‭Environment & Ecology‬

‭Lecture 04: Ecology & Ecosystem (Part 04)‬

‭Species of the day:‬

‭Gharial:‬
‭●‬ ‭They are found in rivers like Chambal, Ramganaga, Ganga, Son, and Mahanadi in India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Gharial Rehabilitation Centre in Lucknow was‬
‭established.‬
‭●‬ ‭National Chambal Sanctuary on the Chambal‬
‭River near the tripoint of Rajasthan, Madhya‬
‭Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.‬
‭●‬ ‭Length: 3-6 meters‬
‭●‬ ‭Weight: 150-250 Kg‬
‭●‬ ‭Listed in Schedule 1 of the Wildlife‬
‭(Protection) Act, 1972‬
‭●‬ ‭IUCN Status: Critically Endangered‬
‭●‬ ‭Dams, barrages, and water abstraction adversely affect gharial by turning suitable river‬
‭habitats into marginal/ unsuitable lakes and altering the quantity and quality of water‬
‭available to downstream river sections.‬
‭●‬ ‭Gharial, with its long, toothy rostrum is particularly vulnerable to entanglement in fishing‬
‭nets, where it is frequently trapped underwater and drowns.‬
‭Mugger:‬
‭●‬ ‭It is a freshwater species of crocodile.‬
‭●‬ ‭IUCN Status:‬‭Vulnerable‬
‭●‬ ‭Listed in Schedule 1 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act,‬
‭1972‬
‭●‬ ‭It is found throughout India.‬
‭●‬ ‭It is extinct in Bhutan.‬
‭●‬ ‭They are killed on a large scale.‬
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‭Saltwater Crocodile:‬
‭●‬ ‭The saltwater crocodile is the largest living reptile and‬
‭crocodile known to science.‬
‭●‬ ‭They are found in India at the Bhitarkanika Wildlife‬
‭Sanctuary and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.‬
‭●‬ ‭IUCN Status:‬‭Least Concern‬
‭●‬ ‭Listed in Schedule 1 and Schedule IV of the Wildlife‬
‭(Protection) Act, 1972‬
‭●‬ ‭They are hunted.‬

‭Crocodile‬ ‭Alligator‬ ‭Gharial‬

‭Snout-shape‬ ‭V-shaped snout‬ ‭Rounded U-shaped‬ ‭Pointed thin and long snout‬
‭snout‬

‭Teeth Placement‬ ‭The upper and lower‬ ‭The upper jaw is‬ ‭Large front teeth.‬
‭jaws are of similar‬ ‭wider.‬
‭width.‬

‭Water Bodies‬ ‭Saltwater‬ ‭Freshwater‬ ‭Freshwater‬

‭Weight‬ ‭Maximum among three‬

‭- 1000kg.‬

‭METHANE (CH4)‬
‭●‬ ‭It is a very potent greenhouse gas.‬
‭●‬ ‭It has some natural sources: Wetlands, termites, the ocean, and volcanic eruptions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Anthropogenic: Agriculture (paddy fields), fossil fuels. cattle waste, waste water, etc.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Global warming potential (GWP): It traps 25 percent more heat and energy than carbon‬
‭dioxide‬
‭●‬ ‭Life span: 10 to 25 years‬

