the primary key.
Usually this field is sequentially numbered.
Ex : Admission number field
Foreign key : When a primary key of one table appears as a field in another table, the field is
called the foreign key in the second table.
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Queries :
 By using queries we can view, change and analyze data in different ways. You can also
use them as the source of records for forms and reports.
 You can bring together data from multiple tables and sort it in a particular order.
 You can perform calculations on groups of records.
Forms :
 In a table, number of records are displayed at a time. But, if the table has many fields, then
it may not be possible for a user to view all of them. The screen may be too small to fit it.
The user may have to scroll horizontally or vertically to view the rest of the fields/
records.
 In forms, the data can be displayed as per the users requirement. The records are generally
displayed one at a time. The fields can be arranged as the user wants it. Pictures can be
added to a form. The display and contents of the form is controlled fully by the user.
 In forms there are 3 views,
i. Design ii. Datasheet & iii. Form view
 The datasheet view shows many records whereas form view displays single record. You
can toggle between these three views using the View Tool.
Report:
The data shown in a table, Query and forms are meant for displaying it on screen, but when
you take the printout or the Hard copy, it is known as Report. In the database window, the
open button is replaced by the preview button, when you click the report tab. Reports can be
viewed either in print preview mode or design mode. Data cannot be edited in the reports.
The report preview shows how the data will appear on taking out the printouts.

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