BGSS –BALAKA, MALAWI

M.S.C.E

COMPUTER STUDIES

NOTES

FOR

FORM 3 & 4

Prepared by: Pastor .B .E. Kileta

For your own copy
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PART 1
FORM 3 CONTENTS
TOPIC 1: USING SPREADSHEET (MS EXCEL)
 A spread sheet is any sheet with intersecting rows and columns designed to allow quick calculations and
sorting of figures.
TYPES OF SPREAD SHEET
1. Traditional spread sheet
2. Electronic spread sheet.
TRADITIONAL SPREADSHEET
 It is a sheet that has been designed manually on a piece of paper or any flat surface such as
chalkboard.
 The data given to be entered on a spread sheet it will determine the size of the sheet.
PURPOSES OF MANUAL SPREADSHEET
1. Organise data into tabular, for case of reading and calculating
2. Book keeping in financial accounting whereby numeric figures are entered on income and expenditure.
3. Financial analysis in stock management where stock values are entered and organised for presentation.
ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEET
 It is an application software which displays a grid of vertical and horizontal lines which intersect to form
rows and columns of vertical boxes known as cells.
EXAMPLES OF ELECTRONIC SPREAD SHEET
 Microsoft excel
 Lotus 1- 2- 3
 Corel equation pro spread sheet.
USES OF SPREADSHEETS

A. FOR PERFORMING CALCULATIONS (INTEREST CALCULATIONS)

 A Spreadsheet manipulates figure using a set of predefined formulas
 It uses formula and functions such as MAX, MIN, AVERAGE, SUM, TODAY () and some
operators like +, /,-* and > - .

B. ANALYZING DATA (STATISTICAL ANALYSIS)

 A spreadsheet uses logical functions to define conditions response such as IF “analysis”.
 It also analyse data by generating charts and tables.
C. MANAGING LISTS (ARRANGING INFORMATION)
 Data entered on a spreadsheet can be sorted, edited and retrieved easily.
BENEFITS OF ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS
1. Electronic spreadsheet utilise the powerful aspects of computer namely, speed, accuracy and efficiency
to enable the user easily perform numeric computations.
2. Electronic spreadsheets offer a large virtual sheet entry and manipulation. On the contrary, the largest
possible paper ledger you can get may not exceed 30 columns and 51 rows.
3. It is easy to enter data into a worksheet because most spreadsheets provide autocomplete and autocorrect
features.
4. Electronic spreadsheets utilise the storage space media to save and retrieve documents.
5. Electronic spreadsheets enable the user to produce neat work because the traditional paper, Pencil,
rubber and calculator are put aside.
6. Electronic spreadsheets have better editing and formatting features.
7. Electronic spreadsheet have inbuilt formulae called functions that enable the user to quickly analyse
numeric data.

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8. It automatically adjusts the results when the value has been changed in a worksheet. The process is
known as automatic recalculation.
9. Graphs let the user provide visual representation of data from a worksheet for ease of interpretation.
Disadvantages of electronic spreadsheet
1. Startup costs including computer and software purchase may be high.
2. Learning how to use electronic spreadsheets require considerable effort and is mostly done at a cost.
3. Electronics spreadsheet file requires to be protected against unauthorised access and malware like
viruses.
WORKBOOK
 It is a file in excel program. Workbook has a number of sheets.
 Each sheet is known as a worksheet or spreadsheet.

CONTENTS OF SPREADSHEETS
A. WORKSHEET
 It is primary document used to work with data.
 It is organised into columns and rows of cells
B. COLUMNS
 A column is a vertical string of cells
 Each column is identified by a letter (column label) in the top row of cells.
C. ROWS
 A row is a horizontal string of cells identified in the far left column by a number.
D. CELL
 A cell is a single rectangle box on spreadsheet
 Each cell is identified by a cell reference.
 Cell reference is comprised of the letter of the column and the number of the row in which the cell is,
for example B3 (column B row number 3).
E. ACTIVE CELL
 It is a cell in a spreadsheet highlighted with a thick lining along its perimeter.
 It marks the insertion point of data in a spread sheet.
F. FORMULA BAR
 It is a bar which displays the contents at an active cell.
 Editing of data is done in a formula bar.
G. NAME BOX
 It displays the address of the current cell. It is given by the column label followed by row number.
H. FILE TAB
 It holds commonly used commands such as open, save as, print, close among others.
I. CELL ADDRESS
 It is given by the column label and followed by a row number.
J. LABELS
 Column and rows has labels. Column labels are letters A – Z, AA – AZ, IA – IZ. Rows labels are
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 …. In a worksheet.

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TYPES OF CELL REFERENCE IN A SPREADSHEET
 A reference is an address of a cell that contains the value referred to in a formula.
 They are two main types of cell reference, namely
 Relative cell reference
 Absolute cell reference
RELATIVE CELL REFERENCE
 Relative cell reference it do change relatively to its position on the spreadsheet.
 Example of a relative cell reference formula, = Average (H25:J25).
ABSOLUTE CELL REFERENCE
Absolute cell reference will not change even if it is copied to another part of a spreadsheet.
 In absolute cell referencing both the column letter and row number are preceded by a dollar sign.
 Example of an absolute cell referencing formula, = MAX ($H$25:$J$25).
MIXED CELL REFERENCING
- It is the combination of relative and absolute referencing on a specific cell address to make the row or
column relative or absolute. For example, in case of B$4 referencing, the column is relative in the formula
and the row is absolute.
A function is a prewritten formula that takes a value or values to perform an operation.
 BODMAS rule has to be followed when performing any arithmetic calculation in a spreadsheet.
KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS IN EXCEL
Keyboard key combination Function
1 CTRL + O Open file
2 CTRL +N New File
3 CTRL + S Save File
4 ESC Exit current dialog box
5 CTRL +X Cut selected text or object
6 CTRL + C Copy selected text or object
7 CTRL +B Bold selected text
8 CTRL + I Italicise selected text
9 CTRL + U Underline selected text
10 CTRL + T Insert table
11 CTRL + F4 Close current file
12 CTRL + F4 Close Excel
13 CTRL + Z Undo the most recent action
14 CTRL + Y Redo the most recent undone action
15 CTRL + P Print
16 F4 Repeat the last action
17 F1 Open online Help documentation
18 CTRL + F1 Hide/unhide commands ribbon
19 SHFT +ARROW Highlight cells
20 CTRL + SPACE BAR Select current column

USING IN-BUILT FUNCTIONS

Math and Trig functions
- In Mathematics and Trigonometry, it contains functions used to perform mathematical calculations such
as trigonometric computations such as of an angle.
1. SUM (). Add the values in the selected range of cells. For example if A3, B3, and C3 contains 20, 50,
and 80 respectively, =SUM (A3:C3) return 150.
2. ROUND (). Rounds a number to specified number of decimal places. If the second argument is 0, the
number is rounded off to the nearest integer, for example, =ROUND (49.769,1) returns 49.8 while
=ROUND (49.769,0) returns 50.

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3. PRODUCT (). Multiplies a list of arguments separated by commas for example = PRODUCT (40, 3, 2)
returns 240.
4. QUOTIENT (). Returns the integer part of a division. The function is used when you want to discard the
remainder of a division. For example, =QUOTIENT (5, 2) returns a value of 2.
STATISTICAL FUNCTIONS
1. AVERAGE (). Returns the arithmetic mean of its arguments. For example, if A3, B3 and C3 contains
20, 50, and 80 respectively, = AVERAGE (A3:C3) returns 50.
2. COUNT (). Counts the number of cells that contain numeric values within a range. If a cell contains
non- numeric value, it is ignored. For example, =COUNT (A3:C3) returns 3.
3. MAX (). Returns the largest number from a range of cells. For example, =MAX (A3:C3) in a range
containing 20, 35, 80, 68 and 79.
4. MIN (). Returns the smallest number from a range of cells. For example, =MIN (A3:C3) on 20, 35, 80,
68 and 79 returns 20 as the minimum value.
LOGICAL FUNCTIONS
1. IF (). Returns a value as label if the condition you specify evaluates to TRUE and another if it evolutes
to FALSE. For example IF (C5>50,”PASS”, “FAIL”.
2. COUNTIF (). Count the number of cells within a range that satisfies a certain criteria. For example,
=COUNTIF (A1:D5,”>50”) returns the number of cells in the range that have a value greater than 50.
3. SUMIF (). Calculates the sum of values in a range of cells that satisfy a certain criteria. For example
=SUMIF (A1:D5,”>1000”) selects cells that have values greater than 1000 and calculate the sum.
4. AND (). Returns true if both expression in a comma separated list of arguments evaluates to true. For
example, =AND (3+2=7, 2+2=4) returns true.
5. OR (). Returns true if both of the expression in the comma separated list of arguments evaluates to true.
For example, =OR (3+2=7,2+2=4) returns true.
6. NOT (). This is a unary operator that reverses the value of a Boolean expression from true to false and
vice versa. For example, =NOT (3+2=5) returns FALSE.
DATE and TIME FUNCTIONS
1. TODAY (). Returns a number that represents today’s date. This function takes no arguments for
example, by the time of writing this summary =TODAY () returned 26/12/2018.
2. NOW (). Returns the current date and time formatted as date and time. It takes no argument. For
example, =NOW () returned 26/12/2018 11:20 by the time of writing this summary.
3. DATE (). Returns the serial number that represents a particular date. Ms excel uses year 1900 as serial
number 1. For example = DATE (107, 1, 4) returns January 4, 2007. Year = (1900 +107), month=1,
day=4.
4. HOUR(), MINUTE() or SECOND(), Functions Return the current hour as number 0 to 23, minute
from 0 to 59 and seconds from 0 to 59 respectively.
CREATING A TRADITIONAL SPREADSHEET
 There is a need to carefully study data given to create a traditional spreadsheet successfully.
 For example if the data given is to process students records the spreadsheet has to appears like this;

Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4

Boys 20 26 35 30
Girls 30 24 15 20

CREATING AN ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEET

 An electronic spreadsheet is created as part of a worksheet with a number of worksheet.
 Once a spreadsheet program is opened then a new workbook with three worksheet are created.
 A new workbook can be created as follows
 From a blank workbook
 From another workbook
 From a template
 Using a wizard

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 A wizard is a feature in applications program which ask questions and then creates an item according
to the user response.
NAVIGATING IN A SHREADSHEET
 Moving around the spreadsheet can be done using the following;
 Navigation keys (arrow keys) on a keyboard.
 After entering data an active cell can be moved by pressing enter button.
 By clicking on a cell using a mouse.
 By pressing TAB button on a keyboard.
TYPES OF DATA THAT CAN BE ENTERED IN A SPREADSHEET
A. LABELS.
 It allows data inform of alphabetical letters or a mixture of alphabetical letters and numbers.
 Labels align themselves to the left side of the cell.
B. NUMERIC AND FUNCTIONS
 It allows any number including currency to be entered on a cell.
 Numbers on a cell align themselves to the right of the cell.
C. FORMULARS AND FUNCTIONS
 It is a chain of logical of arithmetical statement used to generate a result.
 The formulas and functions appear in the formula bar of the containing the formula is made active.
 Every formula or function in a spreadsheet starts with “=”, e.g. =sum A3:A8) or 10+3.
 And also the following operators can be used to generate results in a spreadsheet.
 + plus
 - minus
 * times
 / divide
 >= greater or equal to
 % percent sign
 ^ caret (power)
 For example 55* 3 means (55 multiplied by 3)
 Do not leave spaces in a formula.
 A formula is an equation that performs calculations on a given values in a worksheet.
 An operator is a sign or symbol that specifies the type of calculation to be performed on elements of a
formula.
Table showing Arithmetic operators
symbol Description Example
/ Division =B3/M4
* Multiplication =C4*A4
- Addition =H7+J3
+ subtraction =B2-D5
Table showing Relational operators
Symbol Description Example
= Equal to =A2=B2
> Greater than =A2>B2
< Less than =A2<B2
<> Not equal to =B2<>A2
<= Less than or equal to =A2<=B2
>= Greater than or equal to =A2>=B2

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TABLE SHOWING OPERATOR PRECEDENCE

OPERATOR NAME PRECED
ENCE
1. – Negation as in -1 1
2. % Percent 2
3. ^ Exponentiation 3
4. * and / Multiplication and division 4
5. + and – Addition and subtraction 5
6. =,<>,>,<,<=,>= Relational 6

Creating user – defined formulae

- A user defined formula is created by the user to manipulate numeric data in the worksheet.
Select the cell you wish to get the results of a formula and type the formula.
Examples of user-defined formula
1. =C2+D4 (Adds the contents of cells c2 and D4)
2. =B4*0.2 (displays 20% of the value in cell B4)
3. F5*1.2 (increase the value in cell F5 by 20%)
4. =(G6/4)*5+6*(3-1) ( will be evaluated using precedence)
ERRORS IN A SPREADSHEET DATA ENTRY AND HOW THEY CAN BE CORRECTED
A. The ##### ERROR
 It means the column is not wide enough to display the data that has been entered in a column.
 To correct the error, increase the column width.
B. The # values !error
 It means a wrong argument of operator is used.
 To correct the error, make sure correct argument or operator is entered in a worksheet.
C. The # NUM! error
 It means a formula of function entered has invalid numeric value.
 The error can be corrected by avoiding an unacceptable argument in a function that requires a
numeric argument.
 Make sure the arguments used in a function are numbers.
D. The # REF! error
 It occurs when a cell reference is not valid.
 The error can be corrected by changing the formulas or by clicking undo immediately after
you delete or paste the cells.
E. The # name? Error.
 It occurs text is used in a formula which is not recognised by excel program.
 The error can be corrected by making sure that the names exist.
F. The # DIV/O! error
 It means the number is divided by zero in the reference cells.
 To correct the error make sure that the cell reference contains a number or text recognised with
excel programs.
PRINTING
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- Printing can be done in many ways in application programs such as Ms Word, Ms excel and Ms Access.
To print your work do the following;
o Click on file menu
o Click page setup to set page orientation either Portrait or Landscape.
o Click print preview to view how your work will appear on the hardcopy and close the preview.
o On file menu select print then on the print dialogue box specify the number of copy needed and the page
need either Odd or Even only, but by default ALL is selected to print all the work.
o Click OK.
TOPIC 2: SOFTWARE INSTALLATION
Fundamentals of Software installation
 Software installation also known as program setup, it is the process of copying a program into computer
storage into a form that it can be executed (runned). The number of programs installed in a computer is
limited to its processing power and available disk space. Most of the software today are wizard driven
because of Graphical User Interface (GUI) which requires minimal input to the user.
COMMON OPERATIONS PERFORMED DURING SOFTWARE INSTALLATION PROCESS.
These include:
 Creation or modification of program folders.
 Configurations of windows registry.
 Copying of files, environment variables and shortcut icons.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE SOFTWARE INSTALLATION
Before installing any software whether an Operating system, device drivers and application software,
consider the following;
1. System configuration e.g. – the type and speed of the processor, amount of RAM and hard disk space.
2. Reading the installation manual to get details on the minimum system requirements, warnings and user
license agreement.
3. Identify the software that will meet specific user needs to avoid installing unnecessary software that end
taking valuable storage space.
INSTALLING OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)
 Read the manual, provided on the internet or in the CD/DVD disk that come with the operating system.
The manual contains details on the minimum requirement the computer must meet.
 Installing windows operating systems has largely become a wizard driven process. Microsoft has moved
from FATS32 to NTFS file systems.
INSTALLING MICROSOFT WINDOWS 7
The two methods of installing windows 7 are;
1. Upgrading from previous versions of which the installation is managed by installation wizard.
2. Fresh installation which is performed by first creating and formatting a primary partition before
installation process starts.
To install the fresh copy of windows 7, the computer should be setup to boot from DVD and proceed as
follows;
1. Insert windows 7 DVD into the optical drive and start the computer. After power on self test (POST) the
computer initialises the boot process. After few seconds windows installation screen will be displayed.
Select the preferred language and set the time zone, in Malawi select Central Africa Time (CAT) zone.
2. Click install now to display the screen that contains the license terms and read the Microsoft User-
license agreement terms and click the box against “I accept the license terms”.
3. To install windows afresh, in the next dialog box display, click custom (Advance).
4. Partition the drive into two or more drives using NTFS file system and then click format.
5. Windows automatically formats the first drive usually labelled drive C as the primary drive and copies
the installation files onto the partition.
After the copy process is completed, the installer prompts for more information such as username, password
and the product.
6. License key. You must enter the product that comes with the genuine copy of windows 7!
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7. Follow the windows 7 installation process by providing necessary information to continue. The process
is a Wizard driven and only requires minimal interactions where necessary.
8. Once Windows 7 is successfully installed, connect to the internet to install important updates or skip the
update procedures and enter the password to login to the desktop. One of the major steps in windows
upgrade is using the same license to migrate from windows 7 or 8 to current windows 10. Take
opportunity provided free of charge by Microsoft.
INSTALLING UBUNTU VERSION 14
The word Ubuntu is an ancient African word meaning ‘Humanity to others’. It is an open source operating
system that brings the spirit of humanity to the world of computers. It is a LINUX distribution available
freely and can be installed in various devices from desktop computers to mobile phones. Before installation
read the guide that comes with the computer to check whether the computer meets recommended
specifications such as processor speed, memory capacity and hard disk space.

