C5 Electricity and chemistry

(Inert) Electrodes- the rods that carry the electric current to and from the electrolyte. These
rods are usually inert, as in they do not react- usually graphite or platinum.

Electrolysis -(molten or aqueous) ions present and the reactions at electrodes, in terms of
gain of electrons by cations and loss of electrons by anions to form atoms.

● ionic solution (NOT a molten ionic compound) will contain: the ions that make up the ionic
compound, and the ions in water (OH- and H+)

● at the cathode (-):

-​ hydrogen (from H+ in water) is produced UNLESS the + ions in the ionic compound
are from a metal less reactive than hydrogen
-​ if the metal is less reactive, it will be produced instead

● at the anode (+):

-​ oxygen (from OH in water) will be produced UNLESS the ionic compound contains
halide ions (Cl-, Br-, I-)
-​ if there are halide ions, it will be produced instead (e.g. Cl2)

Electrolyte - a molten or aqueous solution through which an electrical current can flow.

Anode - The positive terminal (electrode).

Cathode - The negative terminal (electrode)

Anion – negative ion (attracted to the anode)

Cation – Positive ion (metal) attracted to the cathode.

Metals or hydrogen -> formed at cathode

Non-metals (other than hydrogen) -> formed at anode

Electrolysis of:

○ Molten lead (II) bromide

-​ Pb2+ to cathode, Pb (s) is produced (not in solution so these are the only + ions
present)
-​ Br to anode, Br2 (l) is produced (not in solution so these are the only - ions present)

○ Sodium chloride solution

-​ H + ions go to cathode, H2 (g) is produced (Na is more reactive than hydrogen)
-​ Clions go to anode, Cl2 (g) is produced (Cl- are halide ions)
● Electrolysis of copper (II) sulfate solution
-​ Cu+ ions go to cathode, Cu (s) is produced (Cu is less reactive than hydrogen)
−2
-​ OH ions go to anode, O2 (g) is produced (SO4 - ions are not halide ions)

Copper electrodes:
● set up:
-​ anode is made of impure copper (that you are purifying)
-​ cathode is made of pure copper (Cu)
-​ the solution is copper sulfate (CuSO₄)

● what happens:
1.​ Cu2+ ions from the anode move to the cathode, where they gain electrons and are
discharged as pure copper
2.​ impurities form as sludge (沉渣) below the anode
3.​ the cathode will increase in mass as it gains pure copper, whilst the anode will lose
mass as copper ions are lost (they replace the ones from the CuSO4 solution that go
to the cathode) and so are impurities

Carbon electrodes :
-​ at the cathode Cu (s) is produced (Cu is less reactive than hydrogen)
−2
-​ at the anode O2 is produced (SO4 ions are not halide ions)
−2 −
-​ this leaves H+ and SO4 ions in solution, which will react form H2SO4 sulfuric acid

Describe Chlorine,hydrogens and sodium hydroxide from concentrated aqueous Sodium

chloride

Sodium chloride
-​ Chlorine gas forms at the positive electrode
-​ Hydrogen gas forms at the negative electrode
-​ Solution of sodium hydroxide forms
-​ Must use inert electrodes since the products are reactive

Construct ionic half-equations for reactions at the cathode

● writing half equations for the reactions at each electrode:

○ negative electrode: X+→ X, so ionic equation must be:

X+ + e- → X, electrons gained, so positive ions are reduced

○ positive electrode: X- → X, so ionic equation must be:

X- → e- + X, electrons are lost, so negative ions are oxidized

● ANODE – loss of electrons, oxidation (positive electrode) anions come to it

● CATHODE – gain of electrons, reduction (negative electrode) cations come to it

Predict the products of the electrolysis of a specified binary compound in the molten state

● if ionic compounds are molten it is much more simple to predict the products of electrolysis
as there are no ions present except those in the ionic compound:

○ identify which ions there are within the ionic compound

○ the + ions will go to the cathode
○ the - ions will go to the anode

C6 Energy changes in chemical reactions

Exothermic Reaction - A reaction which gives out heat (ΔH is negative)

Endothermic Reaction - A reaction which takes in heat (ΔH is positive)

Bond breaking -> endothermic process

Bond forming -> exothermic process

Rate of reaction

Rate Of Reaction - Change in product or reactant concentration per unit time. The more
frequent the collision of particles the greater the rate of reaction.

Catalyst - Substance which increases the rate of reaction without chemically being changed.
It lowers the activation energy of the reaction.

Enzyme - A biological catalyst e.g. Amylase

Concentration (the amount of particles in a given space)->
As the concentration of reactants increases, the rate of reaction increases. increase the
frequency collisions between reacting particles

Particle size->
When the surface area of reactants increases, the rate of reaction increases because there
is more surface available for the reaction

Temperature->
When temperature increases, more energy is gained by the reactants which increase the
rate of reaction. Increase the frequency collisions between reacting particles increasingly
possess minimum energy to react.

