WEEK 5

CVE 5172: HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION

ENGINEERING II

Engr. Dr. Anderson Etika

Department of Civil Engineering

CRUTECH, Calabar.

INTERSECTION DESIGN

INTRO: INTERSECTION
➢ An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more highways join
or cross, within which are included the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic
movements in that area. Or
➢ An area, shared by two or more roads, whose main function is to provide for the
change of route directions.
➢ It is required to control conflicting and merging streams of traffic to reduce
delays and accidents.
➢ The importance of design of the intersection stems from the fact that efficiency of
operation, safety, speed, cost of operation and capacity are directly governed by the
dimensions of the geometric parameters.
➢ Priority control of traffic at junctions is one of the most widely used ways of
resolving conflicts between merging and crossing vehicles.
➢ The universal adoption of “Give way to traffic on the left” rule at roundabout
together with the use of “ Give way” or “Stop” are used to regulate merging or
crossings.

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 ➢ Intersections vary in complexity from: simple intersection: has only two roads
crossing at a right angle and complex intersection: three or more roads cross within
the same area.
➢ Intersections are classified into three general categories:
i. At-grade
ii. Grade-separated without ramps, and
iii. Grade-separated with ramps (commonly known as interchanges),

Figure 1. Basic forms of intersections

TYPES OF AT-GRADE INTERSECTION

The basic types of at-grade intersections are

I. T or three-leg: intersections which consist of three approaches.

II. four-leg or cross intersections, which consist of four approaches: and
III. multi-leg intersections, which consist of five or more approaches

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Figure 2. Examples of At-grade separated intersections.

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 Fig 3a. At-Grade Intersections in Urban Areas Fig 3b. At-Grade Intersections in Urban Areas
(Raised Islands on a Three-Leg Intersection (a Four-Leg Intersection

Fig 3c. At-Grade Intersections in Urban Areas

(a Y- Intersection

T-intersections
Simple T-intersection is shown in Figure 4a. Is suitable for minor or local roads and may be
used when minor roads intersect important highways with an intersection angle less than 30
degrees from the normal. It is also suitable for use in rural two-lane highways that carry light
traffic.
➢At locations with higher speeds and turning volumes, which increase the potential of rear-
end collisions between through vehicles and turning vehicles. usually, an additional area of

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surfacing or flaring is provided, as seen in figure 4b. The flare is provided to separate right
turning vehicles from through vehicles approaching from the east.

Channelized T-intersection: one with divisional islands and turning roadways shown in
Figure 4b.
➢ Channelization involves the provision of facilities such as pavement markings and traffic
islands to regulate and direct conflicting traffic streams into specific travel paths.

Fig 4a. Plain T-Intersection

Fig 4b. T-Intersection (With Right Turn Lane)

Four Leg or Cross Intersections

➢ Unchannelized intersection shown in figure 5 is used mainly at locations where minor or
local roads cross.

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 ➢ It also can be used where a minor road crosses a major highway. In these cases, the
turning volumes are usually low and the roads intersect at an angle that is not greater than
30 degrees from the normal.

Figure 5. Example of a four-Leg intersection

Multi-Leg Intersections
➢ Multi-leg intersections have five or more approaches as seen in figure 6.
➢ Whenever possible, this type of intersection should be avoided.

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 Figure 6. Example of a Multi-Leg intersections.

PRIORITY INTERSECTIONS

- They occur between two roads, one termed the “Major” road and the other the
“Minor” road.
- The major road is assigned permanent priority of traffic movement over the minor
road.
- Basic principle is; heaviest traffic flow should be afforded easiest path.
- The minor always gives priority to the major road with its traffic entering the major
road when appropriate gaps appear.
- Principal advantage is that traffic on the major road is not delayed.
- Priority junctions can be in the forms of T-junctions, Staggered or crossroad junctions.
- Within the different forms of priority intersections, there are three types of geometric
layouts for a single carriageway. They include:
1. Simple junction: This is either a T-junction or staggered junction without any
ghost or physical island in the major road and without channelling islands in
the minor road approach.
2. Ghost Island Junctions: Usually a T-junction or staggered junction within
which and area is marked on the carriageway, shaped and located to direct
traffic movement.
3. Single-lane-dualling: Usually a T-junction or staggered junction within
which central reservation islands are shaped and located to direct traffic
movement.

