(MET-343) Manufacturing Processes

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF MACHINING

• Machining is the process of removing unwanted material from a workpiece in the

form of chips. If the workpiece is metal, the process is often called metal cutting
or metal removal.
• The material removal processes are a family of shaping operations in which excess
material is removed from a starting workpart so that what remains is the desired
final geometry.
• The common feature is the use of a cutting tool to form a chip that is removed
from the workpart.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF MACHINING….

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF MACHINING….
1. Conventional machining
A sharp cutting tool is used to mechanically cut the material to achieve the
desired geometry. The three principal machining processes are turning,
drilling, and milling. The ‘‘other machining operations’’ include shaping,
planing, broaching, and sawing.
2. Abrasive processes
In this process, mechanically remove material by the action of hard,
abrasive particles. This process group includes grinding. The ‘‘other
abrasive processes’’ include honing, lapping, and superfinishing.
3. Nontraditional processes
They use various energy forms other than a sharp cutting tool or abrasive
particles to remove material. The energy forms include mechanical,
electrochemical, thermal, and chemical.

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 Overview Of Machining Technology….

▪ In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a rotating workpiece
to generate a cylindrical shape. The speed motion in turning is provided by the rotating workpart, and the
feed motion is achieved by the cutting tool moving slowly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of
the workpiece.
▪ Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that typically has two cutting
edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation into the workpart to form the round
hole.
▪ In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is fed slowly across the work material to generate a
plane or straight surface. The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool’s axis of rotation.
The speed motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling are peripheral
milling and face milling.

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 Overview Of Machining Technology….

The seven basic

machining
processes used in
chip formation

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 Overview Of Machining Technology….
Cutting Tool:
• A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made of a material that is harder than the work material. The cutting
edge serves to separate a chip from the parent work material. The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear
deformation of the work material to form a chip; as the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.
• Connected to the cutting edge are two surfaces of the tool: the rake face and the flank.
The rake face, which directs the flow of the newly formed chip, is oriented at a certain angle called the rake angle a. It is
measured relative to a plane perpendicular to the work surface. The rake angle can be positive or negative.
The flank of the tool provides a clearance between the tool and the newly generated work surface, thus protecting the
surface from abrasion, which would degrade the finish. This flank surface is oriented at an angle called the relief angle.

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 Overview Of Machining Technology….
Cutting Tool:
There are two basic types
(a) single-point tools and (b) multiple-
cutting-edge tools.
a) Single-point tool
A single-point tool has one cutting edge
and is used for operations such as turning.
During machining, the point of the tool
penetrates below the original work surface
of the part. The point is usually rounded to
a certain radius, called the nose radius.
b) Multiple-cutting-edge
Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than
one cutting edge and usually achieve their
motion relative to the workpart by rotating.
Drilling and milling use rotating multiple-
cutting-edge tools.

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 Overview Of Machining Technology….
Cutting Conditions:

1. Cutting speed (V)

It is the primary cutting motion, which relates the velocity of the cutting
tool relative to the workpiece. It is generally given in units of surface feet
per minute (sfpm), inches per minute (in./min), meters per minute (m/m),
or meters per second (m/s).

2. Feed
Feed rate is basically the distance at which the tool travels during its single
spindle revolution. It is defined as the velocity at which the cutter is fed. In
turning, feed is in inches per revolution, and the tool feeds parallel to the
rotational axis of the workpiece.

3. Depth of cut
The penetration of the cutting tool below the original work surface, called
the depth of cut d.

Material Removal Rate

RMR= v f d

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 Overview Of Machining Technology….
➢ Machining operations usually divide into two categories
• Roughing cuts
• finishing cuts.
Roughing cuts
Roughing cuts are used to remove large amounts of material from the starting workpart as rapidly as possible, in
order to produce a shape close to the desired form, but leaving some material on the piece for a subsequent
finishing operation.
Finishing cuts
Finishing cuts are used to complete the part and achieve the final dimensions, tolerances, and surface finish.

➢ In production machining jobs, one or more roughing cuts are usually performed on the work, followed by one
or two finishing cuts.
➢ Roughing operations are performed at high feeds and depths—feeds of 0.4 to 1.25 mm/rev (0.015–0.050
in/rev) and depths of 2.5 to 20 mm (0.100–0.750 in) are typical.
➢ Finishing operations are carried out at low feeds and depths—feeds of 0.125 to 0.4 mm (0.005–0.015 in/rev)
and depths of 0.75 to 2.0 mm (0.030–0.075 in) are typical.
➢ Cutting speeds are lower in roughing than in finishing.
➢ The term machine tool applies to any power-driven machine that performs a machining operation,

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 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING
THE ORTHOGONAL CUTTING MODEL

• Orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped tool in which the

cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of cutting
speed.
• As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by
shear deformation along a plane called the shear plane,
which is oriented at an angle φ with the surface of the work.
• Only at the sharp cutting edge of the tool does failure of the
material occur, resulting in separation of the chip from the
parent material.
• Along the shear plane, where the bulk of the mechanical
energy is consumed in machining, the material is plastically
deformed.
• The tool in orthogonal cutting has only two elements of
geometry: (1) rake angle and (2) clearance angle.