Describe the application of the above factors to the danger of explosive combustion with fine
powders (e.g. flour mills) and gasses (e.g.mines).

-​ In a flour mill, flour is produced. Flour particles are very small, so they have a large
surface area. If there is a lot of flour in the air, a small spark can cause an explosion
between flour and oxygen.

-​ In a coal mine, the air is filled with flammable (easily set on fire) gasses. If the gasses
reach a certain concentration they can form an explosion when reacting with oxygen
in the air.

Methods for investigating rate of reaction which produce gas

*Gas volume at the end of reaction/ how the reaction changes at first x minutes
MATERIALS NEEDED:
​ Conical flask (100 cm3)
​ Single-holed rubber bung
​ Delivery tube
​ Gas syringe
​ Clamp stand, boss and clamp
​ Stopwatch
​ Graph paper

PROCEDURE:
1. Clamp Gas syringe to ring stand or place in rack
2. Add ~1mL of 1M HCl to test tube
3. Drop Mg ribbon in and cover with watch glass
4. Wait 30 seconds to a minute, remove watch glass, drop a lit match in the test tube

C7 Redox
Oxidation - Oxidation also means a loss of electrons.
2Mg + O2 ————–> 2MgO
Here, the magnesium has been oxidized.

Reduction - Reduction also means a gain in electrons.

2H2O —–heat—–> 2H2 + O2
here, water has been reduced.

Oxidizing agent: A substance which oxidizes another substance during a redox reaction

Reducing agent: A substance which reduces another substance during a redox reaction

*OIL RIG*
Oxidation Is Loss (of electrons)
Reduction Is Gain (of electrons)

*Oxidation state limited to use to name ions, e.g. iron(II), iron(III), copper(II)

Redox: Electron transfer.

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ————–> ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

zinc has been oxidized to form zinc sulfate and copper sulfate has been reduced to copper.

Half equations:
Zn(s) – 2e– ———-> Zn2+(aq)
Zinc loses two electrons to form zinc ions, zinc has been oxidized.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– ———–> Cu(s)
Copper ions have gained two electrons to form copper, copper has been reduced.

Zinc has been oxidized, in terms of oxygen & electron transfer

Copper sulfate has been reduced in terms of oxygen & electron transfer

C8 Acids, bases, and salts

pH - A scale of 0 – 14 which identifies solutions as acidic, neutral or alkaline, measuring
using universal indicators.
-​ pH 7 is neutral
-​ < pH 7 is acidic
-​ > pH 7 is alkaline

Acids- release H+ ions in aqueous solution

-​ Strong acid = completely dissociates to release H+ ions in aqueous solution
Hydrochloric, nitric and sulfuric acids
-​ Weak acid = partially dissociates to release H+ions in aqueous solution
Ethanoic, citric and carbonic acids(Protons are H + ions)

acid + metal → salt + hydrogen

acid + base → salt + water
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide

● All three of these above reactions are neutralization reactions

● The salt produced depends on the acid used:
▪ Hydrochloric acid produces chlorides
▪ Nitric acid produces nitrates
▪ Sulfuric acid produces sulfates

o It also depends on the positive ions in the base, alkali or carbonate i.e. the metal

Bases- release OH ions in aqueous solution

-​ Strong bases fully dissociate(解離: break into small molecules) to release OH ions in
aqueous solution
-​ Weak bases partially dissociate to release OH ions in aqueous solution

Acid + ammonia(weak acid) -> ammonium salt

o E.g. HCl + NH3 → NH4Cl
● Effect would be going from alkaline to neutral (assuming that you start with the base or
ammonia then add the acid)

o Red litmus: blue to red

o Blue litmus: stays blue
Alkali - They have a pH greater than 7 and neutralize acids to form salt and water. They
have a high concentration of hydroxyl ions (OH-). They are soluble bases.

Neutralization - A reaction where acids react to form salts and water.H+ + OH- → H2O

Combustion - A reaction where a substance burns in oxygen combining to form the oxide
and giving out energy.

Displacement - A reaction where a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element
from a solution of its compound.

Thermal Decomposition - A reaction where a compound is broken down into simpler

substances using heat
e.g. Metal carbonates → Metal Oxide + Carbon Dioxide

Preparation of salts
salts from insoluble bases:
-​ add excess base to the acid
-​ filter to remove any unreacted base that’s been added
-​ heat solution or leave in warm place to evaporate the water, allowing crystals of the
salt to

form salts from soluble bases:

-​ use an acid-base titration to find the exact volume of the soluble base that reacts with
the acid
-​ mix these correct proportions, which will produce a solution of the salt and water only
(as all the acid and base has reacted)
-​ warm solution to evaporate the water to leave crystals of the salt

An insoluble salt is formed as a precipitate, which means it is a solid in the

water/solution.

