Chapter 1

Stoichiometry of Formulas and

Equations
Mole - Mass Relationships in Chemical Systems

4.1 The Mole

4.2 Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound

4.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

4.4 Calculating Quantities of Reactant and Product

4.5 Fundamentals of Solution Stoichiometry

 The Mole

The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that

contains the same number of entities as there are
atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.

The term “entities” refers to atoms, ions, molecules,

formula units, or electrons – in fact, any type of particle.

One mole (1 mol) contains 6.022x1023 entities (to

four significant figures).
This number is called Avogadro’s number and is
abbreviated as N.
Figure 3.1 One mole (6.022x1023 entities) of some familiar
substances.
 Molar Mass

The molar mass (M) of a substance is the mass per

mole of its entites (atoms, molecules or formula units).

For monatomic elements, the molar mass is the

same as the atomic mass in grams per mole. The
atomic mass is simply read from the Periodic Table.
The molar mass of Ne = 20.18 g/mol.
For molecular elements and for compounds, the
formula is needed to determine the molar mass.

The molar mass of O2 = 2 x M of O

= 2 x 16.00
= 32.00 g/mol

The molar mass of SO2 = 1 x M of S + 2 x M of O

= 32.00 + 2(16.00)
= 64.00 g/mol
 Table 3.1 Information Contained in the Chemical Formula of
Glucose C6H12O6 ( M = 180.16 g/mol)

Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O)

Atoms/molecule of 6 atoms 12 atoms 6 atoms

compound

Moles of atoms/mole 6 mol of atoms 12 mol of atoms 6 mol of atoms

of compound

Atoms/mole of 6(6.022x1023) atoms 12(6.022x1023) atoms 6(6.022x1023) atoms

compound

Mass/molecule of 6(12.01 amu) 12(1.008 amu) 6(16.00 amu) =

compound = 72.06 amu = 12.10 amu 96.00 amu

Mass/mole of 72.06 g 12.10 g 96.00 g

compound
 Interconverting Moles, Mass, and
Number of Chemical Entities

no. of grams
Mass (g) = no. of moles x g
1 mol

1 mol
No. of moles = mass (g) x M
no. of grams

6.022x1023 entities
No. of entities = no. of moles x
1 mol
1 mol
No. of moles = no. of entities x
6.022x1023 entities
Figure 3.2 Mass-mole-number relationships for elements.
Sample Problem 3.1 Calculating the Mass of a Given Amount of
an Element

PROBLEM: Silver (Ag) is used in jewelry and tableware but no

longer in U.S. coins. How many grams of Ag are in
0.0342 mol of Ag?

PLAN: To convert mol of Ag to mass of Ag in g we need the molar

mass of Ag.
amount (mol) of Ag

multiply by M of Ag (107.9 g/mol)

mass (g) of Ag
SOLUTION:

107.9 g Ag
0.0342 mol Ag x = 3.69 g Ag
1 mol Ag
 Sample Problem 3.2 Calculating the Number of Entities in a
Given Amount of an Element

PROBLEM: Gallium (Ga) is a key element in solar panels, calculators and

other light-sensitive electronic devices. How many Ga atoms
are in 2.85 x 10-3 mol of gallium?

PLAN: To convert mol of Ga to number of Ga atoms we need to use

Avogadro’s number.

mol of Ga

multiply by 6.022x1023 atoms/mol

atoms of Ga
Sample Problem 3.2

SOLUTION:

2.85 x 10-3 mol Ga atoms x 6.022x1023 Ga atoms

1 mol Ga atoms

= 1.72 x 1021 Ga atoms

 Sample Problem 3.3 Calculating the Number of Entities in a
Given Mass of an Element

PROBLEM: Iron (Fe) is the main component of steel and is therefore the
most important metal in society; it is also essential in the body.
How many Fe atoms are in 95.8 g of Fe?

PLAN: The number of atoms cannot be calculated directly from the mass.
We must first determine the number of moles of Fe atoms in the
sample and then use Avogadro’s number.

mass (g) of Fe
divide by M of Fe (55.85 g/mol)

amount (mol) of Fe
multiply by 6.022x1023 atoms/mol

atoms of Fe
Sample Problem 3.3

SOLUTION:

95.8 g Fe x 1 mol Fe
= 1.72 mol Fe
55.85 g Fe

23
1.72 mol Fe x 6.022x10 atoms Fe
1 mol Fe

= 1.04 x 1024 atoms Fe

Figure 3.3 Amount-mass-number relationships for compounds.
Sample Problem 3.4 Calculating the Number of Chemical Entities in
a Given Mass of a Compound I
PROBLEM: Nitrogen dioxide is a component of urban smog that forms
from the gases in car exhausts. How many molecules are
in 8.92 g of nitrogen dioxide?