To install the latest version Ubuntu, proceed as follows;

1. Switch on your computer and insert the CD that contains Ubuntu installation file. On the welcome
screen prompting you to choose preferred language and the option to install Ubuntu or try it from the
CD. If the computer does not automatically display the welcome screen, press f 12 key to display the
boot menu, do not hold down the f 12 key.
2. If the internet is available, connect the computer to the network so that Ubuntu gets the latest updates
while installing and choose the type of internet e.g. Wireless or LAN.
3. Select the type of installation such as install Ubuntu alongside Microsoft windows 7 operating system.
This means that Ubuntu will be installed as a duo-boot option in windows.
4. Depending on the type of installation selected, verify that you have chosen the way in which you would
like to install Ubuntu, and then click continue button.
5. On the displayed dialog box, click the install now button. Note that Ubuntu version 14 requires about 4.8
GB to install, so add a few extra storage to allow extra files to be installed. The rest of the process is
automated.
6. The next screen that pops-up is for you to set the location so that Ubuntu sets the correct time zone. For
example Malawi uses Central Africa Time Zone that is (UTC+02:00) UTC stands for universal time
Zone that replaced the GMT (Greenwich Meridian Time). Click Continue to go to the next screen.
7. On the keyboard layout screen, select the preferred keyboard layout and language. In Malawi, the default
layout is English UK but you can also choose any other layout. Click Continue to proceed.
8. The next screen requires you to setup login credentials and Enter your names, preferred computer name,
Username and password.
9. The rest of installation process continues without need for interaction displaying tips on how to make use
of Ubuntu. Learn more about Ubuntu while the system installs.
10. Once the installation process is complete, click start now to restart the computer. During start up, a start
up screen is displayed that lets a user boot from windows or Ubuntu. Boot from Ubuntu to start enjoying
Ubuntu – the True African spirit of Humanity to All.
INSTALLING APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Installation of application programs is limited to hardware configurations, operating system and license
agreement. In windows 7 you can install thousands of application software but the most basic are;
1. Word processor
2. Spreadsheets
3. Database Management Systems
4. Desktop publishing software
5. Education software – e.g. Mavis Beacon Teaches typing.
SELECTING THE RELEVANT APPLICATION
There are several application programs available on the internet or packaged in form of CD/DVDs as
proprietary, open source or freeware.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING APPLICATION SOFTWARE
 Cost  Authenticity
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 User documentation  Compatibility
 Reliability  System Configuration
 User friendliness Purpose

According to purpose software are classified into two and these include;
1. General purpose application software which are designed to perform different tasks and these
are Word processor, Spreadsheets, Databases and Presentation software.
2. Special Purpose application software these are designed for a particular task such as Desktop
publishing software DTPs, Graphic editing software or presentation, video editing and financial
accounting.
INSTALLING MICROSOFT OFFICE 2010
To install Microsoft Office 2010 suite proceed as follows:
1. Insert the Microsoft Office 2010 DVD into the optical drive. Microsoft License agreement is
displayed. To proceed read the agreement and click the check box “I accept the terms of this
agreement”.
2. Carefully read and agree to Microsoft agreement terms. The installation dialog box is displayed
whether to upgrade an existing version.
3. Once you are prompted to provide the license, enter the product key provided at the back of the DVD
casing that came with the software. Avoid installing pirated copy!
4. To install a fresh, click the customise button and make sure the radio button “Remove all the
previous versions”. If you decide to keep previous copies, select the second option then click
continue.
5. After choosing the installation option, click upgrade or install now to proceed. And the rest of the
processes are wizard driven.
6. The installation process will take several minutes depending on the options selected, you may be
required to check for updates. If you are connected to the internet, ensure the “check web for updates
checkbox” is enabled otherwise click close.
7. After the installation progress is completed, you may be prompted to register and activate the product
for online updates. This process ensures that you have a genuine copy of Microsoft Office.
8. To confirm that Office 2010 has been installed, display the start menu and then point to All
programs/ programs. The list of applications including newly installed is displayed on the start menu.
NOTE: The steps outlined are specific to Microsoft Office 2010 and may vary depending on the
version of Microsoft office and type of user license.

TOPIC 3: PROGRAMMING FUNDAMENTALS

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN PROGRAMMING
In computer programming, there are fundamental concepts that are used regardless of the programming
language used. The key terms you are likely to meet in computer programming is what we call terms used in
programming.
Computer program
A computer program simply referred to as program is a set of instructions, written using a programming
language to instruct a computer to perform a task. A program is like a recipe. It contains a list of ingredients
referred to a variables and a list of instructions that instructs a computer what to do with the variables.
Programming languages
It is a formal language that specifies the syntax and semantic rules for writing computer programs. Some
examples of programming languages are BASIC, C, C++, Java, Pascal, FORTRAN and COBOL.
Computer Programming
It is the process of writing a computer program using a programming language. A Programmer is a person
who is writing a program. A programmer is also known as software developer and software engineer.
Source Code
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It is a set of instructions or statements written by a programmer that are not yet converted into machine –
readable form. A source code is usually a text file written using programming languages like BASIC, Pascal,
C, and C++.

Object code
Is when source code is converted to machine readable form using language processors such as assembler,
interpreters and compilers?
Assembler
It convert assembly language program into machine readable form that a computer can understand and
execute.
Interpreter
It converts the source code into machine code statement-by- statement allowing CPU to execute one line at a
time. The interpreted line is not stored in a computer memory this means that every time the program is
needed for execution, each line has to be interpreted. This method of interpreting programs was common in
early computers that did not have enough memory to store the object code.
Compiler
It converts the entire source code into object code. The object code can be made into an executable file by
carrying out another process known as linking which combines the object code with library files that are
required for the execution of a program. After the linking process an executable files is generated.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE INTERPRETERS AND COMPILERS
INTERPRETERS COMPILERS
1. Translates the source program one statement 1. Translates the entire source code at once
at a time. before execution.
2. Translates programs each time it is run hence 2. Compiled program (object code) can be
slower than compiling. saved on a storage media and run as
3. interpreted object code takes less memory required, hence executes faster than
compared to compiled program interpreted programs.
3. Compiled programs require more
memory as object file are larger.

HISTORY OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

The programming languages are classified into two broad categories and these include;
Low-level languages
High-level languages
And these categories can be subdivided into five generations and these are;
Low level languages
1. First generation languages
2. Second generation languages
High level languages
1. Third generation languages
2. Fourth generation languages
3. Fifth generation languages
LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES
They are classified as low because they can easily be understood by the computer since they require minimal
effort to convert into computer object code. Low level are hardware oriented hence they are not portable i.e.
a program written in one computer cannot be installed on another computer.
TYPES OF LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES
1. Machine languages
2. Assembly languages
MACHINE LANGUAGES (First generation languages)
Machine languages are written using binary code. Many lines of instructions are required to accomplish
even in a simple task like adding two numbers. It is hard to understand a program written in machine
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languages unless you have knowledge in programming languages. With low level languages different CPU’s
understand different languages. Low level languages are hard to write and debug from programmer point of
view, but very easy to execute from the computer’s perspective.

ASSEMLY LANGUAGES (Second generation languages)

They were developed to overcome the difficulties of understanding and using machine languages. It was the
first Successful attempt to make computer languages readable. It allowed programmer the program as
symbolic operation codes called MNEMONICS. Mnemonics are basically two or three letter words.
Advantages and Disadvantages of low –level languages
Advantages
1. The CPU understand machine language directly with minimal or no conversion.
2. The processor executes low-level programs written in faster because complex instructions are
already broken down into smaller simpler ones.
3. Low level languages are stable and hardly crash or break down once written.
Disadvantages
1. Low-level languages are difficult and cumbersome to use and learn.
2. Requires highly trained programmers both to develop and maintain programs written in low level
languages.
3. Correcting errors (debugging) in low level language programs is difficult.
4. Low level languages are machine dependent i.e. they are not portable from one computer to another.
HIGH- LEVEL LANGUAGES
They are close to human language hence they can be read and understood even by people who are not
experts in programming. High level languages are machine independent meaning that a programmer
concentrates on problem solving a particular problem instead of understanding the architecture of the
machine.
High level languages are classified into five and includes;
1. Third generation languages (3GLs) 4. Object oriented languages (OOPs)
2. Fourth generation languages (4GLs) 5. Web scripting languages.
3. Fifth generation Languages (5GLs)
Third generation languages (3GLs)
They are also called structural or Procedural languages. They are broken into small programs called
modules, each performing a particular task. The process of breaking a program into modules or sub-
programs is called structural programming.
EMPHASIS OF STRUCTURAL PROGRAMMING APPROACH
1. Large programs should be broken down into smaller sub programs each performing a single task.
2. use control structure in problem solving.
Structural programming offers many benefits because it is flexible, easier to read and modify.
Description of common examples of third generation programming languages
1. Pascal: it was developed as a procedural language to help in the teaching and learning of structured
programming.
2. FORTRAN: (Formula TRANslator); It was developed for Mathematicians, scientists and engineers. It
enables writing of programs that solve scientific, mathematics and engineering problems.
3. COBOL: (Common Business- Oriented language): it was designed for designing programs that solve
business problems such as computer-based inventory control systems.
4. BASIC: (Beginner All-purpose Symbolic Instructional Code); It was developed to enables students
easily learn programming. It is used to develop business and educational applications. Because of its
simplicity, it is a powerful tool for students who wish to learn programming.
5. C, C++: It was developed to design system software such as Operating Systems. It is one of the most
popular and powerful high level programming language because it has ability to provide programmer
with powerful features of low level languages and at the same time easily understandable as a high level
language.

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6. Ada: It was designed to develop Military, industrial and real-time systems. It was named after the first
lady programmer, Ada Lovelace.

SAMPLE OF 3GLs PROGRAM

HELLOWWORD.PAS
1. (*display Hello world on screen*)
2. Program Hello world (output);
3. Begin {main body}
4. Writeln(‘Hello World’);
5. End.

Line 1: It explains the purpose of a program or statement to other programmers. It is known as a comment
of which in programming use of comment is considered as a good practice.
Line 2: It is known as a program header of which in Pascal program must starts with keyword “program”
followed by the name of the program. The word “output” is known as a parameter and indicates that the
program displays the output on the screen.
Line 3: The keyword Begin denotes the start of the executable statements and it is where the start of the
program structure is defined using input, processing, and output statements.
Line 4: Writeln (‘Hello world’) is the most important statement in this program. Writeln is a Pascal output
function for instructing the computer to display Hello world on screen. The word Writeln is a short form of
write line.
Line 5: “END” marks the end of the program. Once the computer encounters the end (with period) the
program is terminated and unloaded from the main memory.
Fourth Generation languages (4 GLs)
- 4GLs it was an improvement on 3GLs to reduce the programming effort by making the programmer
focus more on the problem than algorithm or structure of program. 4GLs have advanced programming
tools for integrating programs with databases, generating reports and creating graphical user interface
(GUI) applications. With 4GLs a programmer can use application generator that automatically generate
program code hence relieving a programmer from tedious work of writing every line of code.
EXAMPLES OF 4GLs
- PowerBuilder - Progress 4GLs
- FoxPro - Microsoft Visual Basic and Delphi Pascal
- Python
SAMPLE OF 4GLs PROGRAM
*displays Hello world on screen
Module Hello world
Sub Main () *main body
Console.writline (“Hello world”)
Console.Readkey () *press any key to continue
End sub
End Module
Fifth Generation languages (5 GLs)
- 5 GLs is also known as natural languages are used to develop systems that solve problems that is
artificial intelligence. Artificial Intelligence refers to computer systems that mimic human – like
intelligence, such intelligence include; Visual (seeing) perception, speech recognition, decision
making and movement.
- With 5GLs programmer concentrates on constraints required for the problem to be solved not problem
solving Logic known as Algorithm.
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EXAMPLES OF 5GLs
- PROLOG - LISP
- Mercury - OPS5

Object-oriented programming (OOP)

- OOP consists of several objects that interact by sending messages to each requiring some thing to be
done.
- OOP is not described as separate generation because is a shift in program development methodology.
- C, C++ also supports Object Oriented Programming because it supports structure programming.
- With OOP several object are linked together through a method known as association to create a complete
program.
EXAMPLES OF OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
- Microsoft Visual Basic.Net -Perl
- Objective - Ruby
- C, C++ - Delphi Pascal
- C# - Smalltalk
- Python
OOP cut across the three generation of high level. Programming languages.
SAMPLE OOP PROGRAM
Public Class frmHello
Private sub cmd ()k_click(byval sender As system, Object, Byval e As system.Eventargs) handles
cmd()k.click. ‘This progress displays Hello World on a form.
txHello.Text=”Hello Word”
End sub
End Class
WEB DEVELOPMENT AND SCRIPTING LANGUAGES
- Web development languages are used to develop or add functionalities on web pages.
- Web pages are hypertext documents created in a language called Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML).
- HTML consists of tags that are interpreted by web browser software to display content when the file is
opened on the browser.
- A tag is a word, symbol or character enclosed in angle brackets<> that can be interpreted by a browser in
a command.
- <HTML> tag is used to create HTML document. XML is an extended HTML tag which allow user to
define their on tags instead of using standard tags.
- To enhance interaction and dynamic of HTML web pages, special types of web programming languages
known as Scripting languages are used.
EXAMPLES OF WEB SCRIPTING LANGUAGES
- JavaScript
- VBscript
- Hypertext Pre-processor (HPP)
- Most HTML elements have an opening and a closing tag. An opening tag is enclosed between <> while
closing one between</>.
- The content to be displayed on the browser is enclosed between an opening and closing tags. For
example, the statement <h2>hello world</h2> will display the word Hello world on big bold text on the
screen.

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EXAMPLES OF HTML TAGS AND THEIR MEANINGS
TAG MEANING
<html> </html> Marks the beginning and end of an HTML document. All other tags and text fall
between these two tags.
<head> </head> Marks the header part of the documents.
<title> <?title> Gives title of the web page. Text between these tags appears in the title bar when
the page is browsed.
<body></body> Marks the content part of the web page
<h1></h1> Sets size of text with H1 being the largest and H6 being the smallest size.