Making insoluble salts:

○ mix the two solutions that will form the salt
○ filter to remove the solid insoluble salt
○ wash salt with distilled water
○ leave salt to dry on filter paper (or dry more quickly in an oven)

If reactants are soluble = titration

-​ If base is insoluble = add an excess of it to acid to ensure neutralization and then
remove the excess
-​ if you are given the name of a salt and need to identify suitable starting

Materials:
o first part of name e.g. sodium → use a base containing sodium e.g.
sodium hydroxide
o second part of name → acid:
▪ sulfate → sulfuric acid
▪ nitrate → nitric acid
▪ chloride → hydrochloric acid

Identification of ions and gases

aqueous cations: zinc (using aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia as
appropriate) (Formulae of complex ions are not required)

in dilute NaOH

in ammonia (not needed to identify the other ions)

Cations: use of flame to test to identify lithium, sodium, potassium and copper(II)
Lithium Crimson (dark red)

Sodium Yellow

Potassium Lilac (light purple)

Copper(II) Green
Anions:
1.​ Carbonates (by reaction with dilute acid and then limewater)
-​ Carbonates react with dilute acids to create carbon dioxide.
-​ This gas can be bubbled through limewater, if the lime water goes cloudy, gas is CO2

2.​ Halides (by reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous silver nitrate)
-​ First add dilute nitric acid, followed by silver nitrate solution
-​ Chloride gives a white precipitate
-​ Bromide gives a cream precipitate
-​ Iodide gives a yellow precipitate

3.​ Nitrates (by reduction with aluminum)

-​ React copper/aluminum/zinc alloy with nitrate in sodium hydroxide solution then add
aluminum and ammonia is released
-​ Turns damp red litmus paper blue

4.​ Sulfates (by reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous barium ions)
-​ First add dilute hydrochloric acid, followed by barium chloride solution
-​ A white precipitate will form when sulfate ions are in this solution

5.​ Sulfites (by reaction with dilute acids and then aqueous potassium manganate(VII))
-​ React with dilute acids
-​ Sulfur dioxide gas is given off
-​ Use aqueous potassium manganate(VII) and there will be a color change from purple
to colorless

gasses:
1.​ Ammonia (using damp red litmus paper)
-​ Turns damp red litmus paper blue

2.​ Carbon dioxide (using limewater)

-​ bubble the gas through the limewater (calcium hydroxide) and it will turn milky
(cloudy)

3.​ Chlorine (using damp litmus paper)

-​ When damp litmus paper is put into chlorine gas the litmus paper is bleached and
turns white

4.​ Hydrogen (using lighted splint)

-​ Use a burning splint held at the open end of a test tube of the gas
▪ Creates a ‘squeaky pop’ sound

5.​ Oxygen (using a glowing splint)

-​ Uses a glowing splint inserted into a test tube of the gas
▪ Splint relights in oxygen

6.​ Sulfur dioxide (using aqueous potassium manganate(VII)

 -​ Use aqueous potassium manganate(VII) and there will be a color change from purple
to colorless

C9 The Periodic table

8.1 Arrangement of elements

Periodic table
-​ Periodic Table is an arrangement of elements in periods and groups and in order of
increasing proton number/ atomic number

-​ Use to identify different elements

-​ Elements in the same periodic group have the same amount of electrons
in their outer shell, which gives them similar chemical properties

-​ Group 1 has 1 electron in its outer shell, group 2 has 2, etc…

-​ Period 1 has 1 shell, period 2 has 2 shells, etc…

2. Describe the change from metallic to non-metallic character across a period

● From left to right (->) elements change from metallic to non-metallic character
● Metallic character/properties:
o Shiny
o Conductive
o Dense
o Malleable

● On either side of the red line, you have some elements known as “metalloids”
that have both metallic and nonmetallic properties.

1.​ Describe and explain the relationship between Group number, number of outer shell
electrons and metallic/non-metallic character
● Group number- shows the number of electrons in the outer shell
● Metallic /non metallic- metals form positive ions by losing electrons and
nonmetals form negative ions by gaining electrons.

All of group 1 and 2 are metals, all of group 7 and 8 (0) are nonmetals. In groups 3,4,5,6
there is a transition between metals and nonmetals.

8.2 Group I properties

1.​ Describe the Group I alkali metals, lithium, sodium and potassium, as relatively soft
metals with general trends down the group, limited to:
(a) decreasing melting point
(b) increasing density
(c) increasing reactivity

2.​ Predict the properties of other elements in Group I, given information about the
elements

● Melting point
o Low melting points compared to most other metals
▪ As you go down the group, melting points decrease

● Density
o Low densities – they will float on water
▪ As you go down the group, densities increase

● Reaction with water

o All react vigorously with water to create an alkaline solution and hydrogen
(i.e. you will see bubbling/effervescing due to the production of a gas)
o More bubbles with reaction with water = more vigorous reaction = more reactive alkali
metal (Group I metal)