‭Oxygen Cycle:‬
‭●‬ ‭21% of air in atmosphere is Oxygen.‬
‭●‬ ‭Oxygen constitutes about 65% of the mass of the‬
‭human body and most of this is in the form of‬
‭water.‬
‭●‬ ‭The steps involved in the oxygen cycle are:‬
‭○‬ ‭Stage-1:‬‭All green plants during the‬
‭process of photosynthesis, release oxygen‬
‭back into the atmosphere as a by-product.‬
‭○‬ ‭Stage-2:‬‭All aerobic organisms use free‬
‭oxygen for respiration.‬
‭○‬ ‭Stage-3:‬‭Animals exhale Carbon dioxide‬
‭back into the atmosphere which is again‬
‭used by the plants during photosynthesis. Now oxygen is balanced within the‬
‭atmosphere.‬
‭Homeostasis of Ecosystem:‬
‭●‬ ‭An ecosystem maintains a‬‭biological equilibrium‬‭between the different components.‬
‭●‬ ‭It keeps on changing with the time and is‬‭not static.‬
‭●‬ ‭Homeostasis is the maintenance of stable equilibrium, especially‬‭through physiological‬
‭(through bodily part functions)‬‭. E.g. Cooling your‬‭body through sweating processes.‬
‭●‬ ‭Organisms try to maintain the constancy of its internal environment despite‬‭varying‬
‭external environmental conditions‬‭that tend to upset‬‭their homeostasis.‬
‭●‬ ‭Feedback system‬
‭○‬ ‭One component of ecosystem keeps a check on the population of the other‬
‭component.‬
‭●‬ ‭Regulate (Warm Blooded Animals):‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Some organisms can maintain homeostasis‬‭by physiological (sometimes‬
‭behavioural - migrating to tree shade)‬‭means which ensures constant body‬
‭temperature, constant osmotic concentration, etc.‬
‭○‬ ‭All birds and mammals‬‭and a very few lower vertebrate‬‭and invertebrate species‬
‭are indeed capable of such regulation‬‭(thermoregulation‬‭and osmoregulation).‬
‭○‬ ‭The 'success' of mammals is largely due to their ability to maintain constant body‬
‭temperature and thrive whether they live in Antarctica or the Sahara Desert.‬
‭○‬ ‭Humans and other mammals:‬‭Mammals regulate their body‬‭temperature, pH levels,‬
‭blood sugar, and hormone levels to maintain internal balance‬
‭○‬ ‭Plants:‬‭Plants, on the other hand, do not have such‬‭mechanisms to maintain‬
‭internal temperatures. Plants‬‭regulate processes‬‭such‬‭as water uptake,‬
‭photosynthesis, and nutrient absorption to respond to changes in environmental‬
‭conditions‬
‭○‬ ‭Bacteria:‬‭Bacteria employ regulatory mechanisms to‬‭adjust their metabolism and‬
‭gene expression in response to changes in nutrient availability and environmental‬
‭stress‬
‭●‬ ‭Conform (Cold Blooded Animals):‬
‭○‬ ‭An overwhelming‬‭majority of animals and nearly all‬‭plants cannot maintain a‬
‭constant internal environment.‬‭Their body temperature‬‭changes with the ambient‬
‭temperature.‬
‭○‬ ‭In aquatic animals, the osmotic concentration of the body fluids changes with that‬
‭of the ambient water osmotic concentration. These animals and plants are simply‬
‭conformers.‬
‭○‬ ‭Organisms that conform, or conformers, are typically referred to as cold-blooded‬
‭animals or ectotherms‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Unlike regulators, which actively maintain a stable internal environment‬
‭regardless of external conditions, conformers allow their internal environment‬
‭to fluctuate in accordance with external changes.‬
‭○‬ ‭Examples‬‭of conformers include many species of fish,‬‭amphibians, reptiles, and‬
‭invertebrates.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭These organisms‬‭rely on behavioural and physiological adaptation‬‭s to cope with‬
‭environmental variations, such as seeking shade or burrowing to regulate body‬
‭temperature.‬
‭○‬ ‭By conforming to their surroundings, these organisms conserve energy and are often‬
‭well-suited to their specific ecological niches.‬
‭●‬ ‭Why had these conformers not evolved to become regulators?‬
‭○‬ ‭Thermoregulation is energetically expensive‬‭for many‬‭organisms. This is‬
‭particularly true for small animals like shrews and hummingbirds.‬
‭○‬ ‭Heat loss or heat gain is a function of surface area.‬‭Since small animals have a‬
‭larger surface area relative to their volume, they tend to lose body heat very fast‬
‭when it is cold outside; then they have to expend much energy to generate body‬
‭heat [a lot of food goes into heat generation] through metabolism.‬
‭○‬ ‭This is the main reason why‬‭very small animals are‬‭rarely found in polar regions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Migrate:‬
