Computer Architecture

and Organization I
CST-3131
Semester V

Daw Nan Kham Mon

Lecturer
Faculty of Computer System and Technology (FCST)
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Assessment Plan for the Course

Tutorial/ Lab
Paper Exam Quiz/ Test Lab Total
Assignment Assessment

60% 10% 10% 10% 10% 100%

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 Basic Concepts, Computer
System and Computer Evolution

Topic 1

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History of Computer Architecture and Organization
Zero Generation –Mechanical Computers (1642-1945)
➢Pascal’s calculator
➢Babbage’s Difference Engine

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First Generation – Vacuum Tubes (1945-1955)
➢Vacuum tubes used for processing.
➢ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) is an example.

Second Generation - Transistors (1955-1963)

➢Transistors replaced vacuum tubes.
➢Introduction of assembly language.
➢(International Business Machines) IBM 700 series is an example.
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Third Generation –Integrated Circuits (1963-1971)
➢Integrated circuits (ICs) introduced, reducing size and increasing efficiency.
➢Introduction of high-level programming languages (Fortran, COBOL).
➢IBM System/360 is an example.

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Fourth Generation –Very Large Scale Integration (1971-1980)
➢Microprocessors introduced, leading to the development of personal computers.
➢Advent of microcomputers and the beginning of the PC era.
➢Apple II, IBM PC are examples.

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Fifth Generation – Parallel Processing ad Networking (1980-Present)
➢Advances in parallel processing, artificial intelligence, and supercomputing.
➢Evolution of personal computers, laptops, and mobile devices.
➢Integration of powerful graphics processing units (GPUs).
➢Rise of the internet and networking.

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Organization and Architecture
• Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible to a programmer or, put another
way, those attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program.
• Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the
architectural specifications.
• Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits used to represent
various data types (e.g., numbers, characters), I/O mechanisms, and techniques for addressing
memory.
• Organizational attributes include those hardware details transparent to the programmer, such as
control signals; interfaces between the computer and peripherals; and the memory technology used.

Structure and Function

• Structure: The way in which the components are interrelated.
• Function: The operation of each individual component as part of the structure.
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Simple Single- Processor Computer
• Central processing unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the
computer and performs its data processing functions; often simply
referred to as processor.
• Main memory: Stores data.
• I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment.
• System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for
communication among CPU, main memory, and I/O.A common
example of system interconnection is by means of a system bus,
consisting of a number of con ducting wires to which all the other
components attach.

• Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the
computer.
• Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the computers data
processing functions.
• Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU.
• CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for
communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers.

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Multicore Computer Structure
• Central processing unit (CPU): That portion of a computer that
fetches and executes instructions. It consists of an ALU, a control
unit, and registers. In a system with a single processing unit, it is
often simply referred to as a processor.
• Core: An individual processing unit on a processor chip. A core
may be equivalent in functionality to a CPU on a single- CPU
system. Other specialized processing units, such as one optimized
for vector and matrix operations, are also referred to as cores.
• Processor: A physical piece of silicon containing one or more
cores. The processor is the computer component that interprets
and executes instructions. If a processor contains multiple cores,
it is referred to as a multicore processor.

• Instruction logic: This includes the tasks involved in fetching

instructions, and decoding each instruction to determine the
instruction operation and the memory locations of any operands.
• Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the operation
specified by an instruction.
• Load/store logic: Manages the transfer of data to and from main
memory via cache.

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• Cache memory, between the processor and main memory.
• A cache memory is smaller and faster than main memory and is used to speed up memory access,
by placing in the cache data from main memory.
• The main printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer is called a system board or motherboard,
while smaller ones that plug into the slots in the main board are called expansion boards.
• The most prominent elements on the motherboard are the chips.
• A chip is a single piece of semiconducting material, typically silicon, upon which electronic
circuits and logic gates are fabricated.
• The resulting product is referred to as an integrated circuit.
• The motherboard contains a slot or socket for the processor chip, which typically contains
multiple individual cores, in what is known as a multicore processor.
• There are also slots for memory chips, I/O controller chips, and other key computer components.
• For desktop computers, expansion slots enable the inclusion of more components on expansion
boards.
• Thus, a modern motherboard connects only a few individual chip components, with each chip
containing from a few thousand up to hundreds of millions of transistors.
• Figure1.2 shows a processor chip that contains eight cores and an L3 cache.
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The IAS Computer
• The rst generation of computers used vacuum tubes for
digital logic elements and memory.
• A number of research and then commercial computers
were built using vacuum tubes.
• For our purposes, it will be instructive to examine perhaps
the most famous rst- generation computer, known as the
IAS computer.

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Gates, Memory Cells, Chips, And Multichip Modules
• A computer consists of gates, memory cells, and interconnections among these
elements.
• The gates and memory cells are, in turn, constructed of simple electronic
components, such as transistors and capacitors.
• The fundamental building block of digital circuits used to construct processors,
memories, and other digital logic devices is the transistor.
• Figure 1.9 depicts the key concepts in an integrated circuit.