▪ Reactivity increases down the group (so reaction becomes more vigorous)

▪ Down the group – easier to lose electrons and form positive metal ions (cations), these are
formed when metals react

▪ It is easier to lose electrons due to the increase in electron shells and therefore there is
more electron shielding and easier to lose electrons due to the decrease in attraction
between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged outer shell electrons

8.3 Group 7 properties

1.​ Describe the Group VII halogens, chlorine, bromine and iodine, as diatomic
nonmetals with general trends down the group, limited to:
(a) increasing density
(b) decreasing reactivity

2.​ State the appearance of the halogens at r.t.p. as:

(a) chlorine, a pale yellow-green gas
(b) bromine, a red-brown liquid
(c) iodine, a gray-black solid

3.​ Describe and explain the displacement reactions of halogens with other halide ions

●reactivity decreases going down the group:

○ outer shell becomes further from nucleus and there is more shielding from inner electrons
○ attraction between nucleus and outer electrons decreases
○ electrons are gained less easily (which is how halogens react)

● a more reactive halogen will displace halide ions of a less reactive halogen

● chlorine will displace both bromide and iodide ions:

○ chlorine + sodium bromide → sodium chloride + bromine
○ chlorine + sodium iodide → sodium chloride + iodine

● bromine will displace iodide but not chloride ions

○ bromine + potassium iodide → potassium bromide

● iodine will not displace chloride or bromide ions

4.​ Predict the properties of other elements in Group VII, given information about the
elements
● Colour
o Darker in color as you go down the group
▪ Chlorine is yellow-green
▪ Bromine is red-brown
▪ Iodine is purple

● Density
o Density increases as you go down the group
▪ Chlorine is a gas
▪ Bromine is a liquid
▪ Iodine is a solid

● reactivity
o decreases down the group
o outer shell becomes further from nucleus and there is more shielding from inner electrons,
attraction between nucleus and outer electrons decreases, electrons are gained less easily
(which is how halogens react)
o A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive one in an aqueous solution of its salt

8.4 Transition metals

1 . Describe the transition elements as metals that:

(a) have high densities
(b) have high melting points
(c) form coloured compounds
(d) often act as catalysts as elements and in compounds
E.g. Cu+ or Cu2+

2. Describe transition elements as having ions with variable oxidation numbers, including
iron(II) and iron(III)

e.g. iron (II) = Fe2+ and iron (III) = Fe3+

Additional notes:
G1
Litum (L) : 2, 1
Sodium (Na): 2, 8, 1
Potassium (K): 2, 8, 8, 1

How did they react with O2

L: tarnish slowly
Na: tarnish quickly
K: tarnish very quickly

Oxidation:

The reactivity increases down group 1 as the atom get larger

-> outer shell e- further away from the nucleus
-> easily lose of e-
- The inner shells “hide” the + charge of the nucleus from the outer shell e-

G7 react by gaining electrons

never react G1 metals directly with metals

instead use metal hydroxide

8.5 Noble gases

-​ Unreactive, monatomic gasses (exist as He rather than He2)

-​ They have 8 electrons in their outer shell (except helium, which has 2).

-​ They are unreactive and do not easily form molecules, because they have full outer
shells, meaning they have a stable arrangement of electrons.

C10 Metals
C10.1 Properties of metals

1.​ Describe the general physical properties of metals

-​ solids
-​ high melting and boiling points
-​ malleable and good conductors of heat and electricity

1.​ Describe metallic bonding as a lattice of positive ions in a ‘sea of electrons’ and use
this to describe the electrical conductivity and malleability of metals

2.​ Describe alloys, such as brass, as mixtures of a metal with other elements

3.​ Explain in terms of their properties why alloys are used instead of pure metals
 ●​ Pure metals have a regular arrangement of rows of equally sized positive metal ions
surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons. Because the ions are arranged
regularly and are equal in size, the layers are able to slide over each other easily,
leaving metals being soft and malleable

●​ Alloys are made from 2 or more different types of metals. The different sized atoms
distort the layers in the structure, making it harder for them to slide over each other.
So alloys are harder than pure metals.

4.​ Describe how the properties of iron are changed by the controlled use of additives to
form steel alloys, such as mild steel and stainless steel
●​ There are many different types of steel, depending on the other elements mixed with
the iron
●​ E.g. chromium & nickel are mixed to make stainless steel, which is resistant to
corrosion
●​ And mild steel has about 0.25% carbon, which is therefore easily shaped
●​ And high carbon steel has about 2.5% carbon, which is therefore hard (compare this
to low carbon steel, which is easily shaped)
●​ Therefore, depending on the elements used in addition to iron to form steel alloys,
the properties will be different meaning different uses
●​ Alloys will be harder than pure iron because the different sized metal ions (from other
metals) disrupt the regular arrangement of layers of ions, preventing them sliding
over each other as easily. The more different sized metal ions added to iron, the
harder the alloy will be.