CONFLICT POINTS AT INTERSECTIONS

- Conflict points are the points where two vehicles can potentially collide with each
other at road intersections. We can determine the number of conflict points based upon
the type of intersection.
- Conflicts occur when traffic streams moving in different directions interfere with
each other. Three types of conflicts:

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 i. Crossing
ii. Merge Conflict
iii. Diverge Conflict
iv. Weaving Conflict
The number of possible conflict points at any intersection depends on:
i. the number of approaches,
ii. the turning movements, and
iii. the type of traffic control at the intersection.

1. Cross Conflict

Cross Conflict
Cross conflict occurs when two vehicle paths collide with each other i.e., perpendicular
to each other. This could lead to a severe accident. This is why cross conflict is
considered a major conflict.

2. Merge Conflict

Merge Conflict
Merge conflict occurs when a vehicle from another lane or another route converges into
a lane of another vehicle. This doesn't lead to a severe accident and therefore it is
considered a minor conflict.

3. Diverge Conflict

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Diverge Conflict

Diverge conflict occurs when a vehicle moves away from its lane to join another lane or
to take another route. As the vehicle switches lanes, it might slow down causing
problems to the vehicle immediately behind it. This leads to diverging conflict, but it is
considered a minor conflict as it doesn't cause a severe accident.

4. Weaving Conflict

This is a combination of merge and diverge conflict. It usually happens in rotary ways
or to switch from the wrong lane to the correct lane.

Steps to Find Potential Conflict Points at an Intersection

Step 1: Draw the intersection

Step 2: Find the nature of traffic movement on a road, i.e., whether it is a one-way or
two-way traffic

Step 3: Represent the direction of vehicular traffic on each road

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Step 4: Identify the major and minor conflict points based on traffic manoeuvres
discussed before

Step 5: Count the total number of conflicts, major conflicts and minor conflicts

Conflict Points Example Problem

Let's consider a three-arm intersection in which each road serving for two-way traffic.

Step 1: Draw the intersection

Step 2: Find the nature of traffic movement on a road, i.e., whether it is one-way or two-
way traffic.
Let all roads have two-way traffic

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Step 3: Represent the direction of vehicular traffic on each road

Step 4: Identify the major and minor conflict points based on traffic manoeuvres
discussed before

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Note:
The red circle represents cross conflicts
The blue circle represents merge conflicts
The yellow circle represents diverge conflicts

Step 5: Count the total number of conflicts, major conflicts and minor conflicts

Major conflicts = 3
Minor conflicts = 3 (merge) + 3 (diverge)
Total conflicts = 9

- Crossing conflicts, however, tend to have the most severe effect on traffic flow and
should be reduced to a minimum whenever possible.

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Figure. 7 Conflict Points at a Four-Approach Unsignalized Intersection

Figure 8. Conflict points at a T-Intersection

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Flows and Capacity of T- Intersections – British Method

- The main objective of any intersection is to provide vehicles drivers with a road layout
the minimises confusion.
- The selection process requires the economic, environmental and operational effects of
each option to be evaluated. This involves the following processes:
1. Determination of the projected traffic flow at the location termed “Design
reference flow (DRF). The range of the DRF determines the junction design.
2. Different combinations of turning movements should be tested to check for
performance characteristics of each junction option
3. Use of hourly flow rates
4. Determination of the Capacities.

Figure 9. Different levels of priority intersections for various major and minor road
flows in the design year.

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Design variables and procedures
CLASS WORK.
An existing simple major/minor priority junction at the intersection of two single-
carriageway two-lane roads is to be upgraded. Determine the flows at the priority
intersection. The major route is a major inter-urban highway. Diagram below shows the
AADT flow ranges predicted for each of the arms to intersection design year, which in
this case is assumed to be 15 years after opening.
Use a tidal flow of 70/30 in favour of the southern and eastern approach. Based on the
local traffic count, peak hour flow should be calculated by a multiplying factor of 3.0.
Turning movement percentages are given below.
Turning Movements
A-C A-B C-A C-B B-A B-C
80 20 80 20 40 60

SOLUTION
Taking the upper AADT flows of 10250 for the major carriageway and 3000 on the minor
carriageway, figure 9, indicates that the junction must be upgraded to a ghost island junction.