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Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

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List some of the highlights of the evolution of the Intel product line:
• 8080: The worlds first general- purpose microprocessor. This was an 8-bit machine, with an 8-bit
data path to memory. The 8080 was used in the first personal computer, the Altair.
• 8086: A far more powerful, 16-bit machine. In addition to a wider data path and larger registers,
the 8086 sported an instruction cache, or queue, that prefetches a few instructions before they are
executed. A variant of this processor, the 8088, was used in IBMs first personal computer,
securing the success of Intel. The 8086 is the first appearance of the x86 architecture.
• 80286: This extension of the 8086 enabled addressing a 16-MB memory instead of just 1MB.
• 80386: Intels first 32-bit machine, and a major overhaul of the product. With a 32-bit architecture,
the 80386 rivaled the complexity and power of minicomputers and mainframes introduced just a
few years earlier. This was the first Intel processor to support multitasking, meaning it could run
multiple programs at the same time.
• 80486: The 80486 introduced the use of much more sophisticated and power ful cache technology
and sophisticated instruction pipelining. The 80486 also offered a built- in math coprocessor,
offloading complex math operations from the main CPU.
• Pentium: With the Pentium, Intel introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow
multiple instructions to execute in parallel.
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• Pentium Pro: The Pentium Pro continued the move into superscalar organization begun with the
Pentium, with aggressive use of register renaming, branch prediction, data flow analysis, and
speculative execution.
• Pentium II: The Pentium II incorporated Intel MMX technology, which is designed specifically to
process video, audio, and graphics data efficiently.
• Pentium III: The Pentium III incorporates additional floating- point instructions: The Streaming
SIMD Extensions (SSE) instruction set extension added 70 new instructions designed to increase
performance when exactly the same operations are to be performed on multiple data objects.
Typical applications are digital signal processing and graphics processing.
• Pentium 4: The Pentium 4 includes additional floating- point and other enhancements for
multimedia.
• Core: This is the first Intel x86 microprocessor with a dual core, referring to the implementation of
two cores on a single chip.
• Core 2: The Core 2 extends the Core architecture to 64 bits. The Core 2 Quad provides four cores
on a single chip. More recent Core offerings have up to 10 cores per chip. An important addition to
the architecture was the Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set that provided a set of 256-bit,
and then 512 bit, instructions for efficient processing of vector data.
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The Internet of Things
The Internet of things (IoT) is a term that refers to the expanding interconnection of smart devices,
ranging from appliances to tiny sensors.

Internet of Things (IoT)

• Connects only physical objects (things).
Internet of Everything (IoE)
• Encompasses people, things, data, and processes.

• Internet of Everything can be defined as the extended version of Internet of Things.

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Example - Healthcare

• While IoT had sparked the wide use of wirelessly connected glucometers, scales, heart
rate and blood pressure monitors, and other devices, the IoE allowed integrating them
together, combining and analyzing data to make better, more personalized predictions and
decisions, as well as to take meaningful actions.

How IoE can be used to help patients?

• It receives data from sensors installed in their houses, analyzes it with the machine
learning algorithms, and in this way helps to get a greater understanding of how the
disease develops and makes precisely targeted actions.

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Microprocessors versus Microcontrollers
• Early microprocessor chips included registers,
an ALU, and some sort of control unit or
instruction processing logic.
• A microcontroller chip makes a substantially
different use of the logic space available.

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Embedded Systems

• Embedded systems are fixed-function. They may offer

very high or low performance, with a limited energy
footprint.

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Embedded versus Deeply Embedded Systems
• A subset of embedded systems is referred to as deeply embedded systems.
• A deeply embedded system uses a microcontroller rather than a microprocessor, is not
programmable once the program logic for the device has been burned into ROM ( read- only
memory), and has no interaction with a user.
• Deeply embedded systems are single-purpose devise that detect something in the environment,
perform a basic level of processing, and then do something with the results.
• The Internet of things depends heavily on deeply embedded systems.

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ARM Architecture Acorn RISC Machine (ARM)

• The ARM architecture refers to a processor architecture that has evolved from RISC design
principles and is used in embedded systems.
• ARM is a family of RISC- based microprocessors and microcontrollers designed by ARM
Holdings, Cambridge, England.
• The company doesn’t make processors but instead designs microprocessor and multicore
architectures and licenses them to manufacturers.
• ARM Holdings has two types of licensable products: processors and processor architectures.
• For processors, the customer buys the rights to use ARM- supplied design in their own chips.
• For a processor architecture, the customer buys the rights to design their own processor
compliant with ARMs architecture.
• ARM chips are the processors in Apples popular iPod and iPhone devices, and are used in
virtually all Android smartphones as well.
• The origins of ARM technology can be traced back to the British- based Acorn Computers
company.
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• ARM uses RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) which helps save energy and makes
instructions fast and easy.
• ARM is great for battery-powered devices like smartphones.
• x86 uses CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing), which can perform many tasks at once but
makes the processor more complicated and expensive to create.
• Historically, ARM favored power efficiency, dominating mobile systems, while x86 led to high-
performance computing. 31
Thank You For Your Attention!

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