5.​ Identify representations of alloys from diagrams of the structure

C10.2 Reactivity series

1.​ Place in order of reactivity:
potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, (carbon), zinc, iron, (hydrogen),
and copper, by reference to the reactions, if any, of the elements with:
– water or steam
–dilute hydrochloric acid
– reduction of their oxides with carbon

● Metals can be arranged in order of their reactivity in a reactivity series

o Metals potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron and copper can be put
in order of their reactivity from their reactions with water and dilute acids
o Non-metals hydrogen and carbon are often included in the reactivity series
 2.​ Describe the reactivity series in terms of the tendency of a metal to form its positive
ion, illustrated by its reaction, if any, with
– aqueous ions of other listed metals
​ – the oxides of other listed metals
●​ When metals react with other substances, metal atoms form positive ions

●​ Reactivity of a metal is related to its tendency to form positive ions

●​ A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metals from a compound e.g.
oxide or aqueous solution with the aqueous ions (think about how this is similar as
well to halogens)

3.​ Deduce an order of reactivity from a given set of experimental results

●​ use the results from either reactions written on the reactivity series or action of heat
on metal hydroxides/nitrates/carbonates.

●​ generally, less reactive metals will remain unchanged as they will not undergo
reaction

C10.3 Extraction of metals from their ores

1.​ Describe the use of carbon in the extraction of some metals from their ores
●​ Carbon is used to reduce oxides of metals below it in the reactivity series. Metals
above carbon in the reactivity series cannot be extracted from their oxides by heating
with carbon. This is because the metal bonds to oxygen too strongly and the carbon
is not reactive enough to remove it.
2.​ Describe and explain the essential reactions in the extraction of iron from hematite in
the blast furnace, including the removal of acidic impurities as slag
 C + O2 → CO2
C + CO2 → 2CO
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3

3.​ Know that aluminum is extracted from the ore bauxite by electrolysis
 4.​ Relate the method of extraction of a metal from its ore to its position in the reactivity
series for the metals listed in section C10.2 and for other metals, given information

5.​ Describe metal ores as a finite resource and hence the need to recycle metals

C10.4 Uses of metals

1.​ Describe the uses of aluminum:
– in aircraft parts because of its strength and low density
– in food containers because of its resistance to corrosion

2.​ Describe and explain the apparent unreactivity of aluminum in terms of the oxide
layer that adheres to the metal
 3.​ State the uses of mild steel (car bodies and machinery) and stainless steel (chemical
plant and cutlery) Supplement

4.​ Explain the uses of zinc for galvanizing steel and for making brass
●​ Galvanising
○ Zinc can be sacrificed to keep steel from rusting (galvanising)
○ Galvanise = to coat (iron or steel) with a protective layer of zinc
○ Zinc is oxidised instead of the iron/steel

●​ Brass
○ Zinc is alloyed with copper to make brass

C11 Air & Water

C11.1 Water
1.​ Describe a chemical test for water using copper(II) sulfate and cobalt(II) chloride
●​ Cobalt(II) chloride:
○ Blue anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride turns pink in the presence of water
●​ Copper(II) sulfate:
○ White anhydrous copper(II) sulfate turns blue in the presence of water

2.​ Describe, in outline, the treatment of the water supply in terms of filtration and
chlorination (過濾和氯化)
●​ Water of the correct quality is essential for life. It must be free of poisonous salts and
harmful microbes.
●​ The methods used to produce potable water depend on available supplies of water
and local conditions.
In the UK:
o an appropriate source of fresh water is selected
(rain provides water with low levels of dissolved substances and this collects in the
ground/rivers/lakes)

o the water is passed through filter beds to remove different sized insoluble solids
(filtration)
o the water is then sterilised, to kill microbes
(sterilising agents include: ozone, UV light or chlorine)

C11.2 Air
1.​ State the composition of clean air as being a mixture of
-​ 78% nitrogen,
-​ 21% oxygen
-​ small quantities of noble gasses, water vapor and carbon dioxide

2.​ Name the common pollutants in air as being

-​ carbon monoxide
-​ Sulfur dioxide
-​ oxides of nitrogen

3.​ State the adverse effects of these common air pollutants on buildings and on health
Carbon monoxide
○ Poisonous gas
■ Causes health problems – breathing difficulties, because it reduces the amount of
oxygen that red blood cells can carry around the body
■ Too much carbon monoxide results in carbon monoxide poisoning, which can kill ●

Sulfur dioxide
○ Forms acid rain
■ Kills plants and aquatic life
■ Erodes stonework
■ Corrodes metals

● Oxides of nitrogen
○ React with other pollutants, in sunlight, to form a photochemical smog, which
causes breathing difficulties
○ Also forms acid rain
■ Kills plants and aquatic life
■ Erodes stonework
■ Corrodes metals

4.​ State the source of each of these pollutants:

– carbon monoxide from the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances
– sulfur dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels which contain sulfur compounds
(leading to acid rain)
– oxides of nitrogen from car engines

5.​ Describe some approaches to reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide, including the use
of low sulfur petrol and flue gas desulfurization by calcium oxide

One test to identify water is too pour the substance being tested to anhydrous copper
(II) sulphate. Anhydrous means there is no water in the compound.
When you add water to anhydrous copper(II) sulphate, it will turn blue.
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) -> CuSO45H2O(s)

Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate + Water -> Hydrated copper (II) sulphate
 Alternatively, you can also use anhydrous cobalt chloride which changes from blue to
pink when water is added.

