Heat Transfer Operations

Dr. R. Manivannan
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
NIT Raipur
 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

Mass continuity equation for the boundary layer

Momentum equation for the boundary layer

 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

Equation may be solved exactly for many boundary

conditions – BLASIUS METHOD

Approximate method - von Karman integral method.

 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

Elemental control volume for integral momentum analysis of laminar

boundary layer.
 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

The free-stream velocity outside the boundary layer is u∞, and the
boundary-layer thickness is δ.

Writing momentum-and-force balance on the control volume bounded by

the planes 1,2,A-A and the solid wall. The velocity components normal to
the wall are neglected, and only those in the x direction are considered.

Assume : Control volume is sufficiently high that it always encloses the

boundary layer; that is, H > δ.
Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)
 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

Considering the conservation of mass and the fact that no mass can
enter the control volume through the solid wall, the additional mass
flow in expression must enter through plane A-A. This mass flow
carries with it a momentum in the x direction equal to

(5)

The net momentum flow out of the control volume is therefore (3)-(2)-(5)

(6)
 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

This expression may be put in a somewhat more useful form by

recalling the product formula from the differential calculus:

or d(uv) = udv + vdu

In the momentum expression given above, the integral

is the φ function and u∞ is the η function.

 or Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

The u∞ may be placed inside the integral since it is not a function of y

and thus may be treated as a constant insofar as an integral with respect
to y is concerned.
Returning to the analysis, the force on plane 1 is the pressure force pH
and that on plane 2 is -[p+(dp/dx)dx]H. The shear force at the wall is
 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
There is no shear force at plane A-A since the velocity gradient is zero
outside the boundary layer. Setting the forces on the element equal to
the net increase in momentum and collecting terms gives

0
This is the integral momentum equation of the boundary layer. If the
pressure is constant throughout the flow,
 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

Since the pressure and free-stream velocity are related by the

Bernoulli equation. For the constant-pressure condition, the integral
boundary-layer equation becomes

The upper limit on the integral has been changed to δ because the
integrand is zero for y>δ since u=u∞ for y>δ.
 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

Velocity fn. should satisfy the following boundary conditions

No slip condition BC1

@ Boundary layer BC2

BC3

• Since the velocities u and v are zero at y = 0 and

making use of the momentum equation
• Constant pressure condition u  2u
u
u v  2
x y y
BC4
 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
The simplest function is a polynomial with four arbitrary constants that
satisfies the 4 BC‟s.
C1  0
3 u
C2 
2 
Applying the four conditions
C3  0
1 u
C4  
2 3
Inserting the expression for the velocity
 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
Carrying out the integration leads to

Since ρ and u∞ are constants, the variables may be separated to give

At x = 0, δ=0, so that
 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
This may be written in terms of the Reynolds number as

where

Approximate Solution
Exact Solution
 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
3 u 3 u
w  
Shear stress at the wall 2  4.64 x 
2 
 Re 
 x 

 u2  0.646 
w   
2  Re x 

w  0.646 
Local skin friction coefficient C fx   
1  
 u2  Re x 
2

L L
1 1 0.646
Average skin friction coefficient C fa   C fx dx   dx
L0 L0  u
x


 1.292
C fa  1.292 
 u L Re L

ReL is Reynolds number based on length L of the plate.

BLASIUS (EXACT) SOLUTIONS OF
LAMINAR-BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS
 EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS

For two-dimensional, steady, incompressible flow with zero pressure

gradient, the governing equations of motion reduce to

 Continuity Equation:

u v
 0
x y

 Momentum Equation:
u u u 2
u v  2
x y y
EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS
 Boundary conditions:

1. y=0, u= 0 ; v= 0 (No slip condition)

u
2. y=∞, u= u ∞ ; 0
y
EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS

Blasius reasoned that the velocity profile, (u/u ∞ ), should

be similar for all values of x when plotted versus a
nondimensional distance from the wall.

The boundary layer thickness, δ, was a natural choice for

non-dimensionalizing the distance from the wall
u
 g ( )  g
u

where
y


EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS

Blasius reasoned that

vx
 
u

y u
 y
 x
EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS

 Introducing stream function (ψ):

 Stream lines are lines drawn in the
u
y flow field so that at a given instant

v they are tangent to the direction of
x flow at every point in the flow field
u v
 0
x y
•The above equation satisfies the continuity equation identically.