BENEFITS AND LIMITATATONS OF HIGH – LEVEL LANGUAGES

BENEFITS
1. High level languages are portable i.e. can be installed in more than one computer.
2. High level languages are user friendly, and easy to use and learn
3. High level languages are more flexible. They enhance creativity and innovation of the programmer
and increase productivity in the work place.
4. It is easier to correct programs written in high level languages.
LIMITATIONS
1. Their nature encourages the use of many instructions in a statement hence the size of these
instructions cause slower program processing.
2. High level language programs have to be interpreted or compiled to machine form before the
computer can execute them hence need more hardware and software resources.
3. They require large computer memory to be executed.
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Programming is like Mathematics, when given to students they have difficulties in analysing and providing
solutions.
GUIDE LINE ON HOW TO SOLVE PROGAMMING PROBLEMS
1. Clearly define what a program is to do (problem definition)
2. Close your eyes and visualise the program running on the computer.
3. Write the Pseudo code version (Algorithm design) of the program.
4. Desk- checks (dry run) the Pseudocode for any logical flow errors.
5. Write the program code on a paper using programming languages.
6. Test the program on paper for any syntax and logical errors.
7. Write the source code using a programming such as Basic or C++.
8. Compile the program and correct any errors displayed by the compiler.
9. Run the program and with test data for input to test for any logic errors.
10. Validate the results of program.
The guidelines above can be summarised into five main phases of program development life – cycle
(PDLC) and these include;
1. Problems definition.
2. Algorithm design
3. Program coding
4. Program testing and debugging
5. Program review and maintenance.
Problem Definition
- It is one’s ability to identify problems that need to be solved using a computer program. Like in
mathematics, computer programming is a problems solving task.
- A creativity programmer identifies problems and opportunities in the society and seeks to provide a
computer based solutions. All the software we are enjoying today are designed by computer
programmer.
Factor that can motivate a programmer to design a computer program
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1. Problems or undesirable situations that prevent an individual or organisation from achieving their
objective.
2. Opportunity to improve the current system or delivery of service. It can be argued that any unexploited
opportunity is a problem.
3. New directive give by the management or government requiring change in the status quo.
Sample problem
- Consider a mathematical problem such as calculating the area of a circle.
- It this case the problem is to find the area of the circle.
- As a programmer is your responsibility to develop a program that can be used to calculate the area of
any circle and you must understand the problem and then identify the input, processing logic and the
expected output. And solve the problem as follows;
1. Input: (a) Pie (Д) which is a constant
(b) The radius of the circle.
2. Process: The formula for calculating area of a circle i.e. Д x radius x radius
3. Output: Area of the circle (A)
The problem definition stage ends with documenting hardware and software requirements necessary for
solving the problem which enables the programmer to design algorithms implementing the solution.
Algorithm design
- An algorithm is a set of well defined steps for performing a task or solving a problem. The solution to
the problem is expressed using Flowcharts, Pseudocode or structured English statements. Algorithm
design is done after analysing the problems. An algorithm should be tested for Logical errors using a
technique known as “dry run”.
Program: Calculate area of a
circle
BEGIN
SET as constant PI= 3.142
PRINT “Enter Radius”
READ radius
Area = PI*radius
PRINT are
END
The algorithm above starts with a declaration on the task to be performed by the program. The statement
SET indicates that 3.142 is a constant represented using a symbolic name PI. The phrases within the BEGIN
and END denotes the executable statements for input i.e. PRINT radius, process (area = PI * radius); and
output, i.e. PRINT area.
Program Coding
This is the process of writing a program using different programming languages. Today most programs are
written using high level languages because are easy to understand and learn. Some of the programming
languages used to write a program are; C, C++ or Java.
Common Features of high level languages
- Reserved words - Identifiers
- Operators - Variables
Reserved Words
Are also known as key words which have special meaning in a program and can only be used for intended
purpose. Some of the examples of reserved word in Pascal and C++ are; for, else, if, while and do.
Identifiers
Are programmer defined symbolic names used to identify elements like variables and constants in a
program. For example, in a problem to calculate hourly pay; hours and rate are examples of identifier.
Operators
They are used to perform arithmetic operations on pieces of unary or binary operands. The most used
operators are addition (+), subtraction (-), Multiplication (*), division (/), and assignment (=). For example a
statement to calculate hourly pay can be expressed as; wage = hours*rate.
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Variables
It is a named location in computer’s memory for holding data. The content of variables may change during
program execution unlike constants whose content doesn’t change i.e. wages, hours and rate are variables.
Program Testing and Debugging
Testing is the process of tracing or checking whether a program has errors (bugs) while debugging is the
process of correcting identified program errors. The two types of bugs are;
1. Syntax errors: These are errors that occur due to improper use of language rules e.g. grammatical
mistakes, punctuation and improper naming of variables, misspelling of variables and reserved word.
Syntax errors are detectable by a compiler or an interpreter and must be corrected before the program
runs.
2. Logical errors: They are not detectable by the compiler or interpreter. The program runs but gives
wrong output or halts during execution.

Tracing Program Errors

Tracing program errors requires careful step-by-steps trace of input, processing and output statements. You
must choose good test and debug strategy. The following is a three step process of testing an algorithm or
program for errors;
1. Dry run (Desk check): It involves the use of trace tables to check whether algorithm or program has
errors, before writing the program in the program editors. A good practice of testing a program is to use
trace table which check line by line as a computer could do. These help the programmer to identify
syntax and logic errors.
2. Debugging: This is the process of checking for errors using debugging utilities in the program editor
before compiling the program.
3. Test data: The process of entering valid and invalid data to test whether the program produces desired
output, after the program is compiled successfully.
Program review and maintenance
- It is the continuous updates and fixing of program errors after installation. Development life cycle starts
all over when the program is outdated or where maintenance has failed.
Characteristics of a good program
1. Simplicity – A program must be kept simple and easy to understand.
2. Integrity – It must be reliable and accurate of data manipulation.
3. Efficiency – It must process data at high speed with good memory management or utilisation.
4. Clarity – For program to be readable, the statements and comments should be clearly written.
5. Modularity – Complex programs should be broken down into components known as modules,
procedures or sub – programs.
PROGRAMMING IN VISUAL BASIC
BASIC stands for Beginner’s All Purpose symbolic Instructions code. Microsoft visual basic simply
referred to as VB.Net is a GUI based programming language. It is mainly used for developing program
meant to run on Microsoft windows platforms.
FEATURES OF VB.NET
1. It is an event driven programming language. An event is a response generated by the program when the user
performs an action. E.g. a mouse click.
2. It has a collection of tools that are used by programmers. These tools are called controls. The controls can be
accessed easily by clicking their icons on the toolbox.
3. It has objects called forms that have a tittle bar at the top. The programmer can add controls such as menu bars,
status bar, toolbars, buttons and slide bar onto the form when creating an application program.
4. It is an Object-Oriented programming language implemented using a framework known as .NET. This means that
an application developed in VB.NET can also run on internet.

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BASIC SYNTAX OF VB.NET PROGRAM
 VB.Net is an object – oriented programming language. In object oriented programming, a program consists of
various objects that interact with each other by means of message passing.
 Objects of the same type belongs to the same class just like human beings belong to the class called animals.
 A VB.Net program is a collection of objects that communicates with each other by sending messages via
methods.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF VB.NET PROGRAMMING

1. CLASS – A class can be defined as a template or collection of behaviour (methods) and state (data) that defines a
set of objects. For example in form 2 class, we can create a template called “Exam” with columns Student name,
marks and grades in which we can add or delete student’s details. Such a blank template represents the concept
“class” in object oriented programming.
2. OBJECT – An object is an instance of a class that has state (data) and behaviour functions. E.g. Surname, marks
and grades attached to a student data.
3. METHODS – A method defines the behaviour or function to be performed by an object to manipulate data
(state) e.g. a methods can be defined to add or delete or modify student details in a class.
4. VARIABLES – Each object has its unique set of variables that are used to hold data. Data values received by
methods are assigned to these variables.
5. COMMENTS – These are set of statements used in the code to explain what a program or statement does. The
comments are ignored by the compilers during execution. In Visual Basic, a comment starts with a single
apostrophe (‘) followed by the statement. For example; ‘calculates sum is treated as a comment by the
compiler.

COMMENTS, DECLARATION AND EXECUTABLE STATEMENTS

I. COMMENTS – Are a set of statements included in the code to explain the purpose of the program or statement
to other programmers or reference in case of future modification of the program.
E.g. txthelloworld.Text ‘display Hello world in the textbox on the form.
II. DECLARATION - It is an instructions to the compiler to represent a memory enough to store input or output from
a computer program.
III. VARIABLES – It is a name or Identifier that is used to represent a memory location whose content may change
during program execution.

RULES TO BE FOLLOWED WHEN DECLARING VARIABLES

1. The variables name should not have more than 255 characters.
2. The variables name must start with a letter.
3. The variables may be declared using mixed, lowercase or upper case because VB is not case sensitive.
4. A variable name must not be a reserved word. A reserved word is a keyword that has special meaning or
function in Visual Basic and cannot be used for any other purpose. Examples of reserved words are; Case, Else,
Dim, e.t.c.
5. Variables names should not have spaces. If two or more words are to be used to create variables, use
underscore (_) or combine them with each word starting in uppercase.

E.g. Dim Radius AS Integer.

- DIM is the shortest term for the word dimension. The statement instruct the compiler to reserve memory
location named Radius that stores an integer.

DATA TYPES USED TO DECLARE VARIABLES

1. INTEGER – A whole number with no fractional part which range from 32768 to 32767.
2. LONG INTEGER – Number which are integer but have a bigger value and range. They range from – 2,147,483 to
2, 147, 483, 647.
3. SINGLE – A single precision real constant includes a fractional part. The largest value is 3.4 *1038.
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4. DOUBLE – it has a fractional part but have far much larger magnitude than a single real number constant.
However it cannot be larger than 1.2*10308.
5. STRING – Are characters enclosed in quotation marks?
6. BOOLEAN – Data types that have only two logical state such as true or false.
7. Variants – A variant is a special type used if the programmer does not declare a variables data type to be
integers, string or the other types closed above.
8. COSTANTS – A constant is a value such as PI (3.14) that does not change during execution of program.
For example: Const PI As Double = 22/7 means that PI is a symbolic name that holds quotient of 22/7 which is of
the types double.
Constant can be classified into three types and these are;
 String
 Numeric
 Named Constants
A. STRING CONSTANTS – A string is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quotation marks. String are used
to write alphanumeric values that cannot be manipulated mathematically such as phone numbers, addresses
and names. E.g. “holiday season””34678””computer”,”MW7 200”.
B. NUMERIC CONSTANTS – Numbers that can be manipulated mathematically are referred to as numeric
constants. They can only be of integer, double or scientific type. E.g. 0 3 6000 +70 1.4E+2 1.674 – 0.70456.
C. NAMED CONSTANTS – it is a value given a symbolic name rather than its actual value. E.g. PI is a named constant
used to represent the quotient of 22/7.

SCOPE DECLARATION
- Scope refers to the portion of the program that a variable or a constant is accessible by the program. They are
two terms used to specify the scope of variables or constants and these are;
1. Global variables or constants; this is the type of variables declared outside the function or module but within
the same application and can be accessed by other methods within the project. E.g. Private Dim X As Integer.
2. Local variables or constants; this is the type of variable declared within a function and can only be accessed
within that function. E.g. public Y As String

CONTROL STRUCTURE
- They are constructs that determines the logical flow of execution of program statements.

THE THREE TYPES OF CONTROL STRUCTURE SURPORTED BY MOST PROGRAMMING

LANGUAGES.
I. Sequence
II. Selection
III. Looping (interaction)

a. SEQUENCE – it allow the computer to read instructions from a program file starting form the first
statement sequentially moving down to the last statement.
b. SELECTION – A situation may arise in which a program needs to carry out a logical test and then take a
particular action depending on the outcome of a Boolean test.
c. LOOPING (INTERACTION) – It is the repeated execution of program statement (s). It causes program
statements to be executed several times.
TYPES OF LOOPING CONTROL STRUCTURES
1. Do …… while …. Loop
2. While ….. wend
3. Do ….. loop while
4. Do ……Until …. Loop
5. For ….. Next

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DO WHILE …….. LOOP
- It is used if a condition has to be met before the statements within the loop are executed. It uses a pre-test
condition to determines if the statements are to be executed zero or more times. Such as in Banks a customer
must have sufficient balance in his/her account to withdraw money in cash.
Explanation
I. The condition balance>0 is first tested.
II. If it is true, the account holder is allowed to withdraw cash.
III. The program exists the loop only when the balance falls to zero.

WHILE……… Wend Loop

- It continues executing statements within the construct as long as the condition is true. E.g. While<condition>
Statements
Wend
DO Until Loop
- It executes the statements in the body of loop if the condition is true.
e.g. Dim number As Long number =0
Do until number >10
Number =number +1

Loop
DO………. LOOP WHILE
- It uses a post-test condition at the end of the loop block. It executes the statement within the loop at least once.
e.g.
Do
Withdraw cash
Update balance
UNTIL balance ≤

Next loop
- For ….. Next is an alternative to while loop used in case the number of repetition are known. For example, to
calculate the sum of 10 numbers, the for…next loop is appropriate because the number of looping is predefined
as 10. The loop will executes the statement within the loop ten times before the total is displayed.
e.g.
For index =lowerlimit To upperlimit STEP <index>
<Statements>
Nextindex.
- The For ………. Next loop that executes the statements within the loop ten times functions as follows:
1. A variables e.g. count is first initialised to the lower limits, e.g. Index is assigned to Θ.
2. The lower limits is then tested against the upper limits e.g. 9.
3. If the lower limits is less than or equal to the upper limit, the program executes the statement inside the
body of loop.
4. If the lower limit is less than the upper limits, the count variable is incremented by 1 and assigned to
count, i.e. count =count +1.
5. If the lower limit is tested against the upper limit and found to be greater, the program exists from the
loop.

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TOPIC 4: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATON TECHNOLOGIES

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN COMMUNICATION
1. Communication: It is the process of using sounds, words, symbols, signs, pictures or signals to pass a
message or information from one person to another.
2. Data communication: It is the process of transmitting data signals from one point to another through
communication channel. Computer networking is the most recent, efficient and reliable means of
transmitting.
3. Telecommunication: It is the use of technology that enables exchange of messages in form of data and
information over a wired or communication media. Telecommunication technologies include the use of
telephone, radio, television and computers.
4. Telecommunication Network: It is the interconnection of telecommunication equipment like telephone,
mobiles, radios, televisions, and computers using transmission media or links. It enables the flow of data
or information from the source to destination.
5. Computer network: A computer network is an interconnection of computers using transmission media
and networking devices to enable exchange of data and information.
6. Information and communication technology: It is the convergence of computer networks with
telecommunication networks like telephone, mobiles, radio, and television to provide a communication
platform through which people can share information. ICT provides ubiquitous, instant messaging,
electronic mail, internet radio and digital television broadcasts.
History of telephone and internet
- Telephone was invented after the telegraph. Telegraph that had been in use for a while used a series of
dots and dashes (beeps) coded as electrical signals to transmit text characters over long distances. In
1876 Alexander Graham Bell announced the invention the telephone. Division of the telephone
technology are as follows;

1. Rotary dial telephones: They were the first phones to be manufactured and were used from around
1919 to 1990’s. It was using rotary dial technology.

2. Touch tone dial telephone: It was developed with push button key pads. They came to the scene in
1950’s and are used even today. They are called touch tone dial phone because each button produces a
unique sound when pressed, a feature which is common in mobile phone.

3. Mobile telephone: It is designed for portability, it was small and light, hence it can fit in a pocket.
Mobile phones communicate through cellular wireless network that is set up by the government of
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mobile network service provider. Each mobile phone has a special component called a Subscriber
Identification Module (SIM) card which identifies each subscriber on a network.
The mobile phones are divided into four categories and these include;
1. Basic /conversional mobile phone: Are mobile phone designed for making calls and send messages and
few monochrome games. Basic phones are characterised by small, low resolution screen, physical
keypad, limited memory capacity and low processing power. But some of the advanced phone may have
colour screen, low resolution camera QWERTY keypad and ability to access internet.

2. Touch screen feature phones: Have wide touch screen and ability to process graphics in full colour.
And it can be connected to high speed internet because it has higher memory capacity, and powerful
processor than basic phones. They have better resolution screen with higher resolution cameras.

3. Smartphones: They have advanced feature that make them operate like portable computers.
Smartphones are characterised by;

- Powerful processor and large touch screen.

- Powerful operating system that makes the phone operates like a computer. This is why Android, iOS and
Windows phones have ability to run advanced applications like office document, PDF readers, video,
games and maps.
- It has a high memory capacity enabling processing of memory intensive programs and data. Has ability
to access high speed internet and stream online videos.
- High resolution cameras with ability to take high definition pictures and videos.
4. Tablets: A tablet is one of the latest mobile devices that fall between a smartphones and computer
interims of size and processing power. Smartphones are regarded as a portable computer that uses touch
sensitive screen to interact with the user. Most smartphones has a slot where a SIM card can be inserted
to support mobile communications like cells, text messaging and internet access over mobile networks.
Characteristics of a Tablet
1. A large touch screen, bigger that of a smartphones.
2. Large internal memory capacity.
3. Powerful processor, more powerful than that of smartphones.
4. Ability to run more applications and connect to high speed internet.