AADT two-way flows (by dividing AADT values by 24

AAHT flows (by multiplying AADT by 3)

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Directional flows from all arms (70:30 split in favour of southern and eastern approaches)

Final upper range flows Veh-1 (Application of Turning Movement)

Determination of capacities and delays (British Method)

- Once the flows to be analysed have been determined and a generally appropriate
geometric layout has been settled on, it is necessary to establish the capacity of each
traffic movement through the priority junction.
- This is dependent on the following:
1. The ratio of the flows on the major and minor roads;
2. The critical (minimum) gap in the main road traffic stream acceptable to entering
traffic; and
3. The maximum delay acceptable to minor road vehicles
- A T-intersection has six separate traffic stream (shown in Figure 10), of which:
i. The through streams on the major road (C-A and A-C) and the right-turn
stream off the major road (A-B) are generally assumed to be priority streams
and to suffer no delays from other traffic;
ii. While the two minor road streams (B-A and B-C) and the major road left turn
stream (C-B) incur delays due to their need to give way to higher priority
streams.

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 Figure:10 Traffic streams in a T-Junction

The following predictive capacity equations for determining the capacity of the non-priority
traffic streams are as follows:

µBA = D{627 + 14 WCR – Y[0.364 qA-C + 0.114 qA-B+ 0.229 qC-A +0.520 qC-B]} ……..1
µBC = E{745 – Y[0.364 qA-C + 0.114 qA-B]}……………………………………………..2
µCB = F{745 – 0.364 Y[qA-C + qA-B]}……………………………………………………3

- In these equations, the stream capacities and flows are measured in passenger car
units per hour (pcuh-1) and distances in meters.
- Capacities are always positive or zero, if the right-hand side of any equation is
negative, the capacity is taken as zero;

where
Y = [1- 0.0345W]
D = [1+0.094(WB-A – 3.65)] [1+0.0009(VlB-A – 120)] [1+.0006(VrB-A -150)]
E = [1+0.094(WB-C – 3.65)] [1+0.0009(VlB-C – 120)]
F = [1+0.094(WC-B – 3.65)] [1+0.0009(VlC-B – 120)]
Parameters:

µ = Stream Capacity

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qAC = Measured flow of stream A-C
qAB = Measured flow of stream A-B
qCA = Measured flow of stream C-A
qCB= Measured flow of stream C-B
qBA = Measured flow of stream B-A
qBC= Measured flow of stream B-C
( D, E and F are geometric characteristics of the junction)

WCR = is the average width of the central reserve lane, at the intersection, on a dual
carriageway road (1.2-9m)
WB-A and WB-C = the average widths of each of the minor road approach lanes for
waiting vehicles in streams B-A and B-C, respectively, measured over a distance of 20 m
upstream from the give Way line (2.05 – 4.70 m).
WC-B = the average width of the left-turn (central) lane on the major road, or 2.1 m if
there is no explicit provision for left turners in stream C-B (2.05 – 4.70 m).
VlB-A , VrB-A and VlB-C = the left and right visibility distances, available from the minor
road (22 - 250 m).
VlC-B = the visibility available to left-turning vehicles waiting to turn left from the major
road (22 - 250 m).
W = the average major road carriageway width at the intersection; in the case of dual
carriageways and single carriageways with ghost or raised islands, W excludes the
width of the central (turning) lane (6.4-20m)

Ratio of flow to capacity (RFC) = Flow /Capacity (µ). It is an indicator of the likely
performance of an intersection under the future traffic loading.
Queue length (L)
L= 0.5 x ((A2 +B)1/2 – A)
Where A = (1-p) µt + 1– L0
B = 4(L0 + pµt)

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Note: p= RFC
t = Time (Hour)
µ = capacity
L0 = Queue length at the start of the interval under consideration
Delay per unit time
Dt = 0.5 x ((F2 + G )1/2 – F)
Where F = [0.5 x (1 – p) µt] – L0 + 1
G = 4 L0 + 2 pµt
Delay per arriving vehicle
1
Dv= 0.5 x ((P2 + Q )1/2 – P ) +
µ