•Substituting for u and v into momentum equation reduces the equation

to one in which ψ is the single dependent variable
EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS

  u xg ( ) Similarity parameter


g ( )  Stream function
 u x

where g(η) or g is the dependent variable and η the independent variable

EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS

   dg u dg
u    xu  u
y  y d  x d

    xu g   
g 1 u 
v    xu  g
x x  x 2 x 
 dg  1 1  1 u 
    xu    g
 d  2 x  2 x 
1 u  dg 
v   g
2 x  d 
 EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS

u u  d  dg   1   1  u  d g 
2
   u        2
x  x d  d   2   x  2 x  d 

u u  d  dg  u u  d g  2
   u   u  2
y  y d  d   x  x  d 
EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS

 u   u  
2
  
y 2
y   y 
d  u d 2 g   d  d  u d 2 g  u
  u 2 
    
 u 2 
d   x d   dy  d  
 x d   x
2 3
u d g

 x d 3
EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS

 u u d g
2 2 3

y 2
 x d 3

3 2
d g d g
2 3 g 2 0
d d

2 g ''' gg ''  0
 EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS

1. y=0, u= 0 ; v= 0 (No slip condition)

u
2. y=∞, u= u ∞ ; 0
y
Transformed boundary conditions
g
at   0 g= 0


g
at    1

EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS

The second-order partial differential equations governing the growth of

the laminar boundary layer on a flat plate have been transformed to a
non-linear, third-order ordinary differential boundary conditions with
transformed boundary conditions

Blasius solved it using a power series

expansion about η = 0 matched to an
asymptotic expansion for η  ∞

Howarth, precisely solved the equation

using 4th order Runge-Kutta numerical
integration
EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -BOUNDARY-
LAYER EQUATIONS
 EXACT SOLUTIONS OF LAMINAR -
BOUNDARY-LAYER
EQUATIONS
 The velocity profile is obtained in dimensionless

form by plotting u/U versus η.

 Blasius – First Observation

 When the x-coordinate reaches a value of 5, the y

co-ordinate is 0.99 ie., the local velocity reaches
99% of the free stream velocity value, when
(y/x)Re 0.5 x reaches a value of 5. However, from the
definition of boundary layer thickness (δ) we know
that y = δ when u/U = 99%
 Blasius – Second Observation

 Slope at y = 0 is 0.332, ie.,

 Blasius – Second Observation

 Slope at y = 0 is 0.332, ie.,

Over-all heat transfer coefficient – Plane Wall
 Over-all heat transfer coefficient – Plane Wall

Overall heat transfer is calculated as the ratio of the overall temperature

difference to the sum of the thermal resistances.

RTh  1/ h1 A  x / kA  1/ h2 A
 Over-all heat transfer coefficient (U) – Plane Wall
The overall heat transfer by combined conduction and convection is
frequently expressed in terms of an overall heat-transfer coefficient U,
defined by the relation

1
U  If the thermal resistance of the wall
1 1
 is neglected
h1 h2
Over-all heat transfer coefficient – Hollow Cylinder

Heat Transfer rate

TA & TB – Two fluid temperatures

Note : Area for convection is not the same for both the fluids

Ai & Ao – inside and outside area of the inner tube.

 Over-all heat transfer coefficient – Hollow Cylinder
The overall heat-transfer coefficient may be based on either the inside
or the outside area of the tube.

1
Ui 
1  ri   ro  1  ri 
   ln     
hi  k   ri  ho  ro 

1
Uo 
1  ro   ro   ro  1
  ln   
hi  ri   k   ri  ho

The above equations are valid for CLEAN heat transfer surface only.
 1
U  If the thermal resistance of the wall
1 1
 is negligible compared to other resistances, or
hi ho wall thickness of the tube is very small i.e.,(ro/ri)=1

U is controlled by the smaller of the two heat transfer coefficients, hi and ho.

Aim of the designer should be to focus on the smaller of the two heat
transfer coefficients and improve it, if possible.
For example, in a gas-to-liquid HX, HTC is generally smaller on the gas
side.

Gas side HTC controls the final value of overall HTC.

Designer tries to improve the HTC on the gas side by providing fins
on the gas side surface.
 FOULING FACTORS

• The previous equations is valid for clean heat transfer surface.

• With the passage of time, the surface become „dirt‟ because of scaling,
deposits, corrosion etc.,
• This results in a reduction in HTC, since the scale offers a
thermal resistance to heat transfer.

Fouling may be categorized as follows

(i) due to scaling or precipitation
(ii) due to deposits of finely divided particulates
(iii) due to chemical reaction
(iv) due to corrosion
(v) due to attachments of algae or other biological materials
(vi) due to crystallization on the surface by subcooling
FOULING FACTORS FOR INDUSTRIAL
FLUIDS
 FOULING FACTORS

Fouling factors based on inside surface

Fouling factors based on outside surface
 FOULING FACTOR / DIRT FACTOR

• Effect of fouling is encountered by a term called “fouling factor” (or, dirt

factor) defined as

1 1
Rf   2
m K/W
U dirty U clean

• Rf is zero for a new HX.

• Rf for a fouled HX cannot be calculated theoretically, but has to be

determined experimentally by finding out the HTC for a clean HX
and a dirty HX of identical design, operating under identical conditions.
 FOULING FACTOR / DIRT FACTOR

• While taking into account the effect of fouling, the „fouling resistance‟
(= Rf/area) should be added to the other thermal resistances.
1 1
U i Ai  U o Ao  
 th
R r 
ln  o 
1

R fi
  ri 

1

R fo
hi Ai Ai 2 kL ho Ao Ao

Where, Rfi and Rfo, are the fouling factors for the inside and outside
surfaces, respectively.

Fouling factor depends on flow velocity and operating temperature; fouling

Increases with decreasing velocity and increasing temperature.