CoCl2(s) + 9H2O(l) -> CoCl26H2O(s)

Anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride + Water -> Hydrated cobalt (II) chloride (pink)

6.​ Describe, in outline, how a catalytic converter removes nitrogen monoxide and
carbon monoxide from exhaust emissions by reaction over a hot catalyst
-​ 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
-​ 2NO + 2CO → N2 + 2CO2
-​ 2NO → N2 + O2

7.​ State the conditions required for the rusting of iron

(presence of oxygen and water)

8.​ Describe and explain barrier methods of rust prevention, including paint and other
coatings
●​ To keep both oxygen and water away:
●​ ○ paint
○ cover in oil/grease
○ coat with plastic/another metal

●​ to keep oxygen away:

○ store in a vacuum container
 9.​ Describe and explain sacrificial protection in terms of the reactivity series of metals
and galvanizing as a method of rust prevention
●​ Galvanising: a less reactive metal can be coated with a more reactive metal to
prevent it from rusting
●​ e.g. iron and steel can be coated with zinc
●​ This works because the more reactive metal is oxidised by oxygen in the air (i.e.
rusts), protecting the less reactive metal underneath

C12 Suflur
1.​ Name the use of sulfur in the manufacture(生產) of sulfuric acid Supplement

●​ Sulfur is burned in air

●​ reacted with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide which is later converted to sulfur trioxide
and finally sulfuric acid

2.​ Describe the manufacture of sulfuric acid by the Contact process, including essential
conditions and reactions
● Make sulfur dioxide:
-​ S + 𝑂2 → S𝑂2
-​ Sulfur is burned in the air

● Convert sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide

-​ 2S𝑂2 + 𝑂2 ⇌ 2S𝑂3
-​ Reversible reaction
-​ Catalyst of vanadium(V) oxide(加熱時失去氧而分解), 𝑉2 𝑂5
-​ Temperature of around 450˚C
-​ The pressure of 2 atm. (atmospheric pressure at sea level)

● Convert sulfur trioxide(S𝑂3) into sulfuric acid(H2SO4)

-​ H2O + S𝑂3 → H2S 𝑂4
-​ Reacted with water

Formula:
1. S+O2→SO2 (sulfur + oxygen -> sulfur dioxide)

2. 2SO2+O2⇌2SO3 (sulfur dioxide + oxygen <-> sulfur trioxide)

3. H2SO4 + SO3 → H2S2O7 (sulfuric acid + sulfur trioxide -> disulfuric acid)

4. H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4 (disulfuric acid + water -> two sulfuric acid)

C13 Carbonates

1.​ Describe the manufacture of lime (calcium oxide) from limestone (calcium carbonate)
in terms of the chemical reactions involved, and the use of limestone in treating
acidic soil and neutralizing acidic industrial waste products
●​ Treating acidic soil
●​ Neutralizing acidic industrial waste products, e.g. flue gas desulphurization (FGD)煙
氣脫硫

2.​ Describe thermal decomposition(熱分解) of calcium carbonate[CaCO3](limestone)

●​ Calcium carbonate –(heat)-> calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

●​ CaCO3(s) –(heat)-> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
●​ SAME AS: Limestone –(heat)-> lime + CO2

C14 Organic Chemistry

14.1 Formulae, functional groups, and terminology

1.​ Name and draw the structures of methane, ethane, ethene, and ethanol
 2.​ State the type of compound present, given a chemical name ending in -ane, -ene and
-ol, or a molecular structure
(a) alkanes, 𝐶𝑛𝐻2𝑛+2

(b) alkenes,𝐶𝑛𝐻2𝑛

(c) alcohols, 𝐶𝑛𝐻2𝑛+1OH

(d) carboxylic acids, 𝐶𝑛𝐻2𝑛+1COOH

3.​ Name and draw the structures of the unbranched alkanes and alkenes (not
cis-trans), containing up to four carbon atoms per molecule

14.2 Fuel
Name
1.​ Name the fuels:
● Coal, natural gas and petroleum

2.​ Name methane as

● The main constituent of natural gas
● methane= CH4

3.​ Name the uses of the fractions as:

(a) refinery gas fraction for gas used in heating and cooking
(b) gasoline /petrol fraction for fuel used in cars
(c) naphtha fraction as a chemical feedstock
(d) kerosene /paraffin fraction for jet fuel
(e) diesel oil/ gas oil fraction for fuel used in diesel engines
(f) fuel oil fraction for fuel used in ships and home heating systems
(g) lubricating oil fraction for lubricants, waxes and polishes
(h) bitumen fraction for making roads

Define:
1.​ Hydrocarbons- compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon only. (C+H)
2.​ Petroleum (crude oil)- as a mixture of hydrocarbons and its separation into useful
fractions by fractional distillation

Describe:
1.​ Separation of petroleum into useful fractions(餾分) by fractional distillation(分餾)
●​ Different hydrocarbons have different carbon chain lengths, with longer chain carbon
chains having higher boiling points

●​ Their different boiling points means petroleum can be separated by fractional

distillation:

➔​ a large fraction column with petroleum is heated

➔​ different hydrocarbons boil and rise up as gas, which can then be collected
separately
 2.​ Describe how the properties of fractions obtained from petroleum change from the
bottom to the top of the fractionating column, limited to:
(a) decreasing chain length (b) higher volatility(how much it evaporate)(波動度) (c) lower
boiling points (d) lower viscosity (黏度)

●​ The shorter the molecules, the lower the temperature at which that fraction
evaporates or condenses – and the lower its boiling point. Shorter the molecules, the
less viscous it is. (more runny)
●​ the longer the chain => less ability to flow/ flammable/ volatile, higher boiling point

Additional class notes:

*Except carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide

Crude oil is formed from the decomposition of the breaking down of living things million of
years ago which fell to the bottom of the sea.

Kerosine-airplane oil
Naptha- plastic oil
Bitumen- roads

Crude oil- unprocessed oil, great number of hydrocarbon with different chain length
Chemical of different boil point

Viscous- Doesn’t flow easily

Volatile- evaporates easily -> low melting/ boiling point

less energy to break short chain- low boiling point

more energy to break longer chain- higher boiling point

the longer the chain => less ability to flow/ flammable/ volatile, higher boiling point
(picture) What’s fraction

the larger the molecule => the more inter molecule force => the higher melting/ boiling point

Balanced chemical equation

-​ summary of the reaction

C5H12 + 8O2 = (complete combustion) 5 CO2 + H2O

=Chemical formulas symbols for the substances e.g. H2O/ CO2 in the correct ratio

Rules
1)​ Only add numbers to the front of the chemical formulas e.g. H2O/ CO2
2)​ Leave elements e.g. O2 to the final step

Incomplete combustion:

C2 H5 OH +O2 = 2CO +3H2O

Ethanol

14.3 Homologous series

1.​ Describe the homologous series of alkanes and alkenes as families of compounds
with the same general formula and similar chemical properties

Alkanes Alkenes

Formula 𝐶𝑛 + 𝐻2𝑛+2 𝐶𝑛𝐻2𝑛

Chemical -​ Gas (room temp.) -​ Liquid

properties -​ Least reactive -​ more reactive
-​ saturated -​ unsaturated
hydrocarbons hydrocarbons

Similarities -​ hydrocarbons
-​ colorless
-​ flammable

14.4 Alkanes
●​ First 4 alkanes are methane, ethane, propane and butane (MEPE: monkey eat
peanuts butter)
●​ Alkanes Formula: 𝐶𝑛 + 𝐻2𝑛+2

Methane 𝐶1 + 𝐻2
 Ethane 𝐶2 + 𝐻6

Propane 𝐶3 + 𝐻8

Butane 𝐶4 + 𝐻10

Pentane 𝐶5 + 𝐻12

Hexane 𝐶6 + 𝐻14

Heptane 𝐶7 + 𝐻16

Octane 𝐶8 + 𝐻18

Nonance 𝐶9 + 𝐻20

Decane 𝐶10 + 𝐻22

Describle:
-​ Describe alkanes as saturated hydrocarbons whose molecules contain only single
covalent bonds

-​ Describe the properties of alkanes (exemplified by methane) as being generally

unreactive, except in terms of burning

-​ Describe the complete combustion of hydrocarbons to give carbon dioxide and water

CH4 + 2O2 => CO2 +2H2O

14.5 Alkenes (𝐶𝑛𝐻2𝑛)

No. of C atoms Name Formula Structure

1 X X X

2 Ethene 𝐶2 𝐻4

3 Propene 𝐶3 𝐻4

4 Butene 𝐶4 𝐻4

5 Pentene 𝐶5 𝐻4

6 Hexene 𝐶6 𝐻12

7 Heptene 𝐶7 𝐻14

8 Octene 𝐶8 𝐻16
9 Nonene 𝐶9 𝐻18

10 Decene 𝐶10𝐻20

1.​ Describe alkenes as unsaturated hydrocarbons whose molecules contain one double
covalent bond