Where
1
P = [0.5 x (1 – p)t] – (L0 – 1)
µ
2𝑡 2L0
Q= (p + )
µ µt

Classwork 2
The figure below indicates a set of DRFs for the evening peak hour at a proposed urban-based
priority intersection on a single carriageway. All flows are in pcu/h. For variation of flows, use
the multiplier 1.125.
Estimate the RFC for each of the opposed movements and for the one with the highest ratio,
estimate the average queue length and delay per vehicle during the peak hour. Assuming no cars
were waiting at the start of time period.
Geometric parameters
The width of the major carriageway (W) is 9.5m.
The lane width for the traffic existing the minor road turning left and right (WBA, WBC) 2.5m.
The lane width on the major road for traffic waiting to turn left onto the minor road ( WCB) is
2.5m
Visibility to the left and right for the traffic existing the minor road turning left (VlBA, VrBA,) is
30m and 50m, respectively.
Visibility to the left for traffic existing the minor road turning right (VlBC) is 30m

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Visibility to the left for traffic exiting the major road, turning left onto the minor road ( VlCB) is
50m.

SOLUTION
Short term variations of flows:

qAB = 150 x 1.125 = 169

qAC = 550 x 1.125 = 619
qCA = 750 x 1.125 = 844
qCB= 75 x 1.125 = 84
qBA= 175 x 1.125 = 197
qBC=125 x 1.125 = 141
Parameters D, E, F and Y:
Y = (1- 0.0345W)
Y = (1- 0.0345 x 9.5) = 0.67

D = [ 1+0.094 (WBA – 3.65)] [1 + 0.0009 (VlBA – 120)] x [1+0.006 (VrBA – 150)]

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D= [ 1+0.094 (2.5 – 3.65)] [1 + 0.0009 (30 – 120)] x [1+0.006 (50 – 150)] = 0.77

E = [ 1+0.094 (WBC – 3.65)] [1 + 0.0009 (VlBC – 120)]

E = [ 1+0.094 (2.5 – 3.65)] [1 + 0.0009 (30– 120)] = 0.82

F = [ 1+0.094 (WCB – 3.65)] [1 + 0.0009 (VlCB – 120)]

F = [ 1+0.094 (2.5 – 3.65)] [1 + 0.0009 (50 – 120)] = 0.81

Capacities.

µBA = D (627 + 14WCR – Y [0.364qAC + 0.144qAB + 0.229qCA + 0.520qCB])

= 0.77 (627– 0.67 [(0.364 x 619) + (0.144 x 169) + (0.229 x 844) + (0.520 x 84 )])
= 0.77 (627 – 0.67[225.3 + 24.33 + 193.2 + 43.68] = 231pcu/h
Note: WCR = 0 since it’s a single carriageway.

µBC= E (745 – Y [0.364qAC +0.144 qAB])

=0.82 (745 – 0.67 [(0.364 x 619) + (0.144 x 169)
= 0.82 (745 – 0.67 [225.3 + 24.3] = 473 pcu/h

µCB = F (745 – 0.364Y [qAC + qAB]

0.81 (745 – (0.364 x 0.67)[619 + 169]
0.81 (745 – 192.1) = 447pcu/h

Stream Flow (q) pcu/h Capacity (µ) pcu/h RFC (p) (q/ µ)
BA 197 231 0.85
BC 141 473 0.30
CB 84 447 0.19

Stream with the highest RFC = BA = 0.85. This is also the most critical movement (traffic
existing the minor road, turning left ).
Queue length (L) for stream BA
L= 0.5 x ((A2 +B)1/2 – A)
A = (1–p) µt + 1–L0 = [(1–0.85) 231 x 1 ] + 1 = 35.65
Note: t = 1hr
L0 = 0 (no vehicles waiting at start of time period)

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B = 4(L0 + pµt) = 4 [0 + (0.85 x 231 x 1)] = 785.4
L = 0.5 x[ (35.652 + 785.4)0.5 – 35.65 ]
= 0.5 x (45.3 – 35.65) = 5 cars