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5. High resolution screen and camera capable of taking high quality pictures and videos.
COMPUTER NETWORKS
- A computer network is a group of computers and its peripheral devices connected together by
communication hardware and software.
- Computers on network shares information and system resources such as disk drive and Modem as well
as Printers.
USES OF NETWORKS
ELECTRONIC BANKING
- It is the networked computer systems to offer banking services like cash withdrawal, deposit, transfer
and electronic payments. And it encourages the following services and technologies:
1. Automated Teller machines (ATMs): Is a terminal used to offer 24 hours service to customer over a
wide geographical region. ATMs enable customers to withdraw and deposit.
2. Internet banking: It provides on line transaction to customers.
3. Mobile banking: Use of mobile phone to access the bank account which enable customer to withdraw,
deposit and transfer funds.
4. E-commerce: Carrying business activities online.
5. Point of sale (POS) services: Support purchasing of goods using electronics card e.g. VISA, which
support cash less transfer.
6. Mobile communication: It is a view of wireless computer networks.
7. Electronic government: Computer network that offer electronics services to citizen e.g. payment of
taxes
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
o It allows sharing of information on any subjects of interest.
o Cultural differences between people across the world can be broken down hence people will be able to
learn other people’s cultures through internet and other communication channel.
o It has allowed telecommuting whereby people work in their convenient locations than in their offices.
o With the introduction of wireless application protocols (WAP), it is possible to work with a laptop in
rural areas.
o Through online services it is possible to access educational, medical advice and other important services.
LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKING
- Although networking has more advantages but also they are some challenges that are associated with
implementation and human factors. And the factors includes;
o High initial installation cost; it is expensive to come up with a network structure.
o Security issues; data and information held in computers on a network is more prone to illegal access
threats than the one held on stand –alone computer.
o High initial cost; hardware and software are expensive to buy.
o Moral and cultural effects; chartrooms and messaging services available on the internet, it changes
morality of people and the culture.
o Due to access to pornographic sites on the internet, it encourages bad sexual behaviour and drugs and
substances abuse.
o Over- reliance on networks; many business processes depend on computer networks which can lead
for many business to go down when networks fails.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
- A communication system has the following elements:
1. Message source: A person who want to send the message across the communication system.
2. Transmitter: Is a communication channel is a transmission media through which data and
information flows.
3. Receivers: A receiver is a terminal equipment that gets the transmitted message from the channel and
decodes it before presenting it to the user.
4. Message user: It is the recipient of the message. The message is important to the users.

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NETWORK DEVICES
- Network devices are components which facilitates the linking of computers on the network system.
- The network devices includes;
o Network cables o Hub
o Transmitter o Bridge and network interface card
o Router (NIC)
o Switch o Modem ( Modulation Demodulation
MODEM
- It acts as the interface between the telephone line and the computer on a network system.
- A modem connects computers to make one or more network segments.
NETWORK CABLES
- Network cables are special designed wires used to connect different network devices.
- They connect one computer to another in direct cable connections.
- It also connects computers through interfacing devices like modems or hub.
TYPES OF NETWORK CABLES
o Two wire open line cables; are made up of two parallel copper wires separated by a plastic insulator.
They are used in telecommunication networks to transmit voice signal. They are linear in nature allows
an electromagnetic field to build around them during heavy data transmission which may cause
interference to the signals. They also capture environmental frequencies such as radio waves which can
cause noise in the channel.

o Twisted pair cables; they are made up of two solid copper wire strands wound around each other in a
double helix manner. They are mostly used to transmit both voice and data signals.

THE ADVANTGES OF TWISTED PAIR CABLING

o It is cheap because of mass production for telephone use.
o Installation equipment is cheap and readily available.
o Telephone system use UTP which is present in most buildings which is making it easier to set up
network media because connections are readily available.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF TWISTED PAIR CABLING
1. It suffers high attenuation during heavy data transmission.
2. It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference.
3. It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.
o Fibre optic cables; they use light to transmit data from one point to another with bandwidth of 50 Gbps
which is higher than other network cables.

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THE ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTIC CABLE

1. It is immune to interference and eavesdropping.
2. It is fast and supports high bandwidth.
3. Can be used in hazardous places because they do not generate electrical signal.
4. It is smaller and lighter than copper cable hence ideal for space limited situations.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTIC CABLE
1. Connectivity devices and the media are expensive.
2. It is difficult to install because the cable must be carefully handled.
3. It is relatively hard to configure.
o Coaxial cables; they have a central copper core which may be of solid or stranded wires surrounded by
insulators.

THE ADVANTAGES OF COAXIAL CABLES

1. They are very stable eve under heavy loads.
2. They have large bandwidth (up to 1GBps).
3. They can carry voice data and video signal simultaneously.
4. They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF COAXIAL CABLES
1. Thick coaxial cables are hard to work with.
2. Coaxial cables are relatively expensive to buy.
3. It is not easy to install coaxial cables compared to other cables.
TRANSMITTER
- A transmitter also known as a repeater is an electronic device that receives signals and retransmits it at a
higher level to the other side of obstruction, so that the signals can cover longer distances without
degradation.
ROUTER
- A router is a networking device whose software and hardware are made to the tasks of routing and
forwarding information. For example on the internet the information is directed to various paths by
routers.
- Routers are capable to connect two or more logical subnets.
- Router has special hardware and software which help in managing network resources.
NETWORK SWITCH
- Network switch is a computer networking device that connects network segments.
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- Switches that additionally process data at the network layer are known as, layer 3 switches or multilayer
switches.
HUB
- A network hub or repeater hub is a device for connecting multiple network devices together and making
them acting as a single network segment.
- Repeaters hub also participates in collision, forwarding a jam signals to all ports if it detects a collision.
- Hub help on the impediment of the smooth flow of traffic.
NETWORK BRIDGES
- A network bridge is a device which connects multiple network segments. Bridge is similar to repeater or
network hub.
- Bridges are capable to analyse the incoming data packets on a network segments to determine if bridge
is able to send the given packet to another segment of that same network.
NETWORK CARD
- A network card also known as network Adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC) and also LAN adapter.
- NIC is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer
network.
- NIC provide a physical access to a networking medium and provide a low level addressing system
through the use of MAC addresses.
- Each NIC has a unique 48 bits serial number called a MAC address stored in ROM.
- NIC is physically connected in the computer system. NIC are bought from the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
DATA SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
- Data signals is the process of transmitting data inform of text on the transmission medium.
TERMS USED IN DATA SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
1. Data signals: It refers to a voltage level in a circuit which represents the flow of data. Data signals can
either be Analog or digital in nature.

2. Signal modulation and Demodulation: Is the process of converting signals from analog to digital
making it suitable for transmission.

3. Multiplexing: It the process of sending multiple data signals on the same medium.
4. Bandwidth: It refers to the maximum amount of data that a transmission channel can carry at any one
time.
5. Baseband signals: Is a digital signal that is generated and fed into a transmission medium without
modulation.
6. Broadband transmission: The process of transmitting analog signal is transmitted over a medium using
different frequencies.
7. Attenuation: It is the decrease in magnitude and energy of a signal as it progressively moves along a
transmission medium. Signals get lost when are not boosted.
Classification of communication networks
Communication networks can be classified as either Circuit switched, packet switched, and message
switched.

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Circuit switched network
- Circuit switched network is a dedicated circuit that has to be set up before data is sent from source to
destination. All data is sent through a dedicated connection. Examples of such network are the telephone
network and dial-up network.
Advantages of circuit switching
1. Communication entities enjoy dedicated connection.
2. Data is sent through the same path from source to destination.
Disadvantages of circuit switching
1. Inefficient utilisation of communication channels since even when the link is underutilised, other devices
cannot use it.
2. Circuit switching communication is expensive in terms of setup cost and bandwidth utilization.
3. Lack of error localisation means a broken link means the entire communication breaks down.
Packet switching networks
- In packet switching a message is broken down into small tokens called packets, serialised then sent over
the network to the destination and there is no dedicated connection hence many users can use the same
link at a go.
Advantages of Packet Switching
1. Efficient utilisation of communication channels since many users can share the same channels.
2. Cheaper communication costs because no setup cost is required.
3. Errors to messages are localised i.e. if a packet becomes damaged, only that packet needs to be resents.
Also if a link breaks the packet can be rerouted through available channels.
Disadvantages of packet switching
1. Routing of the packets from source to destination is required.
2. Assembling of packets at the destination node requires computing effort.
Message switching network
- In message switching an entire message is sent from one node to the next, and then forwarded to the
next, until the message reaches the destination. Nodes have special memories called buffers for storing
messages then forwarding them.
Advantages of message switching
1. Transmission efficiency is greater since messages can share channels.
2. Message priorities can be set on the network.
3. Since the next route is determined from the current node, more efficient routing of messages is possible.
Disadvantages of message switching
1. Long message can dominate the channel at the expense of others.
2. Nodes must have large storage capacities to store and forward messages.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION (UNBOUNDED MEDIA)

Wireless media is type of media that is used to transmit data from one point to another without using
physical connections. It uses transmitting antenna and receiver aerial to facilitate the communication.
Example of Wireless Transmission media
- Microwaves
- Satellite
- Radiowaves
- Infrared
Satellite communication
- A satellite is a type of microwave relay station in space. The satellite earth stations are microwaves
dishes with antenna used for relaying data using microwaves to the satellite in space. A satellite
transmission system has three main components:
1. Transmitter earth stations that uplink frequency for transmitting data to the satellite.
2. Satellite that is a relay station in the orbit that receives amplifies and transmits the signal to a receiver
earth station via a downlink frequency that is different from the uplink frequency.
3. Receiver earth station receives data signals from the satellite.
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Communication satellite used for data transmission is usually launched into space about 36 000 km above
the earth in such a manner that its rotational speed is relatively equal to that of the earth.

Types of satellite
1. Geostationary
2. Satellite footprint
3. Very small aperture terminal (VSAT)

VSAT Connections
THE ADVANTAGE OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
1. It is flexible in operation as compared to bounded media, because devices can be moved around without
losing access to the network.
2. It can span large geographical area easily.
3. Wireless communication can take via satellite even in very remote areas that do not have high cost
physical infrastructure like telephone lines.

THE DISADVANTAGES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

1. It is difficult to establish or configure.
2. The initial cost is very high or expensive to install.
Data transmission modes
1. Parallel transmission: It uses a set of data lines (buses) to transmit data from one device to another.
-Communication between components that are connects to the motherboard.
-Transfer of data from the computer to some peripheral devices e.g. the printer.
2. Serial transmission: It transmits data in series of 0s and 1s over the communication channel.
3. Simplex transmission: It is a one way transmission of data.
4. Half duplex transmission: It offers two way communications but not simultaneously.
5. Full duplex transmission: It offers data transmission to both sides simultaneously.

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TOPIC 5: TROUBLESHOOTING COMPUTERS AND ACCESSORIES

Troubleshooting is the process of diagnosing and resolving hardware and software related problems.
Common hardware and software problems
1. Failure to load the operating system during booting process.
2. Computer failure to respond (hanging)
3. Abnormal restarting of a computer
4. Failure of the monitor to display.
5. Failure of operating system due to device drivers’ problems.
Hardware problems
The problems below you may experience as a result of failure of basic hardware components.
A. Computer boot Failure
- During boot up process the computer go through power on Self Test (POST), to check the status of Basic
input and Output (BIOS).
- If any hardware has a problem during this process, the computer may display error code 120 for
motherboard problem and error code 162 for processor problem. Error code starting with 2 it means
memory failure.
To troubleshoot startup related processes do the following;
1. Start the computer to initialise the POST process where you will see a dark screen with some
scrolling text. Press F10 to enter Bios setup (based on the type of BIOS utility chip on your
computer.
2. Press special key or combination of keys i.e. DEL, ESC, CTRL + ESC, or CTRL +ALT +ESC) to
display BIOS setup screen.
3. In the setup window make necessary changes. Be sure with the changes you are making.
4. Save the configuration changes and restart your computer.
Failure of Motherboard, Memory or Processor
- If your computer fails to complete POST or it displays LED light instead of green it means the problem
is with the motherboard, memory or processor failure. Such problems are rare because motherboard and
Processor are serious cases. To resolve RAM errors Proceed as follows;
1. Disconnect the computer from power and open up the system unit and locate the slots where the
RAM modules are plugged.
2. Discharge the static electricity that might have built up on your body using a wrist member.
3. Check whether the Memory Modules are firmly plugged into the slots. The connect the computer to
the power source.
4. If the problem persists, you need to replace the RAM modules with new ones.
Failure of power supply Unit
- Power supply unit may fail due to power surge or failure of cooler fan inside it. To resolve the power
supply problems do the following;
1. Check if the power supply is properly connected to power socket or UPS.

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2. Check the power selector to ensure that it has the right power rating. For example in most countries,
the rating for domestic power is 240V while in US the rating is 110V.
3. Open the casing and check whether the power cable that connects to the motherboard is properly
attached.
4. If the problem Persists, replace the power supply with the new one. Never try to repair a power
supply unit because it may cause serious body harm.
Failure of cooler fan
- A computer may have several cooling fans such as that of power supply, the processor and chassis. The
fan protects delicate devices of computer components from the damage caused by overheating.
- When the fans begin to wear out, it makes a whining or grinding noise. To protect the fans from failure,
do one of the following:
1. Place the computer in a dust free place or if the computer is in a dusty place always remember to cover
it.

2. Always use the blower to blow out dust that may have settled on computer parts.
3. In case one of the fans happens to fail, turn off the computer, unclip it and replace it with a new one.
Abnormal restarting of a computer
- This is caused by poor Operating System Configuration, hardware failure or virus attack. A computer
may display a blue screen with message such as “fatal exception error has occurred”. To resolve these
problems, do the following:
1. Confirm that all hardware devices and drivers are properly installed or configured using device manager.
2. if the problem is related to Operating System, follow this Procedure:
(a). Press combination of keys (CTRL+ALT + DEL) to restart the computer.
(b). During the reboot process, and before windows is loaded, press F8 to display the safe mode
startup screen.
(c). Choose safe mode to load Windows with minimal settings. Scan the drivers or check for any
hardware related problems in device manager.
3. If the problem Persists, the Operating system may be corrupted by a malware. Use up-to-date antivirus
software to scan the boot sector for viruses.
4. If it fails you need to re-install or repair the operating system using the recovery disk created during
installation. The last and painful option is to install the operating system afresh which means losing installed
programs and sometimes data.
Damaged Removable Storage media
- When you get an error failure to read or write from/to media or an error message “error writing to disk”
this indicates that the media is corrupted. To resolve the problem try the following;
1. Open the removable media like CD/DVD into different computers to rule out drive failure as the cause
of the problem.
2. Clean up the drive using cleaning tools available in most computer vendor’s shops.
3. If the problem persists after cleaning, consider replacing it with a new one.

Hard drive failure

- Error code 16 during computer Startup means poor communication between the computer and the hard
drive. To troubleshoot proceed as follows;
1. Enter into the BIOS setup program to ensure that proper hard drive type is selected.
2. If the error message persists, the disk platter (s) may have crashed. Consider replacing it with a new
one.
Display problem on screen
- This may cause eyestrain, fatigue and Headaches. Opt for LCD monitor not CRT monitors because LCD
consumes less power than CRT monitors.
Continuous beeping sound
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- Is caused by missing monitor or faulty video adapter. Check to ensure that the monitor is properly
attached to the video card through the VGA or HDMI port.
No display or Flickering monitor
- First press any key on the keyboard, if they display fails check power connection. Flickering may be
caused by poor refresh rate or failing monitor. To resolve the display problems do the following;
1. Make sure the monitor is plugged into power outlet and turned on. And the Brightness should be set to
adequate level.
2. If this step does not solve the problem, check whether the monitor is properly plugged to the VGA or
HDMI port usually at the back of the system unit.
3. If the problem is not related to power or interface, you may need to test, the monitor using another
computer before declaring dead!
4. Replace the monitor with a new one, preferably a TFT flat panel display.
Repeated display on screen
- This is caused by poor colour and resolution settings. It results in multiple copies of the same image. To
resolve unsure that you have good resolution setup and colour settings.
Keyboard and Mouse failure
- It is caused by improper connections of the device, poor handling or even mechanical failure of the
device itself. Irregular movement of the mouse pointer across the screen suggests dirty mouse ball or
LED contact. For the keyboard that has failed replace the underlying circuit board or entire keyboard.
Problem with Sound output
- Components that make up a computer audio system are the sound controller, speaker and device drivers.
If the computer does not produce sound try the following;
1. Adjust the volume to adequate level. In addition, check to make sure that they are plugged into the sound
interface.
2. Ensure that the speaker’s power cable is properly plugged into power outlet and the speakers are turned
on.
3. If the speakers and the interface cables are not faulty, turn your attention to the sound drivers.
4. If the problem is still not resolved, open the computer and make sure that the sound adapter is available
or properly plugged.
NB: make use of the manual that comes with you computer to check the hardware configuration of the
computer and operating system. To diagnose and troubleshoot any hardware and software problems.
Software problems
Software may fail during installation and when running in windows operating system. Some of the problems
include;
Missing Operating system
After POST, a computer searches for the presence of an Operating system (OS) on the hard drive. If the OS
is not installed, the error message “Missing operating system” may be displayed. Then make sure you
follow the procedures for installing OS. Some the times the problem can be with the boot sector or hard disk
related problems. The boot sector is where the booting instructions are stored once you install an operating
system. To resolve this problem, do the following;
1. Enter the BIOS setup screen and check whether the hard disk is visible to the computer.
2. If the hard disk is okay, reboot the computer using the system recovery disk and try to repair the
operating system.