‭○‬ ‭The organism can‬‭move away temporarily from the‬‭stressful habitat to a more‬
‭hospitable area and return when a stressful period is over.‬
‭○‬ ‭Every winter the famous‬‭Keoladeo National Park (Bhartpur)‬‭in Rajasthan‬‭hosts‬
‭thousands of migratory birds coming from Siberia and other extremely cold northern‬
‭regions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Suspend:‬
‭○‬ ‭In bacteria, fungi and lower plants, various kinds of thick-walled‬‭spores‬‭are formed‬
‭which help them to survive unfavourable conditions - these germinate on the‬
‭availability of suitable environment.‬
‭○‬ ‭In higher plants, seeds and some other vegetative reproductive structures serve as‬
‭means to tide over periods of stress besides helping in dispersal.‬
‭○‬ ‭In animals, the organism, if unable to migrate, might avoid the stress by escaping‬
‭in time. The familiar case of bears going into‬‭hibernation‬‭during winter is an‬
‭example of an escape in time.‬
‭○‬ ‭Some snails and fish go into‬‭aestivation to avoid‬‭summer-related problems‬‭-‬
‭heat and desiccation.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Under unfavourable conditions,‬‭many zooplankton species in lakes and ponds are‬
‭known to enter diapause, a stage of suspended development.‬
‭○‬ ‭Some organisms‬‭suspend their metabolic activities‬‭to survive in unfavourable‬
‭conditions.‬‭This adaptive strategy‬‭allows them to‬‭endure periods of‬
‭environmental stress‬‭such as extreme temperatures,‬‭drought, or lack of nutrients.‬
‭Examples include:‬
‭■‬ ‭Bacteria:‬‭Certain bacteria can form thick-walled spores‬‭to withstand‬
‭adverse conditions‬
‭■‬ ‭Fungi:‬‭Fungi are known to produce spores or undergo‬‭dormancy to endure‬
‭harsh environments‬
‭■‬ ‭Lower plants:‬‭Similar to fungi, lower plants like‬‭algae and mosses may‬
‭form specialized structures or enter dormancy to survive unfavorable‬
‭conditions‬
‭■‬ ‭Zooplankton:‬‭Some zooplankton species undergo diapause,‬‭a state of‬
‭suspended development, to cope with environmental challenges.‬
‭Ecological Homeostasis‬
‭●‬ ‭An‬‭ecosystem is a self regulating system equilibrium‬‭that maintains and steady state‬
‭through feedbacks.‬
‭●‬ ‭Positive feedback:‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭increase in the population of the organisms‬‭at the different levels‬
‭increases the population of organisms at a lower level.‬
‭○‬ ‭For example, when of plants increases it leads to increase in the population of‬
‭herbivore animals. It increases the population of frogs and birds.‬
‭●‬ ‭Negative feedback:‬
‭○‬ ‭The i‬‭ncreased population of insectivorous herbivorous‬‭insects by the process of‬
‭predation.‬
‭●‬ ‭State of Equilibrium; self-sustenance of the planet as a whole.‬
‭○‬ ‭Gaia Hypothesis propounded by James Lovelock‬
‭○‬ ‭Cybernetics by Norbert Wiener‬
‭Gaia Hypothesis by James Lovelock:‬
‭●‬ ‭Named after the‬‭Greek goddess of earth.‬
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 ‭●‬ ‭It was given by‬‭British chemist James E. Lovelock and U.S. biologist Lynn Margulis.‬
‭●‬ ‭It suggests that‬‭Earth and its biological systems‬‭behave as a huge single entity.‬‭This‬
‭entity has closely controlled self -regulated negative feedback loops that keep the‬
‭conditions on the planet within boundaries that are favourable to life.‬
‭●‬ ‭It proposes that living organisms interact with their inorganic surroundings on Earth to‬
‭form a synergistic self-regulating, complex system that helps to maintain & perpetuate the‬
‭conditions for life on the planet.‬
‭●‬ ‭It proposes that‬‭living organisms interact with their‬‭inorganic surroundings on Earth to‬
‭form a synergistic and self-regulating, complex system that helps to maintain and‬
‭perpetuate the conditions for life on the planet.‬
‭●‬ ‭Biosphere, Atmosphere and Hydrosphere along with evolution of life maintains homeostasis‬
‭on earth.‬
‭●‬ ‭Global Temperature - Ocean Salinity - Oxygen in Atmosphere - Habitability Existence of a‬
‭cybernetic feedback mechanism unconsciously operated by the biota.‬
‭○‬ ‭For example:‬‭ocean salinity is fixed at 3.4% due to‬‭bacterial processes even though‬
‭there is constant deposition of salt by rivers.‬
‭●‬ ‭Developed countries used this theory for negative means stating that as earth has well‬
‭developed self-regulatory mechanism‬