Total delay per unit time for stream BA

Dt = 0.5 x ((F2 + G )1/2 – F)
F = [0.5 x (1 – p) µt] – L0 + 1
[ 0.5 x (1– 0.85) 231 x 1] – 0 +1
[17.32] + 1 = 18.33

G = 4 L0 + 2 pµt = 2 x 0.85 x 231 x 1 = 392.7

Dt = 0.5 x ((18.332 + 392.7)0.5 – 18.33)
= 0.5 x (26.98 – 18.33) = 4.33h

Delay per arriving vehicle at stream BA

1
Dv= 0.5 x ((P2 + Q )1/2 – P ) + µ
1
P = [0.5 x (1 – p) t] – µ (L0 – 1)
1
[ 0.5 x (1– 0.85) 1] – 231 – 1

= 0.075 + 0.0043 = 0.079

2𝑡 2L0
Q= (p + )
µ µt
2
(0.85 ) = 0.0073
231
1
Dv = 0.5 x ((P2 + Q )1/2 – P ) + µ
1
= [ 0.5 x ((0.0792 + 0.0073 )0.5 – 0.079 ) ]+ 231
1
= 0.5 (0.037) + 231 = 0.023h = 83 seconds per vehicles

Thus, the average delay per vehicle is 1.4 minutes with a queue length of 5 vehicles.

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ROUNDABOUT

What is a roundabout?
Roundabout are junctions with one-way circulatory carriageway around a central island
• Circulatory traffic have priority (i.e Defines priority between traffic entering the junction on the
basis of traffic wanting to join the circulatory flow must give way to traffic on their left already
circulating the roundabout.
• Requires drivers to slow down as they enter the junction by causing them to divert from a
straight-line path
• Entry vehicles need to find or accept safe gaps
Key points
- Allows U-turns
- Good for heavy left-turn movements
- Reduce vehicle delay at sites with low and medium flows
- Better overall safety record than traffic signals for cars
- Larger land takes costs
- Difficult for cyclists and pedestrian
- No clear differentiation between a major and minor road traffic
- Has difficulties dealing with unbalanced flows

TYPES OF ROUNDABOUTS
Mini-Roundabouts
- They consist of a one-way circulatory carriageway around a reflectorized, flush/slightly raised
circular islands less than 4m in diameter, which can be overrun with ease by the wheels of heavy
vehicles.
- Extremely useful in improving existing urban junctions where side road delays are a safety
concern.
- Used predominantly in urban areas with speed limit not exceeding 48km/h
- Never used on highways with high speed limits

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 Mini-Roundabout configuration

Normal Roundabouts
- This is a roundabout with one-way circulatory carriageway around a kerbed central island at
least 4 m in diameter, with an inscribed circle diameter of at least 28 m.
- It has flared approaches to allow for multiple vehicle entry.
- Recommended entry arms is either three or four.

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 Normal Roundabout configuration
Double Roundabout
- Defined as an individual junction with two normal/mini roundabouts either contiguous or
connected by a central link road or kerbed island.
- Used for improving existing staggered junctions
- Used to join two parallel routes separated by watercourse, railway or motorway.
- Catering for junctions with more than four entries and overloaded single roundabouts where
overall capacity can be increased by reducing the circulating flow travelling past critically
important entry points.

OTHER TYPES OF ROUNDABOUT

- Two-bridge roundabouts
- Dumbbell Roundabouts
- Ring junctions
- Signalised roundabouts

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 Geometric parameters of a roundabout
Symbol Description Allowable range Recommended range

e Entry Width 3.6 - 16.5 4.0 – 15.0m

v Approach half-width 1.9 – 12.5 2.0 – 7.3m

l’ Average flare length 1m to infinity 1-100m

S Flare Sharpness 0 – 2.9m -

D Inscribed circle diameter 13.5 – 171.6m 15- 100m

Ø Entry angle 0 – 770 10-600

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r Entry Radius 3.4m to infinity 6-100m

e = Entry width (m) – Measured from a point normal to the near kerbside
v = Approach half-width – Measured along a normal from a point in the approach stream from
any entry flare
l’ = Average flare length – Measured along a line drawn at right angles from the widest point of
the entry flare
S = Flare Sharpness – indicates the rate at which extra width is developed within the entry flare
D = ICD – the biggest circle that can be inscribed within the junction
Ø = Entry angle – measures the conflict angle between entering and circulating traffic
r = entry radius – indicates the radius of curvature of the nearside kerbline on entry