Corrupted system registry

Registry is the database that keeps record of all system and application software installed on the computer. If
the registry is corrupted the computer may fail to boot. Some it can be the results of malware or corrupted
system registry files.
To troubleshoot problems relating to corrupted registry, try the following;
1. Repair the registry using emergency recovery disk or restore the registry backup if you created one. If all
these fail reinstall the operating system.

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2. If the system can start in safe mode, locate the malfunctioning device in the device manager and disable
it.
Windows protection error
They are displayed during startup before the desktop is displayed. It occurs when critical Windows drivers
fails to load. To deal with this problem do the following;
1. Restart the computer in safe mode as outlined above. If windows does not load, use the recovery disk to
repair the operating system.
2. Using the recovery disk, repair the operating system by paying attention to details.
Problem of Non- responding system
Non-responding system is also known as hanging which refers to when a computer has failed to respond to
commands. To resolve the problem, do one of the following;
1. Press CTRL+ALT+DEL keys to display the task manager.
2. In the task manager window, click the process tab, and then select the non-responding process e.g.
explore.exe.
3. Click END Process button to terminate the application.
Printer- related problems
- A printer is an output device used to produce hardcopies. To troubleshoot printer related problems you
need to know how the printer works and how to set it up.
Some of the printer related problems are;
1. I/O Print error
It occurs due to poor communication between the computer and the printer. To resolve the problem
ensure that the correct printer is selected and turned on. If fails the re-install the printer drivers.

2. Paper jam
It is caused due to use of poor quality paper, when the printer is ever loaded with paper or using too light or
too heavy paper. Jams stop the current print process to resolve gently remove the paper jam.
3. Poor printout
It is caused by use of poor quality ink or toner or laser drum/head, to resolve by replacing the ink, toner
and laser drum/head. Quality can also be affected by machine print process. Garbage is produced due to
poor communication problem between the computer and printer. To resolve make sure that the
appropriate drivers are properly installed.
4. Toner/ink Cartridge problem
It can be resolved by replacing or refilling the toner/ink. Make sure the toner is tested to avoid possibility
of using faulty cartridge.
5. Smudged Printout
With dot matrix check the printer head to resolve the problem. With laser printer replace the drum. With
ink jet printers avoid touching the printout before it dry. Try the following to solve smudged problem:
1. In case of a dot matrix printer, replace the print head. If doesn’t solve the problem, it could indicate
worn-out printer head or poor ink ribbon the replace the head or ribbon.
2. For laser printers, consult the user-guide that may be helpful in locating the problem especially relating
to the fuser. A fuser is a sensitive component that gets very hot it is advisable for it to be handled by an
experienced technician.

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TOPIC 6: USING DESKTOP PUBLISHING SOFTWARE

Definition of desktop publishing
- Desktop publishing (DPT) is the process of designing publications of professional quality such as
newspapers, invitation cards, posters, fliers, journals and books using specialised DPT software.
Examples of DTPs Software
1. Adobe PageMaker 5. Adobe Illustrator
2. Microsoft publisher 6. CorelDraw
3. QuarkXpress 7. SerifPagePlus
4. AdobeIndesign 8. Apple Page2

Check the operating system installed in your computers before choosing any DTPs software.
Benefits of DTPs Publishing
Although word processor can be used to create professional publications, DTP software offers the following
benefit;
1. Every item on a page is contained in a frame hence can be edited and formatted independently.
2. DTPs provide more control on how text and graphics can be arranged and formatted.
3. Frame containing text or graphics need not flow in logical sequence.
4. DTPs provide master pages used to set a common layout which may be repeated on several pages.
5. In DTPs publications can be printed in a form suitable for commercial digital offset printing using
colour separations.
6. Most DTPs have predefined templates such as brochures, booklets, posters and business cards are
available.
7. Multiple stories from different authors can be handled with ease.
8. DTP enhances Visual communication to different audience.
9. DTP ensures files print properly in their true colours, fonts and measurements.
Types of DTP Software
- DTP software are divided into two namely; Graphic-based DTPs and Layout- based DTPs.
1. Graphic-based DTPs: It is used to edit and format graphics objects such as picture and vectors
drawings. Vectors drawing are free hand drawings such as those drawn by fine artists. Adobe
Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator and CorelDraw are the examples of Graphic –based DTPs. Graphic-
based DTPs are good at setting resolution, brightness, Contrast cropping and filling images with
colours.
2. Layout-based DTPs: Are used for designing page layout for text and graphics. Adobe PageMaker,
Microsoft publisher and Adobe InDesign are some of the Layout-based DTPs.
Purpose of desktop publishing Software
- DTPs are popular in publishing because they provide personal design publication with a lot of control
on;
1. Graphic design: They can be used to design a vector images using drawing tool in CorelDraw and
Illustrator. They are used for image editing through the use of Adobe Photoshop.
2. Page layout design: DTPs are used for page design layout by setting consistent picture and object
locations, dividing a page in a number of newspapers columns and adding layers. A layer can be
viewed as the arrangement of objects on top of each other with each object on its own layer.
3. Printing: used for image color separation and provide more flexible in image printing of which
printing is the main goal.
Examples of Publications
The following are just a few examples;
1. Newspapers: These are daily publications bearing news, sports, magazine e.t.c for the readers.
2. Magazines: A magazine is a publication containing news, features, specialists knowledge etc that
has many pictures and illustrator targeting a particular audience.

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3. Book: A book is a publication in a particular subject area or featuring a particular story.
4. Calendar: This is a publication showing the dates and dates and days of a week, month and year.

Features of DTP Software

The following tools are common features in most DTPs:
1. Select tool – used to select, move and resize images and text.
2. Text tool – Used to draw text frames, insert and manipulate text.
3. Shapes tools – for drawing basic shapes like rectangle and for importing objects.
4. Zoom tool – for magnifying publication view.
5. Rotate tool – for rotating text and graphics.
Features of publisher application window
1. Menu Tabs: It provide ribbons of commands used to manipulate a publication acts as the main
components of the user interface.
2. Printable area: It holds objects to be printed and is surrounded with margins.
3. Rulers: They are vertical and horizontal rulers. Rulers are important tools in DTPs because the
provide exact measurement on text and objects.
4. Master Pages: They are used to design large publication and pages numbers, header and footers are
inserted in master pages. Large documents like books or project you need to setup large layout using
master pages.
Design tools
Tool Purpose Ribbon
Draw text Tool for inserting text within a textbox. In publisher each textbox is a frame Home and
box that can be manipulated as an object. Insert
Pictures Tool used for inserting graphical objects such as pictures and clip arts from Home and
local drive or internet. Insert
Table This tool is used for inserting tables into a publication. Home and
Insert
Shapes Contains tools for drawing different types of shapes such as lines, squares, Home and
rectangles and circles. Insert
Select Tool purposely used for selecting graphical object to be manipulated. Home and
Insert
Page This is the first button on Insert ribbon used to add pages into a publication. Insert
Picture Used to draw a picture frame that reserves space for a picture to be inserted Insert
Placeholder later.
Page parts Tool used to insert preformatted content such as headings and quotes. Insert
Word Art Tool used for inserting artistic letters or words in a publication. Insert
Insert File Used for importing content from existing document files saved on your Insert
computer.
Object Used for inserting content from an external source and placing it in your Insert
publication as an embedded or linked object.
Page Used to insert page numbers on multi-paged publications such as Insert
Number newsletters and books.
Change Used for changing or applying predefined templates on a publication. Page Design
Template
Orientation Used to change orientation of a publication into portrait or landscape. Page Design
Master Used for designing master pages that contains common layout to be applied Page Design
pages on other pages of the publication.

Designing a publication
- The following are key factors you need to consider when designing a publication;

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1. Decide the type of publication. Is a newspaper? How many columns per page? What paper size will be
used?
2. Decide the Layout of the publication. This will help to know appropriate template or master pages to
create common layout.
3. Decide on about the colour scheme, fonts, margins, orientation, graphics etc and make sure the page is
properly setup.

Printing a Publication
- Unlike in other application programs, printing in DTPs is much more technical. This
is because you may prefer to print to print a picture in separate colours referred
to as colours separation. You can also insert crop marks and other details required
for commercial printing.
To print a publication, proceed as follows:
1. On the file tab, click print.
2. Under printer option, click printer properties hyperlink to set print options in the
dialog box.
3. To specify advanced print properties such as inserting cropmarks, click the arrow on
the right of printer button, then click Advanced output settings from the dropdown
list.
4. In the dialog box that appears, use tabs such as Marks and Bleeds to specify advance
print options.
5. Click the print button to start printing.

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PART 2
FORM 4 CONTENTS
TOPIC 1: USING SPREADSHEET
Using formulas to solve practical problems
- Spreadsheets programs use special formulas to help user solve daily life problems.
- Formulas like AVERAGE are used to assess the performance of a group and other formulas are
complex, for example, when you want to model the profitability of a business project.
Some examples of the formulae used in a spreadsheet are;
1. SUM 11.AND
2. ROUND 12.OR
3. PRODUCT 13.NOT
4. AVERAGE 14.TODAY
5. COUNT 15.NOW
6. MAX 16.DATE
7. MIN 17.HOUR
8. IF 18.MINNUTE
9. COUNTIF 19.SECOND
10.SUMIF
SORTING DATA
- Sorting refers to arranging data in ascending or descending order. It helps in the quick retrieval of data
and records. E.g. in a phone directory it is faster and easier to search for a particular number belonging to
a person if it is sorted.
To sort range of rows:
1. Highlight the range of cells that you want to sort on the created spreadsheet.
2. On the home tab, click the sort and filter icon found within the Editing group then select the Custom Sort
command.
3. In the Sort dialog box, select the field to be used as the key for sorting and the sort orders as either
descending or ascending order then click OK button to apply.
Filtering data
- Filtering is a quick and efficient method of finding and working with a subset of data in a list. A filtered
list will display the cells that meet the criteria you specified.
The two types of filtering are;
1. The autofilter: It uses simple criteria and includes filter by selection.
2. Advanced filter: It uses more complex criteria.
USING AUTOFILTER
- It is applied to only one list one a worksheets.
To autofilter a list:
1. Click a cell in the list that is to be filtered; usually the list in a column.
2. On the Data tab, in the sort and filter group, click filter.
3. To display only the rows that contain a specific value, click the arrow in the column that contains the
data you want to display and uncheck all the other values leaving only the one you want to be checked.
Advanced Filter
- It is used to specify the criteria manually.
1. Specify the criteria in the column that you want to use as filter criteria.

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2. On the Data tab, in the sort and filter group, click Advanced. In the Advanced filter dialog box, do the
following:
I. Select the “filter the list in place” option.
II. In the List range box, specify the range of values to be filtered. You don’t have to type just click the
collapse dialog button on the left of the field and select the range.
III. In the Criteria range box, specify the range that covers the column label and the criteria.
CREATING CHARTS AND GRAPHICS
- A chart is also known as a graph is a pictorial representation of underlying data on a worksheet.
- Charts make it easy for the user to see the comparisons, patterns and trends in data.
- A chart is linked to the worksheet data it is created from, and whenever data on the worksheet is
modified, the chart is updated automatically.
- A chart is a visual representation of data in a worksheet. Charts are used to compare and see patterns and
trends in the generated data.
TYPES OF CHARTS
- Some of the charts available in a worksheet are;
1. Line chart – represents data as lines with markers at each data value in the x-y plane.
2. Column chart – represents data using clustered of columns comparing values across categories.
3. Bar chart – represents data using clustered bars arranged horizontally. It is used to compare values
across categories.
4. Pie chart: used to present data on a circular pie partitioned into sectors representing each item being
analysed.
5. Scatter chart – Compares pairs of values on the same axis using scattered dots.
To generate a chart proceed as follows;
1. Select the range of values for which you want to create a chart.
2. On the insert tab, click the column button which is within the charts group.
3. Click the type of chart you want to create i.e. column chart then click OK button and the chart will be
inserted in the worksheet.
FORMATTING AND EDITING CHARTS
Resizing and moving a chart
1. Click the chart you wish to resize.
2. Use the place holders on the edge to drag the chart to size.
3. To move the chart, click inside the chart area then drag to the desired position.
Labelling data values
1. On the chart Tools toolbars, in the chart layout group then click the Quick layout command. Select a
layout that had data labels.
2. Edit the chart title as appropriate.
Insert titles
1. On the Chart toolbars, in the chart Layout group click Add Chart element then select chart Title.
2. Select the preview with the expected position of the title e.g. above chart then type the title in the
provided space.
Inserting a legend
- A legend is equivalent to a key used on manually drawn charts. It shows colour which represents each
data values.
To create a legend:
1. On the chart tools toolbars, in chart layouts group click Legend.
2. Select the preview with the right position of the legend you wish and it will be indicated.
Changing the chart location
1. Right click the chart then select the move chart command from the shortcut menu that appears.
2. In the move Chart dialog box, specify whether to embed the chart into the current worksheet or place it
in a new worksheet, and then click OK.

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Linking files
- A link is a type of formula that fetches its data from another worksheet or spreadsheet files into a current
worksheet file.

To link spreadsheets:
1. Open the workbooks you wish to link.
2. In the source worksheet, highlight the cells you wish to link to and then click the copy command.
3. Switch focus to the destination workbook. Click the upper left corner of the range where you wish the
links to be.
4. On the Home tab, Click the paste drop down and then click the paste special command. In the paste
special dialog box, click paste link option then click the OK command.

TOPIC 2: USING DATABASES

WHAT IS A DATABASE?
- Database is a structure collection of records or data that is related to a particular subject. To design a
database special software are used such as database management system (DBMS)
TYPES OF DATABASE
- They are three major types of database and these are;
o Traditional database or manual database
o Electronic database or computerised database
o Flat file management.
TRADITIONAL DATABASE
- It is a database system which is designed manually on any flat surface such as a piece of paper or
chalkboard. Manual database consists of collection of repository files and folders; each properly tagged
and kept in proper sequence in a cabinet.
DISADVANTAGES OF MANUAL DATABASE SYSTEM
1. Redundancy – Redundancy refers to unnecessary duplication of data in multiple files.
2. Lack of flexibility – It is difficult to search for a requested file or record.
3. Lack of Integrity – Poor storage and maintenance of data may lead to unreliable and misleading reports
4. Lack of data sharing – Data or information in different manual files may not be available to other
users.
ELECTRONIC DATABASE
- It is a database system which is designed through computerised system using application programs such
as Ms Access and spreadsheet.
EXAMPLES OF ELECTRONIC DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (DBMS)
1. Ms Access 5. FoxPro
2. OpenOffice Database 6. DbaseIV
3. Ms SQL Server 7. Lotus Approach
4. Oracle 8. Oracles’s MySQL Server
BENEFITS OF USING DBMS
1. Allow authorised users to add or delete records
2. Allow users to updates or modify existing records
3. Organise files and records for easy access, retrieval and sharing.
4. Interface between database files and other application programs.
5. Ensure security and integrity of data by safeguarding it against unauthorised access and modification
6. Keep statistics of data items in a database.
FLAT FILE MANAGEMENT
- In flat file database management, records are stored in separate files each with particular details. Such as
students name and accounting files are stored separately.