‭Cybernetics by Norbert Wiener:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭A.C has self -regulating temp. mechanism (thermostat) by sensing temp of room it‬
‭switches on and off without human intervention. Negative feedback leads to‬‭DYNAMIC‬
‭EQUILIBRIUM.‬

‭○‬ ‭EQUILIBRIUM:‬‭Balancing of prey predator relationship‬‭which maintains equilibrium‬

‭on earth.‬
‭○‬ ‭DYNAMIC:‬‭+ve feedback grass growing efficiently leading‬‭to deer and tiger → When‬
‭tiger population increases as such level that deer are consumed at large level. Deer‬
‭population pressure on grass reduces leading to again extensive growth of grass →‬
‭During this growth of grass; tiger is facing lack of food due to less population of‬
‭deer. Tiger population → small no. of deers will feed on extensive grass and due to‬
‭less no. of tigers they will be saved.‬
‭Ecosystem Services:‬
‭●‬ ‭Israel President Benjamin Netanyahu signed an MOU with India‬‭where they agreed to‬
‭transfer technology to convert saline water to potable drinking water at large scale at‬
‭affordable cost.‬
‭●‬ ‭In 2018-19 Chennai faced a water crisis.‬‭There was‬‭a lack of not only drinking water but‬
‭also grey water.‬
‭●‬ ‭Water is of‬‭2 types: (1) Grey water:‬‭Water with little‬‭impurities which can be treated,‬
‭(2) Black water:‬‭Water with hard chemicals - cannot‬‭be treated.‬
‭●‬ ‭Due to this, Chennai started importing water from Andhra Pradesh. Coastal areas like‬
‭Chennai can see the water on the coast but cannot use it. Because we don't feel the‬

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 ‭importance of services provided by the ecosystem at free of cost and we deteriorate them‬
‭in the name of development.‬
‭●‬ ‭Humans will understand the value of these services when too much will be spent to make‬
‭them capable of using ie., in the above case, setting a desalination plant.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭value of the nature's services in monetary term‬‭s‬‭is known as ecosystem services‬
‭●‬ ‭12th Finance Commission of India:‬
‭○‬ ‭Those‬‭States which are providing ecosystem services‬‭should be provided some‬
‭extra grants‬‭for maintaining a particular ecosystem.‬‭States identified → JK; H.P,‬
‭U.K, Arunachal, Sikkim (water from perennial rivers, forest - carbon seq; exotic‬
‭fruits and spices etc.) Ecosystem services are varied benefits to humans provided‬
‭by nature. The‬‭Millenium Ecosystem Assessment Report‬‭in early 2000's‬
‭popularised this concept.‬
‭●‬ ‭Services are clubbed under‬‭4 categories:‬

‭●‬ ‭Healthy ecosystems are the base for a wide range of economic, environmental and‬
‭aesthetic goods and services. The products of ecosystem processes are named as ecosystem‬
‭services.‬
‭●‬ ‭Researchers have put an average price tag of US $ 33 trillion a year on these fundamental‬
‭ecosystems services.‬

