Automata: Automata theory is a branch of theoretical computer science that studies abstract machines (automata) and the problems

they can solve. These machines are mathematical models of computation that help us understand the principles behind software
and hardware development, formal languages, and computational complexity. Automata type: 1. Finite Automata are used to
recognize regular languages and can be divided into two main types: Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA) and Nondeterministic
Finite Automata (NFA). 2. Context-Free Grammars are used to generate context-free languages and are more powerful than finite
automata. They are defined by production rules that describe how symbols of a language can be combined. CFGs are particularly
useful in defining the syntax of programming languages. Finite Automata application: Text Processing: Finite automata are used
in text editors and search algorithms for pattern matching. For example, regular expressions are often implemented using finite
automata to search and manipulate text. Compilers: Lexical analysis in compilers uses finite automata to tokenize source code. The
lexer uses DFAs to recognize keywords, operators, identifiers, and other syntactic elements. Hardware Design: Finite automata are
used in the design of digital circuits and sequential logic. They model the behavior of circuits where the output depends on the
sequence of inputs (state machines). Priorities: Finite States: Finite automata are characterized by having a finite number of states.
This means that the set of states within the automaton is countable and limited. Every State Has At least One Input: In a well-
defined finite automaton, each state is designed to have at least one input symbol that triggers a transition to another state or possibly
to itself. Transition from One State to Another Requires an Input: Transitions between states in a finite automaton are governed
by input symbols, meaning that a specific input is necessary to move from one state to another. Grammar: A grammar consists of
collection of rules called productions. Each rule appears as a line in the grammar, comprising a symbol and a string separated by an
arrow. The symbol is called a variable. The string consists of variables and other symbols. Example: A → A1, B → A, B → #. Regular
Expression: Regular expressions are built up with the help of regular operations. For example- (0U1)0* Where, (0U1) means
({0}U{1}). The value of this part is the language {0,1} and the part 0* means {0}*. The value of this part is the language consisting of
all strings consisting any number of 0s. Proof: A proof is a convincing logical argument that demonstrates the truth of a statement.
It provides a rigorous and systematic explanation, ensuring that the statement follows logically from axioms, definitions, and
previously established theorems. Deductive Proofs: Logical derivations from premises. Reductive Proofs: Simplifying complex
statements to known truths. Contradictive Proofs: Demonstrating the falsehood of the negation. Inductive Proofs: Using base cases
and inductive steps to prove statements about sequences or series. Inductive Proof: Inductive proof is an advanced method that is
used to show that all elements of an infinite set have a specified property. To prove a statement by inductive proof, we have to do
two things- 1. Basis step 2. Inductive step. Alphabet: An alphabet is a finite, nonempty set of symbols. The members of an alphabet
are the symbols of the alphabet. An alphabet is denoted by ∑. String: A string is a finite sequence of symbols chosen from some
alphabet. It is usually written next to one another and not separated by commas. For example- if ∑= {0,1}, then 01001 is a string over
∑. Empty String: An empty string is a string with zero occurrences of symbols or a string of zero length. Language: A language is
a set of strings. Language accepted by DFA: The language accepted by a DFA M = (Q, ∑, 𝛿, q0, F) is the set of all strings on ∑
accepted by M. We say that a language L′ is accepted (or recognized) by DFA M if L(M) = L′.

In formal notation: L (M)= {w∊∑* : 𝛿* (q0, w)∊ F} .

Language rejected by: L (M)= {w∊∑* : 𝛿* (q0, w)∊ F}.

Regular language: Regular languages are a fundamental concept in formal language theory and automata theory. A regular
language is a language that can be recognized by a finite automaton. They can also be described by regular expressions, which are
formalisms for representing patterns of strings. A language L is regular if there is a DFA M that accepts it (L(M)=L). Example: {abba},
{λ, ab, abba}, {a b : n ≥ 0}, {all strings in {a,b}* with prefix ab}. There exist languages which are not Regular: L={a b : n ≥ 0}.
n n n

Lambda Transitions: Transformations to new states without consuming an input symbol are called lambda transitions or
epsilon transitions. They are usually labeled with the Greek letter λ or ε. The notion of accepting an input is similar to that for
the DFA.

Transition Function: The transition function is a key concept in automata theory, particularly in deterministic and nondeterministic
finite automata (DFA and NFA). It describes how an automaton transitions from one state to another upon reading an input symbol.
Equivalence of Machines: Machine M1 is equivalent to machine M2 if, L(M1)=L(M2).

{Languages Accepted by NFAs} = {Regular Languages}. NFAs and DFAs have the same computation
power, accept the same set of languages. We only need to show-