PLAN: Write the formula for the compound and calculate its molar mass.
Use the given mass to calculate first the number of moles and then
the number of molecules.

mass (g) of NO2

divide by M

amount (mol) of NO2

multiply by 6.022 x 1023 formula units/mol

number of NO2 molecules

Sample Problem 3.4

SOLUTION: NO2 is the formula for nitrogen dioxide.

M = (1 x M of N) + (2 x M of O)
= 14.01 g/mol + 2(16.00 g/mol)
= 46.01 g/mol

8.92 g NO2 x 1 mol NO2

= 0.194 mol NO2
46.01 g NO2

23
0.194 mol NO2 x 6.022x10 molecules NO2
1 mol NO2

= 1.17 x 1023 molecules NO2

Sample Problem 3.5 Calculating the Number of Chemical Entities in
a Given Mass of a Compound II

PROBLEM: Ammonium carbonate, a white solid that decomposes on

warming, is an component of baking powder.
a) How many formula units are in 41.6 g of ammonium
carbonate?
b) How many O atoms are in this sample?
PLAN:
Write the formula for the compound and calculate its molar mass. Use
the given mass to calculate first the number of moles and then the
number of formula units.
The number of O atoms can be determined using the formula and the
number of formula units.
Sample Problem 3.5 mass (g) of (NH4)2CO3
divide by M

amount (mol) of (NH4)2CO3

multiply by 6.022 x 1023 formula units/mol

number of (NH4)2CO3 formula units

3 O atoms per formula unit of (NH4)2CO3

number of O atoms

SOLUTION: (NH4)2CO3 is the formula for ammonium carbonate.

M = (2 x M of N) + (8 x M of H) + (1 x M of C) + (3 x M of O)
= (2 x 14.01 g/mol) + (8 x 1.008 g/mol)
+ (12.01 g/mol) + (3 x 16.00 g/mol)

= 96.09 g/mol
Sample Problem 3.5

41.6 g (NH4)2CO3 x 1 mol (NH4)2CO3

= 0.433 mol (NH4)2CO3
96.09 g (NH4)2CO3

23
0.433 mol (NH4)2CO3 x 6.022x10 formula units (NH4)2CO3
1 mol (NH4)2CO3

= 2.61x1023 formula units (NH4)2CO3

2.61x1023 formula units (NH4)2CO3 x 3 O atoms

1 formula unit of (NH4)2CO3

= 7.83 x 1023 O atoms

Mass Percent from the Chemical Formula

Mass % of element X =

atoms of X in formula x atomic mass of X (amu)

x 100
molecular (or formula) mass of compound (amu)

Mass % of element X =

moles of X in formula x molar mass of X (g/mol)

x 100
mass (g) of 1 mol of compound
Sample Problem 3.6 Calculating the Mass Percent of Each
Element in a Compound from the Formula

PROBLEM: Glucose (C6H12O6) is a key nutrient for generating chemical

potential energy in biological systems. What is the mass
percent of each element in glucose?

PLAN: Find the molar mass of glucose, which is the mass of 1 mole of
glucose. Find the mass of each element in 1 mole of glucose,
using the molecular formula.
The mass % for each element is calculated by dividing the mass
of that element in 1 mole of glucose by the total mass of 1 mole
of glucose, multiplied by 100.
Sample Problem 3.6

PLAN:
amount (mol) of element X in 1 mol compound
multiply by M (g/mol) of X

mass (g) of X in 1 mol of compound

divide by mass (g) of 1 mol of compound

mass fraction of X

multiply by 100

mass % X in compound
Sample Problem 3.6

SOLUTION:
In 1 mole of glucose there are 6 moles of C, 12 moles H, and 6 moles O.

12.01 g C 1.008 g H
6 mol C x = 72.06 g C 12 mol H x = 12.096 g H
1 mol C 1 mol H

16.00 g O
6 mol O x = 96.00 g O M = 180.16 g/mol
1 mol O

72.06 g C
mass percent of C = = 0.3999 x 100 = 39.99 mass %C
180.16 g glucose

12.096 g H
mass percent of H = = 0.06714 x 100 = 6.714 mass %H
180.16 g glucose
96.00 g O
mass percent of O = = 0.5329 x 100 = 53.29 mass %O
180.16 g glucose
Mass Percent and the Mass of an Element

Mass percent can also be used to calculate the

mass of a particular element in any mass of a
compound.

Mass of element X present in sample =

mass of element in 1 mol of compound

mass of compound x
mass of 1 mol of compound
Sample Problem 3.7 Calculating the Mass of an Element in a
Compound

PROBLEM: Use the information from Sample Problem 3.6 to determine

the mass (g) of carbon in 16.55 g of glucose.