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DATABASE MODELS
- There are three main database models and these are;
o Hierarchical model
o Relational model
o Network model
HIERARCHICAL MODEL
- A database model which organise data in a tree like structure. It allows repeating data using parent child
relationships.
RELATIONAL MODEL
- It organise data in tables, each table has a collection of records and each records contains the same field.
- In relational database model each row is unique and each column value are of the same kind with unique
name.
NETWORK MODEL
- It is a database model which allows each parent to have multiple parent and child record. In network
model data is organised in lattice structure.
OBJECT- RELATIONAL MODEL
- This is a database model that stores and manipulates data as objects. It is use of programming languages
to develop database system.
OBJECT- ORIENTED MODEL
- It supports storage, access and manipulation of objects. It provides unification of application and database
development. It organise a Program as one element.
CONTENTS OF A DATABASE
- They are several elements of a database and some of them are;
o Tables o Reports
o Queries o Field
o Forms o Records
o
- A table is an object that stores data. Each table is supposed to contain one type of information.
- Queries are objects that are used to retrieve data from one or more tables or forms.
- A form is a database object which is used to update data in tables and queries in a database.
- A report is an object which displays data in printed format.
- A field is a character or logical of character that represents data items.
- A record is a collection of related fields that represents a single entity.
ADVANTAGES OF A DATABASE
o It contains tables which is used to store information
o It has queries which are used to retrieve just the required data.
o It has forms that are used to view, add and update data in tables.
o It has reports to analyse or print data in a specific layout.
o It has data access page to view, update data from the internet.

DESIGNING A DATABASE
- The following steps has to be followed in database design;
1) Determining the purpose of the database.
2) Determining the fields needed in the database
3) Determining the tables needed in the database
4) Identifying primary fields. A primary field is a field that has got a unique value in a record.
5) Determining table relationships. Bring related information together.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DESIGNING A DATABASE

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1. Estimate the amount of data expected to be stored in the database. This important because it
determines the number of tables to be created.
2. Study the requirements of the user carefully in order to define all the inputs, output and relationships
required to create a database.
3. Design a prototype database preferably on the paper to determine fields and tables required to
implement the database.
4. Normalize the fields into separate tables to allow flexibility in database manipulation. This process of
decomposing fields into separate but related tables is referred to as normalization.
5. Identify a field in each table that will be used to identify each record uniquely. Such field is referred to
as a primary key.
6. Give the most important fields’ first priority when designing a table structure. These fields are those
mostly used to sort and search for records in a database.
7. Design sample data forms and reports needed for interaction between the user and the database system.
TABLES AND RELATIONSHIPS
- Data in a table is arranged in columns (field) and rows (record). Creating a table involves specifying
fields on how they ought to appear in a table. A table can be created using the following way;
1) Design view
2) By using wizard
3) By entering data
CREATING TABLES IN DESIGN VIEW
o Load Ms Access.
o Click table under objects.
o Click create table in design view.
o Press ENTER. Then a blank table with three columns opens.
o Enter the field name in field name column and assign the data type in data type column.
o Define a primary key before saving the table by clicking primary key button on the standard toolbar.
o A primary key is a key used to identify unique information in a table. An index or secondary key is
used to the speed up the search of records in tables and queries in a database.
o Save the table by attempting to close the table and typing the table name in the text box and click OK.
DESCRIPTION OF FIELD (DATA) TYPES
- The type of data to be used in a database must be clearly defined for the purpose of manipulation and
storage.
- The data type used in Ms Access include;
1) Text (short Text); this data type allows the entry of letters, number, spaces and punctuation. Text has to
be used where calculation has not to be used.
2) Number; this field allows the entry of numeric numbers (0 to 9) that has to perform mathematical
calculations.
3) Memo (long Text); is a field which allows both alphanumeric. It allows several paragraph of text to be
entered in a field.
4) Date/time; is a data type used to identify a field as either date or time.
5) Currency; is a data type used to identify numerical values that have decimal or fractions.
6) Auto number; is a numerical value that tell Ms Access to automatically increase the values in a field.
7) Yes/no; is a logical field where the entry is YES or NO, TRUE or FALSE?
8) OLE Object; OLE object stands for Object linking and Embedding. It is mostly used with graphical
user interface applications for inserting graphics objects such as pictures.
9) Calculated; It is used to store data created from a formula, it important when a value has to be use in a
field.
10) Attachment; It is used to store one or more files containing pictures, sound and videos.
FIELD PROPERTIES
- Field properties they help to work with database tables in more complex methods. Some of the field
properties are as follow;
o Default value; It is a value that appears automatically in a datasheet or form e.g. =date ().
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o Validation rule; It is a logical expression that restrict a value to be entered in a field e.g. if >=0 and
<=100.
o Validation text; It is a text that appears when the validation is violated.
o Required; It determine if the entry has to be made before proceeding in the field.
o Allow zero length; It allows the user to proceed without making any entry in the field.
o Indexed; It facilitates the organisation of records for easy search. A primary key is an example of an
index. Indexed is a key used to speed up the searching of data in a database.
o Format; Determines how information appears on the screen or when printed.
o Precision; This property is used to specify the total number of digits that can be stored both to the left
and right of a decimal point.
o Decimal places; It applies to number and Currency types. For number and currency fields that you can
specify the number of decimal places.
o Input mask; It allows the entry of field into specified format. i.e. entering a number like
02000100409874 and the input mask is set as 000-(00000)-000000, it is formatted and displayed as 020-
(00100)-409874. The property is used to format phone numbers and address entries.
o Caption; It is a more descriptive name for a field to be used in table or a form display. For example the
caption for stuName could be Student Name.

CREATING A TABLE USING WIZARD

- To create a table using wizards do the following;
o Click table under objects
o Click create table using wizard
o Press ENTER.
- The wizard will guide you through the steps below;
1) Selecting sample tables either personal or business
2) Naming the table and defining primary key
3) Defining table relationships
4) Specifying data entry method such as detail table design or modify table design.
QUERIES, FORMS AND REPORTS
CREATING QUERIERS USING WIZARD
- Queries are database objects used to view, change and analyse data in different ways. And they are also
used as a source of records for forms, reports and data access pages.
- To create a query by using a wizard do the following;
o Click query under objects.
o Click create query by using wizard.
o Press ENTER to open the wizard dialogue box.
- In the query dialogue box follow the following steps;
1) Selecting fields needed in the query from available field to selected field.
2) Selecting type of query either detail or summary.
3) Naming the query by typing the name in the textbox and click finish.
TYPES OF QUERIES
1. Select query: It lets the user specify the criteria and the records that meet the criteria are displayed in a
query datasheet called dynaset.
2. Action query: It is used to make changes to records in a table.
The four types of action queries in Ms Access are;
1. Update – Updates data in a table.
2. Append query – adds data in a table from one or more tables.
3. Make table queries – Creates a new table from a dynaset.
4. Delete query – Deletes specified records from one or more tables.

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CREATING A FORM USING WIZARD
- A form is a database object that is used for entering and displaying data and it is usually bound to one or
more tables.
- A record source is a field in the table or query where a form is bound.
FORMS LAYOUT OPTIONS
1. Columnar form: the fields for each record are displayed down a column; that is, each value is displayed
on a separate line with field labels to the left.
2. Tabular form: Records are displayed from left to right across the page and labels appear at the top of
each column and each row represents a new records.
3. Datasheet form: The form resembles a table in datasheet view.
4. Justified form: One record occupies the whole form.
- To create a form by using wizard do the following;
o Click form under object.
o Click creates form using wizard.
o Press ENTER to display the dialogue box.
- In the form wizard dialogue box follow the steps below;
1) Selecting the record sources by clicking the single or double arrows.
2) Specifying layout e.g. columnar or justified
3) Specifying style e.g. blends or standard.
4) Naming the form by typing the form name in the textbox and click finish to finish form wizard.
CREATING A REPORT USING WIZARD
- A report is a database object that presents data in printed format.
SECTIONS IN A REPORT DESIGN GRID
1. Report Header: This contains unbound controls that display the title of report.
2. Page Header: Contains headings or labels for the data items to be displayed in every column.
3. Detail section: Holds bound controls that display data items for the table or query it was created from.
4. Page footer: It holds a control that has to be displayed in every page such as the page number and date.
5. Report footer: Used to display summary information form a report such as grand totals.
- To create a report by using wizard do the following;
o Click report under object.
o Click creates report using wizard.
o Press ENTER to display the dialogue box.
- In the report wizard dialogue box follow the steps below;
1) Selecting record source by clicking the single or double arrows.
2) Adding grouping levels
3) Setting up sorting orders
4) Specifying layout e.g. stepped or block and setting page orientation e.g. portrait or Landscape.
5) Specifying style e.g. bold or corporate.
6) Naming the report by typing the report name in the text box and clicking finish.
PRINTING
- Printing can be done in many ways in application programs such as Ms Word, Ms excel and Ms Access.
To print your work do the following;

o Click on file menu

o Click page setup to set page orientation either Portrait or Landscape.
o Click print preview to view how your work will appear on the hardcopy and close the preview.
o On file menu select print then on the print dialogue box specify the number of copy needed and the page
need either Odd or Even only, but by default ALL is selected to print all the work.
o Clock OK.

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TOPIC 3: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

TYPES OF NETWORKS
- Networks are grouped into three major types and these includes;
o Scale
o Typology
o Hybrid network.

TYPES OF NETWORK ACCORDING TO SCALE

- They are three main types and these are;
o Local Area network (LAN)
o Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
o Wide Area Network (WAN)
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
- It connects computers on the same locality such as school, office or home network.
- LAN is small in nature, hence it connect computer in small geographical area.
ADVANTAGES OF LAN
o Data transfer is fast.
o Its geographical range is small.
o It does not require telecommunication lines.
o It is cheap.
DISADVANTAGES OF LAN
o It has limited services from other network system.
o It is expensive to install items of buying network devices.
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
- WAN creates links over a wide physical distance.
- WAN connects computer over thousands of kilometre.
- WAN is also known as the internet.
ADVANTAGES OF WAN
- It allows sharing of resources to the maximum impact.
- It allows data to be processed at a very high speed
- It has created the global village among users of the network.
DISADVANTAGES OF WAN
- It is expensive to install and purchasing the components to be used on the network system.
- Hackers they retrieve other people’s data without authority.
- It is expensive to maintain.
STORAGE AREA NETWORK (SAN)
- The process of using a server on the network to store data from terminals connected on the network. The
networks have powerful computers with powerful processors with huge memory and it can be access from
any where in the world.
OTHER TYPES OF NETWORKS ACCORDING TO SCALE
- A part from LAN and WAN some types of networks according to scale are;
o Personal Area Network o Global Area Network
o Campus Area Network o Virtual Private Network

PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN) OR HOME AREA NETWORK (HAN)

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- It connects the network system used for communication among computer device close to one person.
CAMPUS AREA NETWORK (CAN)
- It is larger than LAN.
- It connects more local area network within the campus.
- CAN is smaller than WAN.
GLOBAL AREA NETWORK (GAN)
- It is a network system organised by a group of organisation.
- GAN is aimed to provide services among the organisation attached to it.
VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN)
- It creates links through network nodes.
- It uses virtual circuits in large networks such as the internet.
INTERNETWORKING
- It refers to the connections between two or more network segments, which are using one common
routing technology.
- Internetworking is also called the internet.
INTERANET AND EXTRANETS
- They are private network system with high security system.
- They are controlled by the WEB SERVER.
- They belong to one organisation.
- Intranet and extranet are also known as information super highway.
 A computer is said to be ONLINE when it is connected to the internet and OFFLINE when it is not
connected to the internet. ISP stands for internet service provider.
TYPES OF NETWORK ACCORDING TO TYPOLOGY
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
- It refers to the way the computers and other devices have been arranged and how data is passed from one
computer to another in a network.
- Network topology are in two categories and these includes;
o Logical topology
o Physical topology
LOGICAL TOPOLOGY
- Logical topology is also known as signal topology.
- Logical topology deals with the way data passes from one computer to another in a network.
- In logical topology two network with different physical layout shares the same network system.
- They are two types of logical topology and they are as follows;
o Ethernet topology.
o Token topology.
ETHERNET TOPOLOGY
- It is a network system where the entire computer on a network listen to the network medium and can
only send data when no component is sending.
TOKEN RING TOPOLOGY
- Token is a special package of data being transmitted on a network.
- In token network only the computer whose address is on the data held in the token will take up the token
to read the data and then releases the token.
- The token is always being with the device which is ready to send information.
PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY
- It refers to the physical layout or arrangement of components on the network.
- Examples of physical topology includes;
o Star Network o Mesh Network
o Bus Network o Tree Network
o Ring Network
STAR NETWORK TOPOLOGY
- It is a network system where all devices are connected to a HUB.
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- Nodes communicate across the network by passing data through the HUB.
- When the HUB receives data from a transmitting computer, it broadcasts the message to all the other
nodes on the network.

ADVANTAGES OF STAR NETWORK TOPOLOGY

o It is the fastest network configuration.
o If a component breaks down (except a hub) other component on a network are not affected.
o Easy to manage due to the file server used in the network system.

DISADVANTAGES OF STAR NETWORK TOPOLOGY

o It is expensive to install.
o If a hub breaks down then all computers on the network will not work.
o Time consuming when installing because each node forms a segment of its own.

BUS NETWORK TOPOLOGY

- It is a network structure where all devices are connected to a central cable known as the bus or
backbone.
- Bus network is also known as hierarchical network because the transmission of data is controlled by a
file server and data goes direct to the assigned components.

ADVANTAGES OF BUS NETWORK TOPOLOGY

o It is easy to install.
o It is reliable.
o It is less costly because it does not require a complete cable length per computer.
DISADVANTAGES OF BUS NETWORK TOPOLOGY
o It is relatively slow.
o It has limited number of devices to be connected to it.

RING/ TOKEN NETWORK TOPOLOGY

- It is a network system where all the components on the network share the same power.
- Ring network is also known as peer-to-peer network.
- Each workstation is responsible to generate signal around the network.
- Token is a process on how data is passed through from one workstation to another on the network.

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ADVANTAGES OF RING NETWORK TOPOLOGY

o It is cheap because it uses short length cables.
o It is simple to install because it does not require many connection devices such as hub.

DISADANTAGES OF RING NETWORKS

o Adding or removing components on the network requires extensive wiring.
o If one component breaks other get affected.
o Data transfer is slower due to token ring.

MESH NETWORK TOPOLOGY

- It is the most common type of network topology used in wide area network because they are many paths
for network connections to different locations.
- Mesh network topology is a network system which has redundant interconnections between nodes.
- In mesh topology every nodes has connections to every other nodes.

ADVANTAGES OF MESH NETWORK TOPOLOGY

o It allows communication even when one node breaks down.
o The network system is reliable.

DISADVANTAGES OF MESH NETWORK

o It requires more cables due to redundant links.
o Difficult to maintain due to peer-to-peer connections.
TREE/HIERARCHICAL TOPOLOGY
- It is a network system where a group of star networks are connected to a linear bus backbone.

ADVANTAGES OF TREE NETWORK TOPOLOGY

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o It is reliable
o When one node breaks others they keep on working.
DISADVANTAGES OF TREE NETWORK
o It is expensive due to the hubs planted on it.
o Difficult to maintain and install.