Traffic capacity at roundabouts

- The capacity of a roundabout is dependent on the individual entry arms.
- This parameter is termed Entry capacity (QE) is itself dependent on the geometric features of
the roundabout.
- Mathematically it is given as
QE = k (F – fc QC) (For all roundabouts except those incorporating grade separated junctions)
Qe(grade-separated) = k (1.1F – 1.4(fc QC))
Where
Qc= flow in the circulatory area in conflict with the entry (veh/h)
1
k = 1 – 0.00347 (Ø – 30) – 0.978 [( ) – 0.05 ]
𝑟

F = 303 X2
fc = 0.21 tD(1 + 0.2X2 )
0.5
tD = 1 +
(1+M)
(𝐷−60)
M = exp [
10
(𝑒−𝑣)
X2 = v +
(1+2S)
1.6 (𝑒−𝑣)
S=
l’

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Example
The table below indicates of DRFs for the evening peak hour at a proposed roundabout
intersection. All flows are in veh/h. Estimate the RFC for each entry point. A heavy goods
vehicle content of 10% is assumed.
The following are the geometric parameters assumed for each entry arm at the junction:
e = 7.5m
v = 4m (east and west arms), 3.65m (south arm)
l’ = 10m
D = 28m
Ø = 300
r = 10m

A (East) B (South) C (West)

qAB qAC qBA qBC qCA qCB
150 350 200 200 650 250

Solution
QE = k (F – fc QC)
1 1
k = 1 – 0.00347 (Ø – 30) – 0.978 [( r ) – 0.05 ] = 1 – 0.00347 (30 – 30) – 0.978 [( 10 ) – 0.05 ] =

0.951
1.6 (𝑒−𝑣) 1.6 (7.5−4)
S (East and west arms) = = = 0.56
l’ 10
1.6 (𝑒−𝑣) 1.6 (7.5−3.65)
S (South arm) = = = 0.62
l’ 10
(𝑒−𝑣) (7.5−4)
X2 (East and west arms) = v + =4+ = 5.65
(1+2S) (1+2 x 0.56)
(𝑒−𝑣) (7.5−3.65)
X2 (South arm) = v + =4+ = 5.37
(1+2S) (1+2 x 0.56)

F (East and west arms) = 303 X2 = 303 x 5.65 = 1712

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F (South arms) = 303 X2 = 303 x 5.37 = 1629
(𝐷−60) (28−60)
M = M = exp [ = exp [ = 0.0408
10 10
0.5 0.5
tD = 1 + =1+ = 1.48
(1+M) (1+0.408)

fc (East and west arms) = 0.21 tD(1 + 0.2X2 ) = 0.21 x 1.48 (1 + 0.2 x
5.65 ) = 0.662
fc (South arms) = 0.21 tD(1 + 0.2X2 ) = 0.21 x 1.48 (1 + 0.2 x 5.37 ) =
0.645
Flows Arm A Arm B Arm C
qAB qAC qBA qBC qCA qCB
Flows in (veh/h) 150 350 200 200 650 250
Flow in (pcu/h) (x 1.1to convert to pcu/h) 165 385 220 220 715 275
Seasonal Variation flows (pcu/h) (x 1.125) 186 433 248 248 804 309
Entry flow pcu/h 619 496 1113
Circulating flow (pcu/h) 248 804 186
Exit flow (pcu/h) 1052 495 681

Capacities
For east Arm (Arm A):
QE = k (F – fc QC)
0.951(1712 – 0.662 x 248 = 1472 pcu/h

For west Arm (Arm C):

QE = k (F – fc QC)
0.951(1712 – 0.662 x 186 = 1511 pcu/h

For South Arm (Arm B):

QE = k (F – fc QC)
0.951(1629 – 0.645 x 804 = 1056 pcu/h
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Stream Entry Flow (pcu/h) Capacity (pcu/h) RFC
Arm A 619 1472 0.42
Arm B 495 1056 0.47
Arm C 1113 1511 0.73

All movements are below the maximum allowed RFC of 0.85.

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