PLAN: The mass percent of carbon in glucose gives us the relative

mass of carbon in 1 mole of glucose. We can use this information
to find the mass of carbon in any sample of glucose.

mass of glucose sample

multiply by mass percent of C in glucose

mass of C in sample
Sample Problem 3.7

SOLUTION:
Each mol of glucose contains 6 mol of C, or 72.06 g of C.

Mass (g) of C = mass (g) of glucose x 6 mol x M of C (g/mol)

mass (g) of 1 mol of glucose

= 16.55 g glucose x 72.06 g C

= 6.620 g C
180.16 g glucose
 Empirical and Molecular Formulas

The empirical formula is the simplest formula for a

compound that agrees with the elemental analysis. It
shows the lowest whole number of moles and gives the
relative number of atoms of each element present.
The empirical formula for hydrogen peroxide is HO.

The molecular formula shows the actual number of

atoms of each element in a molecule of the compound.
The molecular formula for hydrogen peroxide is H2O2.
 Sample Problem 3.8 Determining an Empirical Formula from
Amounts of Elements

PROBLEM: A sample of an unknown compound contains 0.21

mol of zinc, 0.14 mol of phosphorus, and 0.56 mol of
oxygen. What is its empirical formula?

PLAN: Find the relative number of moles of each element. Divide

by the lowest mol amount to find the relative mol ratios
(empirical formula).

amount (mol) of each element

use # of moles as subscripts

preliminary formula
change to integer subscripts

empirical formula
Sample Problem 3.8

SOLUTION: Using the numbers of moles of each element given, we

write the preliminary formula Zn0.21P0.14O0.56

Next we divide each fraction by the smallest one; in this case 0.14:
0.21 0.14 0.56
= 1.5 = 1.0 = 4.0
0.14 0.14 0.14
This gives Zn1.5P1.0O4.0

We convert to whole numbers by multiplying by the smallest integer

that gives whole numbers; in this case 2:

1.5 x 2 = 3 1.0 x 2 = 2 4.0 x 2 = 8

This gives us the empirical formula Zn3P2O8

 Sample Problem 3.9 Determining an Empirical Formula from
Masses of Elements

PROBLEM: Analysis of a sample of an ionic compound yields 2.82 g

of Na, 4.35 g of Cl, and 7.83 g of O. What is the empirical
formula and the name of the compound?
PLAN: Find the relative number of moles of each element. Divide by
the lowest mol amount to find the relative mol ratios (empirical
formula).
mass (g) of each element
divide by M (g/mol)

amount (mol) of each element

use # of moles as subscripts
preliminary formula
change to integer subscripts
empirical formula
Sample Problem 3.9

1 mol Na
SOLUTION: 2.82 g Na x = 0.123 mol Na
22.99 g Na

4.35 g Cl x 1 mol Cl = 0.123 mol Cl

35.45 g Cl

7.83 g O x 1 mol O = 0.489 mol O

16.00 g O
0.123 0.489
Na and Cl = = 1 and O = = 3.98
0.123 0.123

The empirical formula is Na1Cl1O3.98 or NaClO4;

this compound is named sodium perchlorate.
 Determining the Molecular Formula

The molecular formula gives the actual numbers of

moles of each element present in 1 mol of compound.
The molecular formula is a whole-number multiple
of the empirical formula.

molar mass (g/mol)

= whole-number multiple
empirical formula mass (g/mol)
 Sample Problem 3.10 Determining a Molecular Formula from
Elemental Analysis and Molar Mass
PROBLEM: Elemental analysis of lactic acid (M = 90.08 g/mol) shows it
contains 40.0 mass % C, 6.71 mass % H, and 53.3 mass %
O. Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula
for lactic acid.

PLAN: assume 100 g lactic acid; then mass % = mass in grams

divide each mass by M

amount (mol) of each element

use # mols as subscripts; convert to integers
empirical formula
divide M by the molar mass for the empirical
formula; multiply empirical formula by this number

molecular formula
 Sample Problem 3.10

SOLUTION: Assuming there are 100. g of lactic acid;

40.0 g C x 1 mol C 6.71 g H x 1 mol H 53.3 g O x 1 mol O

12.01 g C 1.008 g H 16.00 g O
= 3.33 mol C = 6.66 mol H = 3.33 mol O

C3.33 H6.66 O3.33

CH2O empirical formula
3.33 3.33 3.33

molar mass of lactate 90.08 g/mol

=3
mass of CH2O 30.03 g/mol

C3H6O3 is the
molecular formula