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS IN NETWORKING

- When developing a network system the following materials are required;
 A computer running on any version of Microsoft windows such as;
o Windows XP
o Windows 2000
o Windows ME
o Windows NT

o Network interface card (NIC). Some NIC are onboard already installed in the computer.
o A hub or switch
o Network cables
o RJ45 connectors
- And the following tools are required;
o Crimping tool
o Cable tester
o Screw driver
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT IN NETWORKING
- Network operating System (NOS)
- Network Protocols
NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS
- Are software that are specifically designed to optimised the networked computers ability to respond to
service requests. Servers run on a network operating system.
FUNCTIONS OF NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS
1. Provides access to network resources e.g. printers and folders.
2. Enables nodes on the network to communicate with each other more efficiently.
3. Support interprocess communication i.e. enables the various process on the network to communicate
with one another.
4. Respond to requests from application programs running on the network.
5. Supporting network services like network card drivers and protocols.
6. Implementing network security features.
NETWORK PROTOCOLS
- Protocols are rules and procedures that govern communication between two different devices or people.
For example a diplomat from a foreign country must adhere to the set of rules and procedure of
communication when representing his country in the host country.
- To avoid protocols that conflict, a reference model for all developer was developed to give the guidance
to all developers world wide. That is how the Open systems Interconnection (OSI) model was developed
by the international Organisation (ISO).
- OSI is not a protocol but a reference point, a standard guideline or blue print for high quality protocol
development.
- Network protocols are design after the Open systems interconnection (OSI) model. It has seven layer
each performing distinct function and the are shown in the table below;

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Layer Function
7 Application layer User application run here and generates requests for data transmission or
open received information.
6 Presentation layer Format data for transmission e.g. ASCII, .tif etc; encrypts decrypts data.
5 Session layer Sets up transmissions between communication devices for synchronised
data exchange reliability.
4 Transport layer Manages data transfer over a network to ensure reliability.
3 Network layer Address information is added to the packet and internetwork routing to the
destination
2 Data link layer Packs data into frames; adds error checking information; sends to physical
network. All this is called data link control (DLC)
1 Physical Layer Data encoding; attach to physical Medium; transmit bits voltage levels
format

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NETWORK AND INTERNETWORK

- A network is a local area network that has different (homogeneous) protocols while internet work is a
network of networks. Internetwork span on large geographical area and are likely to have different
protocols hence internetwork requires special routing and inter-protocol conversions. Networks depend
on a unique MAC address that comes with every network interface card to exchange data and
internetworks require routable addressing.
- All protocols that are designed at level 1 and 2 of OSI are networking protocols and then they can be
installed and used in networking devices. Protocols designed to work from level 3 to 7 are
internetworking protocols and can be installed to run on internetworking devices.
- A device operating at a particular level means it has capability to operate all protocols in the lower
levels.

- Levels 7,6,5,4 and 3 they work at internetworking devices and levels 2 and 1 they work and networking
devices.
Repeater: A repeater extends the length of the network by receiving weak corrupted signals, regenerating
them then sending them to the other part of the network. It works at the physical layer.
Hub: A hub simply provides connectivity at the physical layer too. It has no packet filtering or data
addressing capabilities.
Switch: It works at the data link layer. It has to know the MAC address of the source and destination of data
for effective switching.
Bridge: It works at the data link layer. It has to know the MAC address of the data in order for it to perform
filtering on network segments.
NIC card: It works at the data link layer too since it has to know and send data to the right MAC address on
the network.
Router: A router is an internetworking device. It operates at the network layer and runs routing protocols
like internet protocols (IP) which enables routing of data beyond the local area network.
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Gateway: It is the most powerful internetworking device. It operates at all levels of the OSI model and has
capability to perform inter-protocols conversions.
OSI LAYERS AND DATA TRANSFER ON NETWORKS
- The ISO OSI model is used to describe how two devices attached to a network communicate with one
another. The process goes as follow;
1. The user creates a message to be sent over the network using an application program running at level
7 (application layer) of the OSI model e.g. an e-mail application. When the user press SEND button,
the message is passed to the application layer whose protocols affix an application header (AH) to
the message.
2. The message is passed down the stack all the way to the physical layer. Each layer affixes its header
to the message. The message is then sent on the network.
3. On the receiving end, the message undergoes a reverse process i.e. each layer rips off its header e.g.
for example the message was encrypted at the presentation layer, it is now decrypted at that layer. As
the message goes up the stack, all headers will be removed until the original message is presented to
the receiving user application.
EXAMPLES OF PROTOCLS AT EACH LAYER OF OSI
Level 7: Application: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), file transfer Protocol (FTP).
Level 6: Presentation: ASCII/ EBCDIC/JPEG/TIF/MPEG/PKI e.t.c. these protocols format the data ready
for transmission.
Level 5: Session: Remote Procedure call (RPC), Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP), OSI session layer
Protocol (ISO-SP, SQL.
Level 4: Transport: Transport Control Protocol (TCP), User datagram Protocol (UDP), Sequenced Packet
Exchange (SPX).
Level 3: Network: Internet Protocols (IP), Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX), Internetwork Control
Message protocol (ICM), Open shortest Path First (OSPF).
Level 2: Data Link: Ethernet, Token Ring, Point to Point Protocol (PPP), Wireless Access Protocol (WAP),
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP).
Level 1: Physical: No protocol just encoding techniques, bit streaming, transmission technique e.g. base
band or broadband e.t.c
Application protocols that work at the highest level of the OSI model
1. SMTP: The simple mail transfer protocol is the internet standard for electronic mail.
2. FTP: The file transfer protocol enables a person to transfer files on the internet.
Transport protocol that work at the transport layer
3. TCP: The Transport Control Protocol ensures reliable data transfer from source to Destination. It breaks
down the data into packets and assigns them with sequence numbers so that the message can be
reconstructed at the destination.
4. UDP: The User Datagram Protocol is an unreliable data transfer protocol and is used to transfer non-
user data like control signals etc.
5. SPX: Sequential Packet Exchange (SPX) is part of Novell’s Internetwork packet exchange/sequential
packet exchange (IPX/SPX) for sequenced data.
6. NETBEUI: Initially we had network based input output system (NetBIOS). This was extended by IBM
to create a local area network protocol which was adopted by Microsoft for its Windows NT platform
and renamed NetBIOS Exchange User interface (NetBEUI).
Network protocols provide routing services. They handle addressing and routing information, error
checking and retransmission of requests. Some examples of network layer protocols include:
7. IP: Internet Protocol does packet forwarding and routing using the addressing system on the
Internetwork has a unique IP address.
8. OSPF: The Open Shortest Path Protocols helps in efficient routing of data on Internetwork i.e. it
analyses all the next available routes or and chooses the one width the least cost to transfer the packets.
THE TCP/IP PROTOL
This protocol was developed in 1978 before the OSI reference model came into being. It was developed to
enable internetworking on the internet. It combines the Transport Control Protocols (TCP) and the internet
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Protocol (IP) into one system. Its layer is similar to OSI only that it has four layers instead of seven. TCP/IP
has the following structure;

1. The application layer Application Layer

Transport Layer
2. The transport layer Internet Layer
3. the internet layer
Network interface layer
4. The network interface layer
Note that TCP/IP does not have the presentation, session and data link layers like the ISO/OSI model.
However, a comparison of protocols at each layer shows some similarity with the OSI model in the figure
below;
ISO OSI TCP/IP TCP/IP PROTOCOL
Application Layer Application Layer

TELNET
SMTP

FTP
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer Transport Layer TCP UDP
Network Layer Internet Layer IP IGM
Data Link layer Network Interface layer Ethernet, Token Ring etc
Physical Layer

COMPARING OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP PROTOCOL

Similarities
1. They have similar architecture i.e. they have a layered design.
2. They share a common application layer.
3. The network layer in OSI and the internal layer in TCP/IP perform same functions.
4. Both models support packet switching and routing on networks.
Differences
1. OSI has several layers while TCP/IP has four
2. The session, presentation and data link layers present in OSI are missing in TCP/IP although there
are amalgamated in the four somehow.
THE INTERNET AND INTRANET
- Internet is a global public network of computer networks interconnected using TCP/IP protocol and
intranet is the restricted network belonging to an organisation or agency interconnected using TCP/IP
protocols. Only those with permission can have access to information on intranet.
METHODS OF INTERNET ACCESS
- Using devices like desktop computer, laptops, tablets, smart phones, basic phone, television if configures
correctly can have access to internet. The web pages is accessed using a special software called a
browser which load the internet web pages on their user device to interact with the content held on the
internet servers.
CONNECTING VIA TELEPHONE LINES
1. Analog telephone is connected through the methods of dialup connection also known as circuit
switched connections between the computer and the line.

2. Digital leased lines: Since the line is digital then there is no need of a modem but just a codec to
control how bits are sent/received by the computer.

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CONNECTING VIA MOBILE TELEPHONE NETWORKS
- The mobile network technology is capable of carrying both voice and data. Through wireless modems,
mobile phones and tablets that can be tethered to computers, more and more people are now able to
access the internet via mobile phone networks. Types of mobile network include;
1. Global system for mobile communication (GSM).
2. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) network.
INTERNET ON GSM NETWORKS
- The GSM networks have been evolving over time, starting with first generation (1G), second generation
(2G), fourth generation (3G) and now 4G. The table below explain the summary of GSM network;

GENERATION TECHNOLOGY INDICATIVE SPEEDS

2G General Packet Radio Service 71 kbits/s
(GPRS)
2.5G Enhanced Data rates for GSM 384 kbits/s
Evolution (EDGE)
3G Universal Mobile Telecomm. 2mbits/s
System (UMTS)
3.5G High Speed Downlink Packet 10mbits/s
Access (HSDPA)
4G Long term evaluation (LTE) 299 mbits

INTERNET on CDMA networks

CDMA has also evolved through stages too and the highest speed on 3G is known as Evolution Data
(EVDO) with speeds of upto 2 Mbits/s.

Access the internet via fibre links

It is one of the latest and fastest methods of access the internet via fibre optic cables. A fibre cable carries
huge bandwidth. A subscriber simply applies to a service provider who comes and connects his/her to the
fibre network. It high initial cost, but the long run costs are cheaper.
Wireless access using WiMax and WIFI
WiMax
WiMax stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave. Small microwave receivers are used to
transmit and receive data signals both at the service providers’ end and the customer across distances of upto
30-50km.

WIFI (Wireless Fidelity)

- It is used to provide access to the internet for computers and mobile devices like smartphones and tablets
that have internal wireless modems. It creates the radius of access called wifi hotspots devices that
covers small radii like bus, hall, park, airport launch, street estate etc

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- Devices that have wifi activated automatically detect and connect to wifi hotspots and hence to the
internet whenever they are within range.

Addressing system on computer networks

- All the networks that are connected to the internet have a unique network number called an Internet
Protocol (IP) number. IP address is general rule to every network users.
There are two types of IP addresses
1. IP version 4 (IPv4)
2. IP version 6 (IPv6)
IPv4
- It is the most common addressing system because it was the first to be created and adopted widely. Each
address is made up to 32 bits. A period separates the bits into groups of eight.
- The internet address has two level structures. The leading part of the address is called Network Number
or Prefix. The remaining portion of the address is the host number on the network.
Network Number Host Number

Or
Network Prefix Host Number

Classful IP addressing
- Internet address can be divided into classes.
- Designers of these addresses decided that for easier identification and routing, the length of the network
number can be varied to differentiate them into classes.
- Depending on the number of bits used for the Network ID and the host number, the address can be
classified as either A, B, C, D and E.
Class A: It is the first bit of the address is set at 0 and network number is made up of the first eight (8) bits.
It means 24 bits are used to identify hosts on the network.
Class B: The first two highest bits start with 10 and the network number is made up of the first sixteen (16)
bits. And the host number is also made up of sixteen (16) bits.
Class C: The first three highest bits start with 110 and the network number is made up of the first sixteen
(16) bits. The host number is made up of sixteen bits. The first three classes are called primary classes and
the one in commercial use all over.
Class D: It has its first four (4) bits set at 1110 and is reserved for what is called IP multicasting.
Class E: Has the first five bits set at 1111 and is reserved for research purposes.
Interpreting IP numbers
The lowest possible IP number is:
Binary notation: 00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000
Decimal notation: 0 . 0 . 0 . 0
And the highest would be:
Binary notation: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111.
Decimal notation: 255 . 255 . 255 . 255
i.e. between 00000000 and 11111111. there are 256 numbers or 2n =28 =256. 255 indicated in the decimal
notation because counting starts from 0. i.e. when you count from zero the it becomes 2n -1=255. The zeroes
and ones host addresses are reserved and are never given out.
The IP space exhaustion problem
- The Classful addressing has a limited number of unique network numbers that could be generated i.e. 232
=4, 294,967, 296

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Examples of IP address and class ranges
The following table shows the ranges of various IPv4 addresses:
Class Rang of addresses Example
Class A. 1.xxx.xxx.xxx to 126.xxx.xxx.xxx 10.10.0.1
Class B. 128.0. xxx.xxx. to 191.xxx.xxx.xxx 128.28.0.1
Class C. 192.0.0.xxx to 223.255.255.xxx 192.28.0.1

Classless IP addressing
- Classless IP address is also called Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). Instead of having fixed
boundaries between the octets (after every 8 bits), IP addresses can be assigned with the boundary of the
network number and host number pressed any where within 32 bits address. Router can be told where
the network number ends by including a /x at the end of the IP address. i.e. 96.168.100.0/25 means the
network number is 25 bits long.
Check the table below for more examples:
Address Number of addresses per IP
192.168.100.0/25 28=255
192.168.100.0/22 210 =1024

Difference between Classful and classless addressing

1. In Classful address there is strict address layout specification for the network number and host
number for various classes. In classless, this is not so and the number of bits used for the network
number and host number for address varies according to size of the network.
2. In Classful addressing, the class of the address determines the number of bits for the network number
and the host number. In classless front slash is used followed by the number of bits represent the
network number e.g. /4, /56, /45.
3. Classful addressing brings order in the way network numbers are allocated. Classless addressing is
not as orderly because network and host bits can take on arbitrary number depending on the size of
network hence increasing routing cost.

IP version 6 (IPv6)
- Internet protocol version 6 is a new generation internet addressing architecture designed to succeed IPv4.
- It uses 128-bits addresses; hence it has a far much bigger address space.
- The IPv6 address consist of 8 groups of hexadecimal digits ranging from 0-f separated by a colon for
example: 2002:2c0:2001:2:213:123:249:22
- Only leading zeroes are omitted, trailing ones are not. The above numbers is actually:
2002:02c0:2001:00002:0213:0249:0022
The numbers have the following characteristics:
1. It uses 16 bits hexadecimal numbers
2. Numbers are separated by full colons (:)
3. Abbreviations are possible e.g. leading zeroes in contiguous blocks are represented by double colons
(::) e.g.2002:2c0:0000:2:3c:3b:33 is equivalent to 2002:2c0:: 2:3c:3b:33.
Specifying the network and host numbers
- CIDR prefix representation is used i.e. a slash followed by the length of the network number written
after the IPv6 number e.g. 2002.db6:12::/48 means the first 48 bits are for the network number. The last
two colons (::) here indicates that the remaining numbers are zeroes.
Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6
1. IPv6 has large address space (2128) as compared to IPV4 whose space is facing exhaustion (232).
2. We use the dotted decimal notation to write IPV4 address but when it comes to IPv6, lama we use
hexadecimal separated by colons.
3. IPv6 was designed with modern internet and gadgets technologies in mind hence it is more flexible
and extensible i.e. it caters for wired and wireless devices efficiency devices efficiently.
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IP Configuration on Networks
- After connecting the computer to the network using transmission media, it still needs to be configured in
order for it to be able to communicate with other computers on the local area network and access the
internet.
To configure an IP address on the network, follow the procedure below:
1. Open the control panel
2. Click the Network and Sharing Centre (NSC) link.
3. In the NSC dialog box, you can see all the available connections for which you can configure their
IP.
4. On the left pane, click the Change Adapter settings link to view all available network connections
whether active or not.
5. Right click the one you wish to configured then select properties command.
6. Click on internet Protocols version 4 (TCP/IP).
7. Enter the IP address and the one for Default Gateway. If you don’t know this values, ask network
administrator to supply you with them.
- On some network the administrator may have installed a protocol called Dynamic Host Configuration
protocol (DHCP), in this case there is no need of setting an IP address you simply select the obtain an IP
address automatically option.
8. After all the selections, click OK button.
THE ELEMENTS OF NETWORKS
1. Data communication devices such as computers, Cell phones and telephones.
2. Communication devices such as MODEM, HUB, SWITCH and network cable.
3. Network software.
4. Data signals.
HYBRID NETWORKS
- It refers to the network system which combines two or more network configurations.
- It may involve combining a LAN and GAN and other network system.
THE TELECOMMUNICATION PROCESS
- It is the process whereby communication devices send and receive signals using one common language.
- All the devices connected to the network system need to understand the language used in the system.
- The telecommunication process it involves the following components;
o Transmitter
o Transmission
o Channel
o Receiver
- Data to be transmitted can be either in analogue or digital.
- Analogue signals represent information as binary digits (bits).

FACTORS THAT AFFECT COMMUNICATION PROCESS

1. Signals conversion from analogue to digital and from digital to analogue.
2. Transmission speed from the sending and receiving computers.
CONVERSION OF SIGNALS FROM ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL
- Signals are changed from analogue to digital because of the following reasons;
o Many digital signals can be squeezed into the transmission channel than analogue signals.
o Digital signals give quality input and output to the sending and receiving point.
o It is easy to generate and interpret digital signals.
CONVERSION OF SIGNALS FROM DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE
- Networks systems are sometimes connected to a telephone line.
- Telephone line signals are analogue while most computers are producing digital signals.