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 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING
THE ORTHOGONAL CUTTING MODEL

Chip Thickness Ratio:

During cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is positioned a
certain distance below the original work surface. This
corresponds to the thickness of the chip prior to chip formation,
𝑡𝑜 . As the chip is formed along the shear plane, its thickness
increases to 𝑡𝑐 . The ratio of 𝑡𝑜 to 𝑡𝑐 is called the chip thickness
ratio (or simply the chip ratio) r:

r= 𝑡𝑜 / 𝑡𝑐

Since the chip thickness after cutting is always greater than the
corresponding thickness before cutting, the chip ratio will
always be less than 1.0

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 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING

THE ORTHOGONAL CUTTING MODEL

The geometry of the orthogonal cutting model allows us to

establish an important relationship between the chip thickness
ratio, the rake angle, and the shear plane angle

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 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING

THE ORTHOGONAL CUTTING MODEL

Shear strain
The shear strain that occurs along the shear plane can
be estimated by examining figure.
Part (a) shows shear deformation approximated by a
series of parallel plates sliding against one another to
form the chip.
Consistent with definition of shear strain, each plate
experiences the shear strain .
Referring to part (c), this can be expressed as
ϒ = AC / BD = AD+DC / BD
which can be reduced to the following definition of
shear strain in metal cutting:
ϒ = tan (φ –α)+cot φ

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 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING

Solve the numerical:

In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal cutting, the cutting

tool has a rake angle= 10 . The chip thickness before the cut = 0.50 mm
and the chip thickness after the cut = 1.125 in. Calculate the shear plane
angle and the shear strain in the operation

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 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING
ACTUAL CHIP FORMATION

Differences between the orthogonal model and an actual machining

process
1. Shear Zone
2. Secondary shear

Types of chips :

1. Discontinuous chip:
When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast irons) are machined at
low cutting speeds, the chips often form into separate segments
(sometimes the segments are loosely attached). This tends to impart
an irregular texture to the machined surface. High tool–chip friction
and large feed and depth of cut promote the formation of this chip
type.

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 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING

2. Continuous chip:
When ductile work materials are cut at high speeds and relatively small feeds and depths, long continuous chips are
formed. A good surface finish typically results when this chip type is formed. A sharp cutting edge on the tool and
low tool–chip friction encourage the formation of continuous chips.
3. Continuous chip with built-up edge:
When machining ductile materials at low-to medium cutting speeds, friction between tool and chip tends to cause
portions of the work material to adhere to the rake face of the tool near the cutting edge. This formation is called a
built-up edge (BUE). The formation of a BUE is cyclical; it forms and grows, then becomes unstable and breaks off.
Much of the detached BUE is carried away with the chip, sometimes taking portions of the tool rake face with it,
which reduces the life of the cutting tool. Portions of the detached BUE that are not carried off with the chip
become imbedded in the newly created work surface, causing the surface to become rough.
4. Serrated chips (shear-localized):
These chips are semi-continuous in the sense that they possess a saw-tooth appearance that is produced by a
cyclical chip formation of alternating high shear strain followed by low shear strain. This fourth type of chip is most
closely associated with certain difficult-to-machine metals such as titanium alloys, nickel-base superalloys, and
austenitic stainless steels when they are machined at higher cutting speeds. However, the phenomenon is also
found with more common work metals (e.g., steels) when they are cut at high speeds

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 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING

FORCES IN METAL CUTTING

-The friction force

-The normal force

μ = F/ N
μ = tan β

-The shear force Fs is the force that causes shear deformation

to occur in the shear plane
-the normal force to shear Fn is perpendicular to the shear
force.
τ = 𝐹𝑠 / 𝐴𝑠

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 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING
The cutting force Fc is in the direction of cutting, the
same direction as the cutting speed v.
The thrust force Ft is perpendicular to the cutting force
and is associated with the chip thickness before the cut.

If cutting force and thrust force are known, these four equations
can be used to calculate estimates of shear force, friction force,
and normal force to friction. Based on these force estimates,
shear stress and coefficient of friction can be determined

NSU-National Skills University Rabiah Tabassum

 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING

Solve numerical
From previous numerical, lets assume that cutting force and thrust force are
measured during an orthogonal cutting operation: Fc = 1559 N and Ft = 1271 N.
The width of the orthogonal cutting operation w= 3.0 mm. Based on these data,
determine the shear strength of the work material.

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 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING

THE MERCHANT EQUATION

• Merchant reasoned that, out of all the possible angles emanating from the cutting edge of the
tool at which shear deformation could occur, there is one angle φ that predominates.
• This is the angle at which shear stress is just equal to the shear strength of the work material,
and so shear deformation occurs at this angle.
• For all other possible shear angles, the shear stress is less than the shear strength, so chip
formation cannot occur at these other angles.
• In effect, the work material will select a shear plane angle that minimizes energy. This angle
can be determined by taking the derivative of the shear stress S with respect to φ and
setting the derivative to zero.
• Solving for φ, we get the relationship named after Merchant:

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 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING

THE MERCHANT EQUATION

The real value of the Merchant equation is that it defines the general relationship between rake angle,
tool–chip friction, and shear plane angle.
The shear plane angle can be increased by
(1) increasing the rake angle
(2) decreasing the friction angle (and coefficient of friction) between the tool and the chip.
Rake angle can be increased by proper tool design, and friction angle can be reduced by using a
lubricant cutting fluid

NSU-National Skills University Rabiah Tabassum

 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING

Using the data and results from previous numericals,

determine
(a) the friction angle
(b) the coefficient of friction

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 THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL MACHINING

Assignment#1
Solve the following problems
• 21.1-21.10
FUNDAMENTALS OF MODERN MANUFACTURING Materials, Processes,
and Systems by Mikell P. Groover.
Date of submission: 23 October 2024

NSU-National Skills University Rabiah Tabassum