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‭Ecosystem Related Initiatives:‬
‭●‬ ‭India: Cultural services: the idea of sacred groves.‬
‭●‬ ‭Using ecosystem services, we calculate the true value of ecosystems. For example, when we‬
‭look at an afforestation program, we look at not only the benefit of timber, but also other‬
‭benefits.‬
‭●‬ ‭These are the‬‭consequences of capitalism intermixing‬‭with ecology‬‭, where we are‬
‭assigning monetary value to ecology.‬‭This is an example‬‭of s‬‭hallow ecology.‬
‭●‬ ‭Deep ecology: preservation for preservation's sake.‬
‭The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB):‬
‭●‬ ‭Global initiative‬‭focused on‬‭"making nature's values‬‭visible".‬
‭●‬ ‭Its principal objective is‬‭to mainstream the values‬‭of biodiversity and ecosystem‬
‭services into decision-making at all‬
‭levels.‬
‭●‬ ‭Captures‬‭monetary valuation of‬
‭ecosystem services and biodiversity‬
‭for Green‬
‭Domestic Product.‬
‭●‬ ‭Concept was‬‭given by Pavan‬
‭Sukhdev, received Tyler Prize‬‭(Nobel‬
‭equivalent for environment) in 2020.‬
‭●‬ ‭Global initiative of UNEP, G8, BASIC,‬
‭Mexico‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Look into green accounting methodology to calculate green domestic product.‬
‭●‬ ‭Creates responsibility in stakeholders for conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity.‬
‭●‬ ‭Part of‬‭UNEP green economy initiative.‬
‭●‬ ‭Economic liability is assigned to forests on the basis of services provided.‬
‭Payment of Ecosystem Services:‬
‭●‬ ‭Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) is a concept‬
‭that aims to‬‭provide financial incentives to‬
‭individuals or communities for the preservation,‬
‭restoration, or enhancement of ecosystems and‬
‭the services they provide.‬
‭●‬ ‭It is a market-based approach that recognizes the‬
‭value of ecosystem services, such as clean water,‬
‭carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Mechanism:‬‭Direct payments to landowners or‬
‭communities, or through payments for‬
‭environmental services such as carbon credits or water quality credits.‬

‭Ecosystem Related Initiatives:‬

‭Ecological Footprint:‬
‭●‬ ‭Ecological Footprint accounting‬‭measures a population's‬‭demand for natural ecosystems'‬
‭supply of resources and services.‬
‭●‬ ‭On the demand side-‬‭measures an individual or a population's‬‭demand for plant-based‬
‭food and fibre products, livestock and fish products, timber and other forest products, space‬
‭for urban infrastructure, and forest to absorb its carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels.‬
‭●‬ ‭On the supply side‬‭, a city, state, or nation's biocapacity‬‭represents its biologically‬
‭productive land and sea area, including forest lands, grazing lands, cropland, fishing grounds,‬
‭and built-up land.‬
‭What is Earth Overshoot Day?‬
‭●‬ ‭When the‬‭entire planet is running an ecological deficit‬‭,‬‭we call it "overshoot" At the‬
‭global level, ecological deficit and overshoot are the same, since there is no net import of‬
‭resources to the planet.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Earth Overshoot Day marks the date when‬‭humanity's demand for ecological resources‬
‭and services (Ecological Footprint) in a‬
‭given year exceeds what Earth can‬
‭regenerate in that year (biocapacity).‬
‭●‬ ‭2022-28th July vs 1970-30th December‬
‭Meaning and Levels of Biodiversity:‬
‭●‬ ‭1992 UN Earth Summit (Rio Summit)‬
‭defined biodiversity‬‭as "Variability among‬
‭living organisms from all sources,‬
‭including terrestrial, Marine and other‬
‭aquatic ecosystems and the ecological‬
‭complexes of which they are a part. This‬
‭includes‬‭diversity within (genes)‬
‭species, between species and‬
‭ecosystems‬‭of a region."‬
‭●‬ ‭Introduced by‬‭Walter Rosen (1986).‬
‭●‬ ‭Edward Wilson‬‭popularised the term 'Biodiversity’‬‭to describe‬‭diversity at all levels‬‭of‬
‭biological organisation from populations to biomes.‬

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