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- Thus why most of the communication devices are used to convert the analogue signals from the
telephone line to digital so as to be understood by computers and digital signals are converted to
analogue signals which go through the telephone line to the internet.
COMMUNICATION SPEED
- It refers to the effective use of communication devices. For this to happen both the sending and receiving
computers has to agree on how data will be sent and received.
- The agreement of communication devices on the speed of data transmission is known as BAUD RATE.
- Baud rate is measured in bits per second, such as kilobits per second (kbps)
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
o It allows sharing of information on any subjects of interest.
o Cultural differences between people across the world can be broken down hence people will be able to
learn other people’s cultures through internet and other communication channel.
o It has allowed telecommuting whereby people work in their convenient locations than in their offices.
o With the introduction of wireless application protocols (WAP), it is possible to work with a laptop in
rural areas.
o Through online services it is possible to access educational, medical advice and other important services.
LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKING
- Although networking has more advantages but also they are some challenges that are associated with
implementation and human factors. And the factors includes;
o High initial installation cost; it is expensive to come up with a network structure.
o Security issues; data and information held in computers on a network is more prone to illegal access
threats than the one held on stand –alone computer.
o High initial cost; hardware and software are expensive to buy.
o Moral and cultural effects; chartrooms and messaging services available on the internet, it changes
morality of people and the culture.
o Due to access to pornographic sites on the internet, it encourages bad sexual behaviour and drugs and
substances abuse.
o Over- reliance on networks; many business processes depend on computer networks which can lead
for many business to go down when networks fails.
TOPIC 4: NETWORK APPLICATIONS
INTERNET SERVICES
- These are services provided by the internet. And they are as follows;
o World Wide Web
o E-mail
o Bulletin Board
o Internet relay chat (IRC)
o File transfer Protocols (FTP)
o Web Portal
o Blog
o Multimedia
WOLRD WIDE WEB (WWW)
- World Wide Web is the interlinking of websites.
- A web site is a collection of pages or files published on the internet, using a set of rules (protocols),
known as Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
- Pages in the web sites are viewed using a web browser.
- A web browser is an application programme used to surf (browse) the web.
- Examples of web browser are;
 Internet Explorer
 Netscape Navigator
 URL

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UNIVERSAL RESOURCE LOCATOR AND SEARCH ENGINES
- URL always starts with HTTP://.
- The address is also typed using WWW, for example www.bec.com.
SEARCH ENGINE
- A search engine is an application program or software used to search on the web sites using keywords.
- Popular web site search engines includes the following;
 Yahoo  Ask jives
 Google (G-mail)  UK plus
 Excite  Yell and Hotbot
 Alta vista
HOW A SEARCH ENGINE WORKS
Search engines consist of three components and these include;
1. The Spider (web robot or crawler)
2. Indexing database (engine)
3. The query engine
The three components operate as follows;
1. Before the user invoke the search engine, a program called spider searches for new items on the web to
add to the search engine index database. This gathering of information before user’s request makes
search faster. This is why search results are displayed instantly.
2. The search engine indexing database receives every thing the spider brings to it. It scans the documents
for keywords and generates the indexes and then stores them in an index database.
3. Once a user submits the search string (a word or phrase), the query engine receives the indexing database
and processes the request as follows;
a). Looks for the keywords specified in the user queries from the index database.
b). Retrieves associated document and rank them according to some preference or criteria such as the
most visited pages.
4. The results and time taken to search for the request are displayed on the browser. If the results did not
match required information the users can refine the search words.
TERMS USED IN WEB DESIGN
1. Website: It is a collection of one or more pages linked together in a meaningful way and it describe
the body of information or creates overall effects.
2. Search engine: It is the special type of website that help users easily search for information from
other websites
3. Web server: A computer on the internet or an intranet that delivers web pages and other files in
response to browser request.
4. Web page: It is a single document page on a website containing text and any other items that are
displayed within that page.
5. Home page: It is the first page also known as the index for web that is loaded from which you can
navigate to other pages on the same or another website.
ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL) AND FAX
- E-mail is the process of sending and receiving messages from one computer to another.
- E-mail is possible when both computers are connected on the internet.
- A computer can also be used to send and receive fax messages.
BULLETIN BOARDS (web portals)
- It is an electronic location for public messages. It is also called Newsgroup.
BLOG
- Website that contains personal information which can easily be updated. Blogs may be used for
business, advocacy and campaign.
Multimedia; sites containing photos, movies, music, web TV and internet radio. They are meant for
entertainment.
BROWSING THE WEB

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- Browsing information on the web is usually referred to as surfing the web.
- Every web can be accessed using an address known as Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTTP)
- It refers to the protocol (rules) set to the transfer of files across the internet.
- FTP site can be accessed using the address below;
 xxxxx.//.ftp.
DOMAIN NAME
- It is the name of the server where the website or resource is located i.e. .www.malawi
TOP LEVEL DOMAIN
- This represents the type of service offered by the organisation i.e. gov.mw
COMMONLY USED DOMAIN
Top level domain Type
.edu Educational institution
.org Non- profit making organisation
.mil Military organisation
.com Commercial institution
.net An institution or organisation providing networking
services
.ac And academic institution
HYPERLINKS
- Are used to navigate from one web page to another. You move the mouse pointer until it changes to a
pointing finger. And then click the hyperlink once then the browser takes you to the specified link.
NAVIGATOR TOOLBAR
- Contains buttons that help the user to easily use to navigate the web in Mozilla Firefox. These include;
1. Back: Takes the user back to previous visited web page.
2. Forward: Takes the user to visited page after the current in case the user clicked the back button.
3. Refresh: for reloading the page or refresh a web page.
4. Home: Takes the user to the home page of the web page.
5. Search: Use for searching information using Google search engine.
6. Stop: Use to stop loading the current web page.
7. Bookmarks: Used to bookmarks the web page to be revisited letter.
8. History: used to display the recently visited web page.
9. Download: Used to download the current web page.
10. Menu icon: Clicking on this displays the main menu.
PRINTING A WEB PAGE
1. On the file menu click print or press CTRL+P keys.
2. On the print dialog box displayed, set desired print properties.
3. Click OK to print the web pages.
ELECTRONIC MAIL (e-mail)
- To creates, receive, and send electronic mails (e-mails), an email software such as Outlook Express,
yahoo mail, Gmail or Eudora are required.
- To use online services such as Gmail, Yahoo mail and Hotmail services you need to register for a new
email account by providing required details such as name, date of birth and unique password.
CREATING A NEW EMAIL ACOUNT
- A web-based email account provides access to email service from anywhere as long as you a computer
or mobile phone that has access to internet.
To create a new Gmail account, proceed as follows;
1. Launch your preferred internet browser and go to Google home page by typing page:
http://www.google.com
2. Click on the Gmail at the top right corner of the page to display the sign- in or create a new account
page.
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3. In the page that appears and enter your first and last name, username, birthday, gender and country.
As well as phone number.
4. At the bottom of the form is what is called CPTCHA, is a verification tool that ensures that a real
person is creating the account.
5. Choose the location, and click the check box beside” I agree to the terms of service before clicking
the next step button.
6. In the page that appears, you may create a public profile for purpose of social networking or just
proceed to the next page by clicking no thanks.
7. Click Continue to Gmail button to proceed to your Gmail account inbox and other folders.
8. Once in Gmail account, you can setup other features such as adding a photo to your profile and how
incoming emails are to be sorted.
CHECKING FOR MALIS IN GMAIL
To open an e-mail in Gmail, do the following;
1. Load the e-mail home page by typing www.gmail.com
2. In the login page, enter password.
3. Then the e-mail window will be loaded in which you can create, read and send e-mails.
E-MAIL ADDRESS FORMAT
- A typical e-mail address would look like this: [email protected]
1. beston.kileta is the name of email account usually defined by the user when registering for an e-mail
account.
2. The @ symbol is for separating the account name from the domain of the e-mail service i.e. Gmail
3. gmail.com is the server in which the email account is hosted i.e. the server on which the e-mail
account is located.
4. The period”.” Is read as dot and is used to separate different parts of the e-mail address.
5. com identifies the type of nature of business of the e-mail service provider i.e. Google is the
commercial organisation.
CREATING A NEW E-MAIL
- Three basic parts of a standard format of an e-mail message include;
1. Header information: it is made of the following sections:
- Address: provide the text box for entering the e-mail address of recipients.
- Subject: The specifies the content of the message in the message body.
- Attachment: You can add files such as documents, photo and video to send via e-mail.
2. Message body: Is where you type the message to send. Which inform of text and multimedia.
3. Signature: It provides additional information about the sender such as full name, address and telephone
number.
- To compose and e-mail either in Gmail, Yahoo or outlook Express Proceed as follows:
1. Click New/ compose e-mail button.
2. Type the recipients address of get it from the address book.
3. Type in the subject of the message box.
4. Click the Send button.
INSERTING FILE ATTACHMENTS
- An attachment can be a picture, video or text but it must not be bigger than 25MBs.
To attach files once in Gmail, proceed as follows;
1. Click the attach file at the bottom that resembles a paper clip.
2. In open files dialog box that appears, select a file (s) by pressing the CTRL as you click on the file.
3. Click open button to attach selected file(s).
MANAGING CONTACTS
- To avoid typing errors when entering e-mail addresses, add the e-mail to contacts in the address book.
To add a contact in Gmail, proceed as follows;
1. Switch to inbox and point to e-mail address you would like to add to contacts. A pop-up appears.
2. Clicks add to contacts link on the left. The contact is automatically added into the address book.
3. To change the contact, click the link immediately displayed to view contact details.
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SOCIAL NETWORK
- The two terms used to describe social network are; Social media and Social networks. Which refers to
the contents that can be uploaded onto social networks sites. It can be inform of text, video, photo or
slideshows.
- Examples of social networks are; Facebook, Twitter, Linkedln, WhatsApp, Flickr, Google+ and
Myspace.
- Social networks refer to creating social relationships to interact with other people on social networks by
uploading media contents. The Global is turned to a social village.
ADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL NETWORKING
1. Global connections: It helps people to make new friends and stay in touch globally with people.
2. Marketing: They help in advertising goods and services.
3. Technology use: They use accessible technologies such as mobile phones that make possible to
motivate people towards using others ICT devices as computer and services like internet.
4. Social cohesion: Social networks are used to keep in touch with the family members in a fractured
society where physical meeting may not be possible.
5. Career opportunities and employment: It is the powerful engine for job searches.
6. Political power: Social networking can leverage political power for groups that might not otherwise
have access. A good example is the US president Barrack Obama who beat his rivals by capitalising on
use of social networks.
7. Security: Social networking can be used to counteract terrorism and organised crime. Security
detectives can sniff into media content to isolate cases of terrorism and organised crime.
8. Health and wellbeing: Social networking can be used to get help on difficult personal by tabling it
into a public wall to solicit for support from friends.
DISADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL NETWORKING
1. Threat to productivity: It causes big waste of time that has caused even losses of job due to low
productivity.
2. Face-to-face connections endangered: Has reduced need of physical social interaction by creating
virtual society that isolate people their physical context.
3. Cyber bullying and crimes against children: It exposes individuals particularly children to
harassment or inappropriate contact from others.
4. Digital divide: It magnifies the gap between people who have access to computer technology and
those that don’t, exacerbating other social inequities.
5. Security and Privacy: It can compromise security in a big way. It embarrassing public exposure of
prominent persons. It gives organised criminals an opportunity to track people for malicious reasons
such as fraud, identity theft, terrorism.
6. Social networking can use to destabilise governments and to advance terrorism. This has been
witnessed in the recent past in Arab countries such as Egypt, Libya and Tunisia.
7. Corrupted language: The non- standard language used in social networking has become common
grammar in day-to-day talk thereby limited standard language concept development and expression.
DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS
- The three fundamental concept of distributed computing are;
1. Distributed systems: It refers to the network of different computers, applications using shared resources
which are geographically dispersed across networks.
Two examples of distributed system are;
 Internet; it is the vast collection of computers networks and a very large distributed of different
components with large number of services such as World wide Web (www) and file server services.
 Intranet; it is a subnet of the internet that is privately administered by an organisation to provide secure
access to the organisation services and information.
2. Distributed operating systems; it is a special type of operating system that controls, integrates and
homogenises use of heterogeneous hardware and software resources in a distributed system. Examples of
distributed OS are; Amoeba, Mac Chorus, UNIX and Microsoft Windows.

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3. Distributed Applications; It is an application that is distributed across several servers in a distributed
system. It is used to coordinate and provide efficient access to information and services.
Common examples of distributed application
 Online flight-reservation; it is practiced in most airlines which provide online web-based or mobile
application for real-time booking and payment of flight.
 Distributed Cash dispensing machines: to enhance access to withdraw and deposit transaction, most
banks distribute processes to multiple servers across intranets.
 Video conferencing applications; These applications are distributed to provide quality of service in
sound and video transmission even across continents.
 The world wide web; provide access to information from everywhere using computers and mobile
devices.
It is the responsibility of distributed system to manage these applications to ensure reliability of
services and information even incase of partial system breakdown.

This is achieved through the following distribution mechanisms;

1. Hardware management and control; it manages and coordinates the allocation of hardware resources
such as processors, memory and storage depending on the location of the user.
2. Loading balancing: It divides the processing task to available processors to optimise processing speed.
This is what is called loading balancing.
3. Database Access: It provides convenient and efficient of data because a copy of data is accessed from
nearest servers i.e. Google search give instant results.
4. Security and reliability; It is the responsibility of distributed system and application to enforce security
in data transmission and reliability against error in input or hardware failure. i.e. ATM machine, in case
the local server fails, the system should immediately switch to the nearest available mirror server able to
access a copy of the account record.
BENEFIT AND CHALLENGES OF DISTRIBUTED APPLICATIONS
- They are many benefits and challenges of distributed system.
Advantages of distributed systems
It offers the following benefits;
 Reliability: Due to load balancing distribution of record copies to multiple servers cross to the users,
distributed application provides increased availability and shorter response time.
 Incremental growth: In distributed systems and applications, scaling up the system only requires
extension rather than replacing computing devices.
 Shared utilisation of resources: Distributed applications enhance data sharing e.g. access to airline
reservation information or device sharing such as printers.
 Communication: Distributed applications such as social networks such as Facebook and e-mail
applications such as g-mail facilitates efficient interaction spread all over the globe.
Disadvantages/Limitations of distributed systems
It is disadvantageous in the following ways;
 Network performance: In places of poor connectivity, delays may occur between operations such as
cash withdrawal in an ATM causing frustration or failure of a transaction.
 Poor implementation of distributed applications: expose users to more security risks due to multiple
access points for intruders and possible communication with insecure systems.
 Software complexity: they are complex to take them run on different platforms thereby making it
difficult and time consuming to troubleshoot such systems in case of failure.

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PREFACE
This work is intended to provide an easy and comprehensive knowledge on
computer skills at M.S.C.E level. The knowledge and skills presented in this
work is extracted from a wide range of sources and experiences.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am very grateful to the Almighty God for the gift of life, wisdom and
knowledge. And many thanks to IT department at Bakhita secondary school for
their great participation in this work and to IT students for great experiences
gained from them.

DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to IT students and Teachers as they appreciate the need to
have access to ICT tools.

REFERENCES
1. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2004.
2. Malawi Institute of education (2013), Syllabus for computer studies forms 3 and 4, Domasi.
3. ECDL LEARNING to pass By Angela Bessant, 2001.
4. Excel & Succeed junior secondary, computer studies Teacher’s Guide for form 1, by Andrew Nasalangwa.
5. Excel & Succeed Junior secondary Computer Studies book 1, by: Andrew Nasalangwa.
6. Malawi Institute of education (2013), Syllabus for computer studies forms 1 and 2, Domasi.
7. Excel & succeed senior secondary for New syllabus book 3 & 4, by Andrew Nasalangwa.
8. Achievers Senior secondary, computer studies book 3 & 4 by Dasiano Mapanje.
9. Excel & Succeed senior secondary, computer studies Teacher’s Guide for form 3 & 4, by Andrew Nasalangwa.

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