2.​ State that cracking is a reaction that produces alkenes

3.​ Recognise saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons: – from molecular structures –

by their reaction with aqueous bromine
From molecular structures:
o Unsaturated = contain one or more C=C double bonds e.g. alkenes
o Saturated = contain no C=C double bonds e.g. alkanes

● By reaction with aqueous bromine:

o Unsaturated hydrocarbons react with bromine in an addition reaction,
decolourising it (orange to colourless) – shown above with the example of ethene
reacting with bromine

o Saturated hydrocarbons do not react with bromine and therefore the

solution will remain orange

4.​ Describe the formation of smaller alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen by the cracking of
larger alkane molecules and state the conditions required for cracking

5.​ Describe the properties of alkenes in terms of addition reactions with bromine,
hydrogen and steam, exemplified by ethene

Generally:
○ Addition reactions
○ Involves the removal of C=C double bond
○ C=C is very reactive and can easily react to form –C-C-
 ● reaction with bromine: ○ alkene + bromine → dibromoalkane
○ E.g. Ethene + bromine → 1,2-dibromoethane

● reaction with steam:

○ alkene + steam → alcohol
○ E.g. Ethene + steam → ethanol

● reaction with hydrogen:

○ alkene + hydrogen → alkane
○ E.g. Ethene + hydrogen → ethane

14.6 Alcohols

Background information:
-​ In the hydroxyl group
-​ Alcohols are in homologous series (OH group)
-​ Genaral formula: 𝐶𝑛𝐻2𝑛+1𝑂𝐻
-​ Names ending in ol, cross out e

1.​ State that ethanol may be formed by fermentation and by reaction between ethene
and steam
2.​ Describe the formation of ethanol by fermentation and the catalytic addition of steam
to ethene

(a) fermentation
●​ The fermentation of glucose
●​ aqueous glucose at 25–35°C in the presence of yeast
●​ absence of oxygen (no O2)
●​ 𝐶6 𝐻12𝑂6 - yeast-> 2𝐶2 𝐻5 0𝐻 + 2𝐶𝑂2 (g)
glucose -enzymes-> ethanol

(b) catalytic (hydration)

●​ Reacting ethene with steam
●​ addition of steam to ethene at 300°C
●​ 6000kPa /60 atm in the presence of an acid catalyst
●​ 𝐶2 𝐻4 + 𝐻2 𝑂 - acid catalyst-> 𝐶2 𝐻5 0𝐻
Ethene + steam -temperature pressure-> ethanol

Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the manufacture of ethanol by:

(a) fermentation
Advantages
▪ Renewable raw materials (Glucose can be produced by photosynthesis)
▪ Warm, normal pressure (inexpensive)
▪ Little energy needed
 Disadvantages
▪ Batch process (stop-start)
▪ A lot of workers needed
▪ Slow
▪ Impure – needs treatment

(b) catalytic addition of steam to ethene

Advantages
▪ Continuous process (runs all the time)
▪ Few workers needed
▪ Fast
▪ Pure

Disadvantages
▪ Non-renewable raw materials
▪ High temperature and pressure (expensive)
▪ A lot of energy needed

3.​ Describe the complete combustion of ethanol to give carbon dioxide and water

4.​ State the uses of ethanol as a solvent and as a fuel

-​ A solvent
-​ A fuel

No. of C atoms Name Formula Structure Boiling point

1 Methanol 𝐶 𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 65

2 Ethanol 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 78

3 Propanol 𝐶3 𝐻7 𝑂𝐻 97
 4 Butanol 𝐶4 𝐻9 𝑂𝐻 117

5 Pentanol 𝐶5 𝐻11𝑂𝐻 137

6 Hexanol 𝐶6 𝐻13𝑂𝐻 158

14.7 Polymers

1.​ Define polymers as long chain molecules formed from small units (monomers)
2.​ Monomers: single unit. e.g. glucose, amino acids

Monomer ​ →​ Polymer
Polymerization (聚合)

Understand that different polymers have different monomer units and/or different linkages

14.8 Synthetic polymers

1.​ Describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition polymerisation of
monomer units
e.g. Many Ethene(monomer) → (additional polymerization) = Polyethene (Polymer)
unsaturated ​ pressure/ high temp./ catalyst​ saturated
2.​ Deduce the structure of the polymer product from a given alkene and vice versa(反之
亦然)
●​ The polymer product would be a long chain of the alkene without the C=C and
instead with –C …. C- at the end, i.e. open branches

3.​ Explain the differences between addition and condensation polymerisation

●​ Addition polymerisation involves the removal of a C=C double bond to form a –C-C-
bond, i.e. it joins up unsaturated molecules to form a long saturated molecule

●​ Condensation polymerisation involves the reaction of two different functional groups

to form one long molecule by the removal of a small molecule, such as water H2O

o This means that there can be more than one monomer used in condensation
polymerisation (unlike addition which only uses one)

4.​ Describe the formation of a simple condensation polymer exemplified by nylon, the
structure of nylon being represented as: